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Tutelo
Tutelo-Saponi
Native to	United States
Region	Virginia, West Virginia; later Pennsylvania, New York, Ontario
Ethnicity	Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, Manahoac, Monacan
Extinct	after 1982, with the death of Albert Green
Language family	Siouan Western Siouan Ohio Valley Siouan Virginia Siouan Tutelo
Language codes
ISO 639-3	tta
Linguist List	tta
Glottolog	tute1247
Tutelo language region prior to European colonization.

Tutelo, also known as Tutelo–Saponi, is a member of the Virginian branch of Siouan languages that were originally spoken in what is now Virginia and West Virginia in the United States.

Most Tutelo speakers migrated north to escape warfare. They traveled through North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New York. In 1753, the Tutelo had joined the Iroquois Confederacy under the sponsorship of the Cayuga. They finally settled in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War at what is now known as Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation.

Nikonha, the last fluent speaker in Tutelo country, died in 1871 at age 106. The year before, he had managed to impart about 100 words of vocabulary to the ethnologist Horatio Hale, who had visited him at the Six Nations Reserve.

Descendants living at Grand River Reserve in Ontario spoke Tutelo well into the 20th century. Linguists including Horatio Hale, J. N. B. Hewitt, James Owen Dorsey, Leo J. Frachtenberg, Edward Sapir, Frank Speck, and Marianne Mithun recorded the language. The last active speakers, a mother and daughter, died in a house fire shortly before Mithun's visit in 1982. The last native speaker, Albert Green, died sometime after that.

Documentation

Hale published a brief grammar and vocabulary in 1883 and confirmed the language as Siouan through comparisons with Dakota and Hidatsa. His excitement was considerable to find an ancient Dakotan language, which was once widespread among inland tribes in Virginia, to have been preserved on a predominantly Iroquoian-speaking reserve in Ontario. Previously, the only recorded information on the language had been a short list of words and phrases collected by Lieutenant John Fontaine at Fort Christanna in 1716, and a few assorted terms recorded by colonial sources, such as John Lederer, Abraham Wood, Hugh Jones, and William Byrd II.

Hale noted the testimony of colonial historian Robert Beverley, Jr. that the dialect of the Occaneechi, believed to be related to Tutelo, was used as a lingua franca by all the tribes in the region regardless of their first languages, and it was known to the chiefs, "conjurers," and priests of all tribes. These spiritual practitioners used it in their ceremonies, just as Roman Catholic priests in Europe and the US used Latin. Hale's grammar also noted further comparisons to Latin and Ancient Greek. He remarked on the classical nature of Tutelo's rich variety of verb tenses available to the speaker, including what he remarked as an "aorist" perfect verb tense, ending in "-wa".

James Dorsey, another Siouan linguist, collected extensive vocabulary and grammar samples around the same time as Hale, as did Hewitt a few years later. Frachtenberg and Sapir both visited the Six Nations Ontario reserve in the first decade of the 1900s and found that only a few Cayuga of Tutelo ancestry remembered a handful of Tutelo words. Speck did much fieldwork to record and preserve their cultural traditions in the 1930s but found little of the speech remaining. Mithun managed to collect a handful of terms that were still remembered in 1980.

The language as preserved by these efforts is now believed to have been mutually intelligible with, if not identical to, the speech of other Virginia Siouan groups in general, including the Monacan and Manahoac and Nahyssan confederacies, as well as the subdivisions of Occaneechi, Saponi, etc.

In 1996, Giulia Oliverio wrote A Grammar and Dictionary of Tutelo as her dissertation. In 2021 the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages assisted Tutelo activists in building a Living Dictionary for Tutelo-Saponi Monacan.

Phonology

Oliverio proposes the following analysis of the sound system of Tutelo:

Consonants

Vowels

Tutelo has a standard vowel inventory for a Siouan language. Proto-Siouan *ũ and *ũː is lowered to /õ/ and /õː/, respectively.

Oral vowels

Nasal vowels

Grammar

Independent personal pronouns, as recorded by Dorsey, are:

• 1st sing. - Mima (I)
• 2nd sing. - Yima (you)
• 3rd sing. - Ima (he, she, it)

The pronoun Huk "all" may be added to form the plurals Mimahuk "we" and Yimahuk "ye", and "they" is Imahese.

In verbal conjugations, the subject pronouns are represented by various prefixes and suffixes, usually as follows:

• 1st sing. - Ma- or Wa- (or -ma-, -wa-)
• 2nd sing. - Ya- (-ya-)
• 3rd sing. - (null; no affixes, simple verb)
• 1st plur. - Mank- or Wa'en- (prefix only)
• 2nd plur. - Ya- (-ya-) + -pui
• 3rd plur. - --hle, -hne.

An example as given by Hale is the verb Yandosteka "love", and the pronoun is between yando- and -steka:

• Yandowasteka, I love
• Yandoyasteka, you love
• Yandosteka, he or she loves
• Mankyandosteka, we love
• Yandoyastekapui, ye love
• Yandostekahnese, they love.

The last form includes the common additional tense suffix -se, which literally conveys the progressive tense. There are also 'stative' classes of verbs that take the 'passive' (oblique) pronoun affixes (mi- or wi-, yi- etc.) as subjects.

Additional tenses can be formed by the use of other suffixes including -ka (past), -ta (future), -wa (aorist or perfect), -kewa (past perfect), and -ma (perfect progressive). Rules for combining the suffixes with stems in final vowels are slightly complex.

Recorded Nouns

The words, mostly coming from the three main documents composed by Hale, Frachtenberg & Sapir, have some amount of overlap.

• Arm- hiçto, histo (likely histo)
• Armband- gaksagiwago
• Arrow- mañksii, mañkoi (likely ąñisi, with ma- prefix, my. Comparable to Biloxi)
• Ashes- alapok (likely alapo, when compared to Ioway. Specifically pipe residue, or visible breath)
• Aunt- watemai, tomin (likely tomįn)
• Autumn- tañyi, ta'i, tani (likely tañi)
• Axe- nisep, hisepi, hisep (likely hisepi)
• Bag- mañksui
• Ball- tapi
• Berk (Idiot)- qapi, yohiñk
• Bear- munti, monti, mondi, yutkayek (likely mọnti)
• Bead- watai (likely wata)
• Beaver- yaop, munaqka (likely yap)
• Beaver Dam- yapati (literally yap, Beaver, ati, house)
• Bed- sasi
• Bird- mayiñk (likely wayiñi)
• Bird's nest- mayeñgieqta (likely wayiñi exta, bird at here)
• Black Man- maganakasit, maxkanakasit
• Black Pepper- bebahe (borrowed from English)
• Blood- wayi
• Body- tesi, yuqteki (likely tesi)
• Bone- wahoi, wahui (likely wahu)
• Book- minagi
• Boy- wakasik, gutskai, waitewa
• Bow- inosik, inosek
• Bracelet- kagsaginakon
• Brain- wasoti, wasut (likely wasuti)
• Bread- wagesakwai, waksakgai, maksapaa
• Brother- niwagenumpai, iñginumbai
• Brother, older- witañsk, wital, wahiik
• Brother, younger- wisuñtk, minon, suntka (likely sųntka)
• Buck (deer)- babosgoo
• Buffalo- iap, mampañdaktai (likely mąnpa itąnka)
• Buzzard Roost- hico oto (literally vulture tree)
• Canoe- miñkolhapi, meñkolahapi
• Cat- pus (borrowed from English), dalusgik (borrowed from Iroquois)
• Cheek- uksteh
• Cherry- yosañkrota
• Chief- hoonthy (likely hoti or hooti. Comparable to Biloxi xidi)
• Child- wakasik, wagotskai, niska
• Chunkey- chenco (likely cąnko)
• Claw- oluskese
• Cloud- maqosi
• Club- yeheti
• Colt- tsongidayenk (likely cọnkitąñe, little horse)
• Copper- penihei (from English Haypenny. Given fairly formulaic Native metal names & having the word for metal, most likely should be mąns acuti, red metal)
• Cousin- mangida, ungida
• Cow- mapayenk, mapain (likely mąnpąñe, little buffalo)
• Cranberry- hohnuñk (likely wrong word. Best comparable to Lakota Hoanunk, on the other side of. Not comparable to known words for Cranberry.)
• Crane (bird)- kainstakai
• Crow- kahi (likely kąnxi)
• Dance- wagitçi, ketçi (likely wakici)
• Darkness- usihaa, ohsiha
• Daughter- witeka, wiohañke, miohañk
• Day- nahambe, nahamp, nahanpe (likely nahąnpa)
• Deer- witai (likely wita)
• Devil- mampa isi
• Dog- tcong, Congo, tconki, tconk, tsunk (likely cọnki)
• Duck- ictai, heistan, maneasei)
• Ear- naqoq, nahuh
• Earth- amani, amai (likely amąñi)
• Egg- mayink pos (likely wayiñi pus, partly taking from English)
• Evening- oshitewa
• Eye- tasui, tasuye
• Face- talukna, tarubna
• False Face (Iroquois, Medicine Man/ Shaman)- wahokmei, wahukmi (likely waho wañi, spirit man)
• Father- eati, tat, yat, ati (base word- ati, mine- tati, yours- yati, his/hers- eyati, ours- maeyati)
• Finger- hak (likely haki)
• Fingernail- tsutsaki, tcutcag (likely cucaki)
• Fire- pitc, peti, petc (likely peji)
• Fish- wihoi, bisoka (likely wiho)
• Flesh- wayuqteki, wayuqtik
• Fog- manotihua
• Food- waluti
• Foot- içi, isi (likely isi)
• Forehead- tikai, pania minte
• Fox- tohkai (likely toka)
• Friend- witahe, witaqa
• Frog- hemo
• Ghost- wanuntci (likely wanųnci. Comparable to words in other Siouan languages for ghost, soul and shadow)
• Girl- wagatc, wakasik, woman
• God (Christian)- eingyen, einga (possibly approximation of word English- ąñiole)
• Goose- maneasan (likely wayiñi asąn, white bird)
• Goose honk- cohunks
• Grandfather- ekuni, higun, kukak
• Grandmother- higun
• Grass- sunktaki, muktagi, otoi (oto, green, probably usable, but not main word)
• Gun- miñkte
• Hail- noq
• Hair- natonwe, nantoi, natoi
• Hand- hag, haki, hak (likely haki)
• Hat- lubus, kotubos
• Head- pasuye, pasui (likely pasu)
• Heart- yanti, tapi (likely yąnti)
• Horse- tsungide, tsongide (likely cọnkităn, big dog)
• House- ati
• Ice- nonhi, mingiratcah (likely nọnxi)
• Indian- wahtakai
• Iron- mans, mas, masiqorak (likely mąns ihola, grey metal. Compare to Ho-Chunk for grey.)
• Island- histek, stek, stesteki
• Jar/ Jug/ Bottle- meni igodo
• Kettle- yesiñk, meni igatean
• Knife- maseni, masei, masai, masa, maøen (likely masąn)
• LaCrosse Stick- yahe
• Leaf- otoi, otoq (likely oto)
• Leg- yeksa, ieksa, yeksai, mini
• Maize- mandaqei, mataqe (likely mąntahe, combo of Powhatan mandamiin and Iroquoian nęhę)
• Male Deer- tcinonkehe
• Man- wahtahka, waiyua, waiyuwa, waiwaq, yuhkan, nona, mihaistek (likely wąñi, compared to Ioway wąñe)
• Moon- minosa, mimahei
• Morning- kanahampuai, kanahabnen
• Mother- ina, hena, henun (likely hena)
• Mountain- çuqe, suhi, oheki (likely aheki)
• Mouth- ihi, ih (likely i)
• Neck- inktei, askai
• Night- usi, osi (likely usuhi, comparable to Cherokee)
• Oak- taskahoi, taskahui (likely taska hu)
• Paint- massa
• Partridge- wustetkai
• Pig- masgolo, monskulo
• Pigeon- mayutkai, wiyotkai
• Pine- wasti, waste
• Pipe (smoking)- yehiñstik, ihirtik, iheñstek, kcembai
• Pot- meni kateon (likely mone kateọn, water, plus approximation of English kettle)
• Prairie- latakoi
• Raccoon- kanulon nixa nison
• Rain- qawoi, qawoqa, hawoha, qawo (likely xawo)
• Raspberry- hasisiai (contains haze, berry, rest uncertain)
• River- taksita, taksitai
• Salt- matsigoyo
• Sea- yetani, yetai, ietan (likely ñetąn)
• Shoes- handisonoi, angohlei, agore, agode (latter 3 are clearly trying to be the word English- likely ąñiole)
• Sister- minek, tahañk, dawinak
• Sky- mantoi, matoni, matoi (likely mąnto, borrowed from Powhatan word for spirits)
• Snake- wageni (likely wakąn, comparable to Ho-Chunk)
• Son- witeka, tekai, qutekai, tagutckai
• Soup- wohe
• Spring (season)- wehahempei, wehaehimpe, maste (likely weha, combined with nahąnpe, day)
• Squirrel- nistaqkai
• Star- tabunitckai, tapninskai
• Stone- histeki, nistek
• Strawberry- haspahinuk (likely haze pahįn, spike berry)
• Sugar- wadewi
• Summer- wehe piwa (likely trying to say weha piwa, but compared to other Siouan languages, the correct word is probably maste)
• Sun- mie, min, mi (likely wi or mi)
• Throat- loti
• Thunder- tui, tuhangrua (tuhi is a word for Thunderbird in a few Siouan languages and the given word for wind in at least one)
• Tobacco- yehni, yihnu, kcembai Noni
• Today- nahamleken
• Toes- atkasusai
• Tomorrow- nahampk
• Tongue- netci, netsi, letci
• Tooth- ihi
• Town- mampa, mambi (poss. Atipu, houses, with ma- my, added)
• Tree- oni, wien, mien (likely iyąn)
• Turkey- mandahkai, manduhkai (likely wayiñitąnka, big bird)
• Turkey's Beard- maosti
• Uncle- minek (likely leke or neke)
• Valley- onqyayun
• Warrior- erutaone
• Water- mani (likely mone)
• White Man- miha magonaga, waxkanaka
• Wind- maninkie, mamunklei, maminkre
• Wolf- muñktagin, muñktokai, maktukai, tsungiwe
• Woman- mihani, mihan, mahei, warewa (likely mihąn)
• Wood- miyani, mien, miyei (likely iyąn)
• Wooden Spoon- gisa
• Yesterday- sito
• Young Deer- hekerunska

References

1. Marianne Mithun, The Languages of Native North America
2. ^ Horatio Hale, "Tutelo Tribe and Language", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 21, no. 114 (1883)
3. Hale, Horatio (2001). The Tutelo Language. American Language Reprints. Vol. 23. Merchantville: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758213.
4. ^ Giulia Oliverio, "A grammar and dictionary of Tutelo", 1996 (PhD. thesis) pp. 6–19.
5. Robert Vest, 2006, "Letters of Chief Samuel Johns to Frank G Speck".
6. "A grammar and dictionary of Tutelo". WorldCat. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
7. "The Team Building the Tutelo-Saponi Monacan Living Dictionary Receives A Grant from Native Voices Endowment". Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
8. Oliverio, Giulia R.M. (1996). A Grammar and Dictionary of Tutelo. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas dissertation.

External links

• Tutelo Language and the Saponi/Tutelo Indian Tribe (Saponey, Haliwa-Saponi)
• Swadesh list for Tutelo-Saponi on Wiktionary
• OLAC resources in and about the Tutelo language
• Tutelo-Saponi Monacan Living Dictionary

• Extinct languages of North America
• Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands
• Languages extinct in the 1980s
• Tutelo
• Western Siouan languages
• Occaneechi
• Saponi