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{{For|the river in Canada|Mississippi River (Ontario)}} {{short description|Major river in the United States}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2011}}
<!-- Short description changed from "largest" as the term in correctly applied to the drainage area of the river. -->
{{Geobox|River
<!--NOTE: this disambiguation notice is needed because ] redirects here-->
<!-- *** Name section *** -->
{{Redirect2|Mississippi Valley|The Mississippi|other uses|Mississippi Valley (disambiguation)|and|Mississippi (disambiguation)|and|Mississippi River (disambiguation)}}
|name = Mississippi River
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2019}}
|native_name =
{{Infobox river
|other_name =
| name = Mississippi River
|other_name1 =
| native_name =
|category = River
| native_name_lang =
|category_hide = Yes
| name_other =
|etymology=] word ''misi-ziibi'', meaning "Great River", or ''gichi-ziibi'', meaning "Big River"
| name_etymology = ] ''Misi-ziibi'', meaning "Great River"
<!-- *** Image *** --->
| nickname = "Old Man River," "Father of Waters"<ref>James L. Shaffer and John T. Tigges. ''The Mississippi River: Father of Waters''. Chicago, Ill.: Arcadia Pub., 2000.</ref><ref>''The Upper Mississippi River Basin: A Portrait of the Father of Waters As Seen by the Upper Mississippi River Comprehensive Basin Study''. Chicago, Ill.: Army Corps of Engineers, North Central Division, 1972.</ref><ref>Heilbron, Bertha L. "Father of Waters: Four Centuries of the Mississippi". ''American Heritage'', vol. 2, no. 1 (Autumn 1950): 40–43.</ref>
|image = Mississipi River - New Orleans.JPG
| image = Efmo View from Fire Point.jpg
|image_size = 300
|image_caption = Lower course of the Mississippi through New Orleans | image_caption = The Mississippi River in ]
| image_size =
|country = ]
| map = Mississippiriver-new-01.png
|state = Minnesota
| map_size =
|state1 = Wisconsin
| map_caption = Mississippi River basin
|state2 = Iowa
| pushpin_map =
|state3 = Illinois
| pushpin_map_size =
|state4 = Missouri
| pushpin_map_caption =
|state5 = Kentucky
| subdivision_type1 = Country
|state6 = Tennessee
| subdivision_name1 = United States
|state7 = Arkansas
| subdivision_type2 = State
|state8 = Mississippi
| subdivision_name2 = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
|state9 = Louisiana
| subdivision_type3 =
|state_flag =
| subdivision_name3 =
|city = ]
| subdivision_type4 =
|city1 = ]
| subdivision_name4 =
|city2 = ]
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
|city3 = ]
| subdivision_name5 = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
|city4 = ]
| length_mi = 2340
|city5 = ]
| width_min =
|city6 = ]
| width_avg =
<!-- *** Geography *** -->
| width_max =
|length_imperial = 2320
| depth_min =
|watershed_imperial = 1151000
| depth_avg =
|discharge_location = mouth; max and min at ]
| depth_max =
|discharge_imperial = 593000
| discharge1_location= None (Summative representation of catchment: View source); max and min at ]<ref name="USGSrivers">{{cite web |first=J.C. |last=Kammerer |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1987/ofr87-242/ |title=Largest Rivers in the United States |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=May 1990 |access-date=February 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630064901/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1987/ofr87-242/ |archive-date=June 30, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|discharge_max_imperial = 3065000
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|159000|cuft/s|m3/s}}
|discharge_min_imperial = 159000
|discharge_note =<ref name="USGSrivers">{{cite web | discharge1_avg = {{cvt|593000|cuft/s|m3/s}}<ref name="USGSrivers" />
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|3065000|cuft/s|m3/s}}
|first=J.C.
| discharge2_location=]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/annual/?referred_module=sw&site_no=07289000&por_07289000_79165=1872479,00060,79165,2008,2021&start_dt=2008&end_dt=2021&year_type=W&format=html_table&date_format=YYYY-MM-DD&rdb_compression=file&submitted_form=parameter_selection_list |title=USGS 07289000 Mississippi River at Vicksburg, MS |publisher=] |access-date=October 6, 2021 |archive-date=October 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005185701/https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/annual/?referred_module=sw&site_no=07289000&por_07289000_79165=1872479,00060,79165,2008,2021&start_dt=2008&end_dt=2021&year_type=W&format=html_table&date_format=YYYY-MM-DD&rdb_compression=file&submitted_form=parameter_selection_list |url-status=live }}</ref>
|last=Kammerer
| discharge2_min = {{cvt|144000|cuft/s|m3/s}}
|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1987/ofr87-242/
| discharge2_avg = {{cvt|768075|cuft/s|m3/s}} (2009–2020 water years)
|title=Largest Rivers in the United States
| discharge2_max = {{cvt|2340000|cuft/s|m3/s}}
|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey
| discharge3_location= ]<ref name="fn_2">Median of the 14,610 daily streamflows recorded by the ] for the period 1967–2006.</ref>
|date=May 1990
| discharge3_min =
|accessdate=February 22, 2011}}</ref>
| discharge3_avg = {{cvt|168000|cuft/s|m3/s}}<ref name="fn_2" />
|discharge1_location = St. Louis
| discharge3_max =
|discharge1_imperial = 168000
| source1 = ] (traditional){{efn|The ] recognizes two contrasting definitions of a river's ].<ref name="USGSrivers"/> By the stricter definition, the Mississippi would share its source with its longest tributary, the Missouri, at ] in Montana. The other definition acknowledges "somewhat arbitrary decisions" and places the Mississippi's source at Lake Itasca, which is publicly accepted as the source,<ref name="USGSrivers"/> and which had been identified as such by ] himself.<ref>{{cite web |title=The True Utmost Reaches of the Missouri |url=http://fwp.mt.gov/mtoutdoors/HTML/articles/2005/MissouriSource.htm |website=MT.gov |access-date=February 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118010715/http://fwp.mt.gov/mtoutdoors/HTML/articles/2005/MissouriSource.htm |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the river continues for several miles upstream from Lake Itasca to ] and its feeder stream.}}
|discharge1_note =<ref name="fn_2">Median of the 14,610 daily streamflows recorded by the ] for the period 1967–2006.</ref>
| source1_location = ], ], ]
<!-- *** Source *** -->
| source1_coordinates = {{Coord|47|14|23|N|95|12|27|W|display=inline}}
|source_name = ]<ref>The ] recognizes two contrasting definitions of a river's ]. By the stricter definition, the Mississippi would share its source with its longest tributary, the Missouri, at ] in Montana. The other definition acknowledges "somewhat arbitrary decisions" and places the Mississippi's source at Lake Itasca, which is publicly accepted as the source, and which had been identified as such by ] himself.</ref>
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|1475|ft}}
|source_location = ]
| mouth = ]
|source_district =
| mouth_location = ], ], ]
|source_region = ]
| mouth_coordinates = {{Coord|29|09|04|N|89|15|12|W|type:waterbody|display=inline,title}}
|source_state = ]
| mouth_elevation = {{cvt|0|ft}}
|source_country =
| progression =
|source_lat_d = 47
| river_system =
|source_lat_m = 14
| basin_size_mi2 = 1151000
|source_lat_s = 23
| tributaries_left = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
|source_lat_NS = N
| tributaries_right = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
|source_long_d = 95
| custom_label =
|source_long_m = 12
| custom_data =
|source_long_s = 27
| mapframe = yes
|source_long_EW = W
| mapframe-zoom = 3
|source_elevation_imperial = 1475
|source_length_imperial =
<!-- *** Mouth *** -->
|mouth_name = ]
|mouth_location = ]
|mouth_district =
|mouth_region = ]
|mouth_state = ]
|mouth_country =
|mouth_lat_d = 29
|mouth_lat_m = 09
|mouth_lat_s = 04
|mouth_lat_NS = N
|mouth_long_d = 89
|mouth_long_m = 15
|mouth_long_s = 12
|mouth_long_EW = W
|mouth_elevation_imperial = 0
<!-- *** Tributaries *** -->
|tributary_left = ]
|tributary_left1 = ]
|tributary_left2 = ]
|tributary_left3 = ]
|tributary_left4 = ]
|tributary_left5 = ]
|tributary_right = ]
|tributary_right1 = ]
|tributary_right2 = ]
|tributary_right3 = ]
|tributary_right4 = ]
|tributary_right5 = ]
<!-- *** Free fields *** -->
|free_name =
|free_value =
<!-- *** Map section *** -->
|map = Mississippi watershed map 1.jpg
|map_caption = Map of the course, watershed, and major tributaries of the Mississippi River
|map2 = Mississippirivermapnew.jpg
|map2_caption = Detailed map of Mississippi River tributary structure
}} }}
The '''Mississippi River'''{{efn|]: Misi-ziibi,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hirschfelder |first=Arlene B. |title=The Extraordinary Book of Native American Lists |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc |others=Paulette Fairbanks Molin |isbn=978-0-8108-7710-8 |location=Lanham, MD |oclc=794706782 |page=260}}</ref> ]: Mníšošethąka,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=dakot&srchtype=OR&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |title=AISRI Dictionary Database Search |access-date=June 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510162121/http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=dakot&srchtype=OR&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |archive-date=May 10, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ]: Mihsi-siipiiwi,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.myaamiadictionary.org/dictionary2015/search/search.php?search=mississippi%20river&stem=stem&inflected=inflected&sentences=sentences&command=command&language=both&website=t |title=Myaamia Dictionary Search |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828021920/https://www.myaamiadictionary.org/dictionary2015/search/search.php?search=mississippi%20river&stem=stem&inflected=inflected&sentences=sentences&command=command&language=both&website=t |archive-date=August 28, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ]: Ma'xeé'ometāā'e,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdkc.edu/cheyennedictionary/index-english/index.htm |title=English – Cheyenne |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911181328/http://cdkc.edu/cheyennedictionary/index-english/index.htm |archive-date=September 11, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> ]: Xósáu,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ou.edu/kiowadictionary/index-english/main.htm |title=English – Kiowa |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713083927/http://www.ou.edu/kiowadictionary/index-english/main.htm |archive-date=July 13, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> ]: Beesniicie,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/archives/Placenames0626.xml |title=XML File of Arapaho Place Names |access-date=June 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919232303/http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/archives/Placenames0626.xml |archive-date=September 19, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> ]: Kickaátit<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=south&srchtype=AND&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |title=Southband Pawnee Dictionary |access-date=May 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053713/http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=south&srchtype=AND&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} is the ] of the largest drainage basin in the ].{{efn|Arguably, the Mississippi basin is the second-largest ] in ], second only to the ] drainage system, although Hudson Bay may rather be considered an arm of the ocean.}}<ref>] Hydrological Unit Code: 08-09-01-00- Lower Mississippi-New Orleans Watershed</ref><ref name="USGSlongest">{{cite web |title=Lengths of the major rivers |publisher=United States Geological Survey |access-date=March 14, 2009 |url=http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/riversofworld.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305045437/http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/riversofworld.html |archive-date=March 5, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> From its traditional source of ] in northern ], it flows generally south for {{convert|2340|mi|km|0}}<ref name="USGSlongest" /> to the ] in the ]. With its many ], the Mississippi's ] drains all or parts of 32 ]s and two ] between the ] and ] mountains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |title=Mississippi River Facts – Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service) |website=www.nps.gov |language=en |access-date=November 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117213831/https://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ducksters.com/geography/us_states/us_rivers.php |title=United States Geography: Rivers |website=www.ducksters.com |language=en |access-date=June 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428015106/https://www.ducksters.com/geography/us_states/us_rivers.php |archive-date=April 28, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/states-bordering-the-mississippi-river-1435742 |title=The 10 States That Border the Mississippi |work=ThoughtCo |access-date=June 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907170552/https://www.thoughtco.com/states-bordering-the-mississippi-river-1435742 |archive-date=September 7, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] is entirely within the United States; the total ] is {{cvt|1151000|mi2|km2}}, of which only about one&nbsp;percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the world's ] by discharge flow, and the largest in North America.
The '''Mississippi River''' is the chief river of the largest ] in North America.<ref>] Hydrological Unit Code: 08-09-01-00- Lower Mississippi-New Orleans Watershed</ref><ref name=USGSlongest>{{cite web
| title = Lengths of the major rivers
| publisher = United States Geological Survey
| accessdate =March 14, 2009
| url = http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/riversofworld.html}}</ref> Flowing entirely in the United States (though its drainage basin reaches into Canada), it rises in northern ] and ]s slowly southwards for {{convert|2530|mi|km}}<ref>U.S. Army Corps of Engineers navigation charts. {{convert|2530|mi|km}} from Lake Itasca to Head of Passes – Southwest Pass is {{convert|20|mi|km}}.</ref> to the ] at the ]. With its many ], the Mississippi's ] drains all or parts of 31 US states and 2 Canadian provinces between the ] and ]. The Mississippi ranks as the ] and ] river in the world. The river either borders or cuts through the states of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].


]s long lived along the Mississippi and its tributaries. Most were ]s or herders, but some, such as the ], formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 1500s changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as barrier – forming borders for ], ], and the early United States – then as vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of ], the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the ], formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. ] have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years. Many were ]s, but some, such as the ], formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations, and some practiced ]. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/united-states-and-canada/us-physical-geography/mississippi-river-us |title=Mississippi (river US) facts, information, pictures {{!}} Encyclopedia.com articles about Mississippi (river US) |website=www.encyclopedia.com |language=en |access-date=June 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618035236/http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/united-states-and-canada/us-physical-geography/mississippi-river-us |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for ], ], and the early United States, and throughout as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of ], the Mississippi and several tributaries, most notably its largest, the ] and ], formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. The river also became the subject of ], particularly in the writings of ].


Formed from thick layers of this river's silt deposits, the ] is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river's storied ] era. During the ], the Mississippi's capture by ] forces marked a turning point towards victory because of the river's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the ]. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and ]s that supplanted riverboats, the decades following the 1900s saw the construction of massive ] such as ]s, ]s and dams, often built in combination. Formed from thick layers of the river's ] deposits, the ], and ] are some of the most fertile regions of the United States; ] were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods. During the ], the Mississippi's ] by ] forces marked ] to victory for the Union. Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and ]s that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive ] such as ]s, ] and ]s, often built in combination. A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the ] and bypassing ].


Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems – most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the ] off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the ] channel in the Delta; a course change would prove disastrous to seaports such as ]. A system of dikes and gates has, so far, held the Mississippi at bay but, due to ] processes, the shift becomes more likely each year. Since the 20th century, the Mississippi River has also experienced major pollution and environmental problems — most notably elevated nutrient and chemical levels from agricultural runoff, the primary contributor to the ].


==Name== ==Name and significance==
The word itself comes from ''Messipi'', the French rendering of the ] (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River). See below in ] section for additional information. The word Mississippi itself comes from {{lang|fr|Misi zipi}}, the French rendering of the ] (] or ]) name for the river, {{lang|alg|Misi-ziibi}} (Great River).<ref>{{Cite web |title=mississippi {{!}} Origin and meaning of the name mississippi by Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/mississippi |access-date=2021-06-22 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en |archive-date=April 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418143238/https://www.etymonline.com/word/mississippi |url-status=live }}</ref>


In the 18th century, the river was set by the ] as, for the most part, the western border of the new United States. With the ] and the country's westward expansion, it became a convenient boundary line between the western and eastern halves of the country.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Jay–Gardoqui Negotiations (1785–1786) |encyclopedia=The Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius P. |editor-last=Rodriguez |editor-first=Junius P. |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-57607-188-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs7GAwwdzyQC&pg=PA157 |via=Google Books |access-date=August 16, 2023 |archive-date=August 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816203717/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs7GAwwdzyQC&pg=PA157 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mississippi River |encyclopedia=The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia |publisher=Indiana University Press |last=Schroeder |first=Walter |editor1-last=Cayton |editor1-first=Andrew R. L. |editor2-last=Sisson |editor2-first=Richard |editor3-last=Zacher |editor3-first=Chris |publication-place=Bloomington, Indiana |publication-date=2006 |pages=164–165 |isbn=9780253003492 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n3Xn7jMx1RYC&pg=PA164 |via=Google Books |access-date=August 16, 2023 |archive-date=August 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816203714/https://books.google.com/books?id=n3Xn7jMx1RYC&pg=PA164 |url-status=live }}</ref> This is reflected in the ] in St. Louis, which was designed to symbolize the opening of the West,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-05-25 |title=Gateway Arch 'Biography' Reveals Complex History Of An American Icon |work=Weekend Edition Saturday |publisher=]}}</ref> and the focus on the "]" region in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trans-Mississippi & International Exposition |url=https://omahalibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16747coll1 |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=Omaha Public Library |archive-date=August 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816203717/https://omahalibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16747coll1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two other measures of a ] identity, one being the largest branch (by water volume), and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the ] (not the Middle and Upper Mississippi) would be the main branch of the ]. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch. According to either school of thought, the ] from Lake Itasca, Minnesota to St. Louis, despite its name, would only be a secondary tributary of the final river flowing from Cairo to the Gulf of Mexico.


Regional landmarks are often classified in relation to the river, such as "the ]"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/10-tallest-mountains-east-mississippi-104158.html |access-date=March 1, 2015 |title=The 10 Tallest Mountains East of the Mississippi |author=Ethan Shaw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309093046/http://traveltips.usatoday.com/10-tallest-mountains-east-mississippi-104158.html |archive-date=March 9, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newmadridmuseum.com/city_history.html |access-date=March 1, 2015 |title=New Madrid – 220+ Years Old and Counting |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102004728/http://newmadridmuseum.com/city_history.html |archive-date=November 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] also uses it as the dividing line for ]s, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, overlapping in ]s along the river.
While the Missouri River, flowing from the confluence of the ], ] and ]s to the Mississippi, is the longest continuously named river in the United States,<ref name=USGSlongest/> the serially named river known sequentially as Hellroaring Creek, Red Rock, Beaverhead, Jefferson, Missouri, Middle Mississippi, and Lower Mississippi, as one continuous waterway, is the longest river in North America and the third or fourth longest river in the world. Its length of at least {{convert|3745|mi|km|abbr=on}}{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} <!-- Different number also presented in original text before editing: "over {{convert|3900|mi|km}}"; also, the lengths of the three cited segments total 4000 miles --> is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon,<ref>{{cite web|last=Nell |first=Donald F. |url=http://fwp.mt.gov/mtoutdoors/HTML/articles/2005/MissouriSource.htm |title=The True Utmost Reaches of the Missouri |publisher=Fwp.mt.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-03-12}}</ref> and perhaps the ]<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica: Yangtze River http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110538/Yangtze-River</ref> among the ]. The source of this waterway is at ], {{convert|8800|ft|m}} above sea level in southwestern ], along the ] outside ]. <!-- The following portion suppressed because numbers do not match other numbers given: "The uppermost {{convert|300|mi|km}}{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} of this combined river are called Hellroaring Creek, and the Red Rock, Beaverhead, and Jefferson rivers, while the central {{convert|2350|mi|km}} are called the Missouri River, and the final {{convert|1350|mi|km}} are known as the Middle Mississippi and the Lower Mississippi rivers." -->


Due to its size and importance, it has been nicknamed '''The Mighty Mississippi River''' or simply '''The Mighty Mississippi'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A trip down the mighty Mississippi - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/video/a-trip-down-the-mighty-mississippi/ |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
The Mississippi River is widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States and the Western U.S., as exemplified by the ] in St. Louis and the phrase "]", used for example in the name of the 1898 ] held in ].


==Divisions==
==Physical geography==
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the ], the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the ], which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The ] along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.


===Divisions=== ===Upper Mississippi===
{{Main|Upper Mississippi River}}
The Mississippi River is divided into the ], the Middle Mississippi, and the ], with the Upper Mississippi upriver of its confluence with the Missouri River, the Middle Mississippi from there downriver to the Ohio River, and the Lower Mississippi from there downriver to the Gulf of Mexico.
]]]
]) over the Mississippi, about 25 feet south of its source at ]]]
]
] and Mississippi rivers, viewed from ] in Wisconsin]]


The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
====Upper Mississippi====
# The headwaters, {{convert|493|mi|km}} from the source to ] in ]; and
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The Upper Mississippi is divided into two sections:
# The headwaters, {{convert|493|mi|km}}, from the source to ] in ]; and
# A navigable channel, formed by a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some {{convert|664|mi|km}}. # A navigable channel, formed by a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some {{convert|664|mi|km}}.
] North of ]]]
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as ], {{convert|1475|ft|m}} above sea level in ] in ]. The name ''Itasca'' was chosen to designate the "true head" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth ({{lang|la|ver'''itas'''}}) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head ({{lang|la|'''ca'''put}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mnplaces.mnhs.org/upham/waterway.cfm?PlaceNameID=1481&BookCodeID=30&County=31&SendingPage=Results.cfm |title=Minnesota Place Names: A Geographical Encyclopedia |author-link=Warren Upham |last=Upham |first=Warren |publisher=] |access-date=August 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108092148/http://mnplaces.mnhs.org/upham/waterway.cfm?PlaceNameID=1481&BookCodeID=30&County=31&SendingPage=Results.cfm |archive-date=January 8, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.


From its origin at Lake Itasca to ], the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above ] in the ]s region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below ], and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of ]s that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as ], {{convert|1475|ft|m}} above sea level in ] in ]. The name "Itasca" is a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (''veritas'') and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (''caput'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mnplaces.mnhs.org/upham/waterway.cfm?PlaceNameID=1481&BookCodeID=30&County=31&SendingPage=Results.cfm |title=Minnesota Place Names: A Geographical Encyclopedia |author=] |publisher=] |accessdate=August 14, 2007}}</ref> However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.


The ] on the Mississippi is the St. Anthony Falls Lock.<ref name=":0" /> Before the ] in ], was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as ], depending on river conditions.
] (2004)]]
]


The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river's elevation is {{convert|799|ft|m}}. Below the dam, the river's elevation is {{convert|750|ft|m}}. This {{convert|49|ft|m|adj=mid}} drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. ] is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the ] carved by the waterfall.
From its origin at ] to ], the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the ]s region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below ], and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.


After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river's head of navigation moved upstream, to the ]. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive ], making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.mvp.usace.army.mil/Home/Projects/tabid/18156/Article/571138/upper-st-anthony-falls-lock-closure.aspx |publisher=US Army Corps of Engineers |title=Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock Closure |year=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610065909/http://www.mvp.usace.army.mil/Home/Projects/tabid/18156/Article/571138/upper-st-anthony-falls-lock-closure.aspx |archive-date=June 10, 2015}}</ref>
The ] on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in ]. Before its construction in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as ], depending on river conditions.


The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being ], near ], over {{convert|11|mi|km}} across. ], created by ], near ], is more than {{convert|4|mi|km}} wide. ], a natural lake formed behind the delta of the ] of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than {{convert|2|mi|km}} wide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |title=Mississippi River Facts |publisher=Nps.gov |access-date=November 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106103328/http://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |archive-date=January 6, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river's elevation is {{convert|799|ft|m}}. Below the dam, the river's elevation is {{convert|750|ft|m}}. This {{convert|49|ft|m|sing=on}} drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. ] is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.


By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches ], Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is {{convert|687|ft|m}} above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.<ref>2001 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Upper Mississippi River Navigation Chart</ref>
The Upper Mississippi features various natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being ], near ], over {{convert|7|mi|km}} across. Also of note is ] (created by ]), near ], over {{convert|4|mi|km}} wide. On the other hand, ] is natural, formed due to the delta formed by the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi; it is more than {{convert|2|mi|km}} wide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |title=Mississippi River Facts |publisher=Nps.gov |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref>


The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the ] at ] in the ]; the ] near ]; the ] near ]; the ] at ]; the ], ], and ] rivers in ]; the ] at ]; the ] at the ]; the ] near ]; the ] south of ]; and the ] at ]. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the ] in Minnesota, the ] in Wisconsin, the ] and the ] in Iowa, and the ] in Illinois.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches ], Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is {{convert|687|ft|m}} above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.<ref>2001 US Army Corps of Engineers Upper Mississippi River Navigation Chart</ref>


]
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the ] at ] in the ]; the ] near ]; the ] near ]; the ] at ]; the ], ], and ] rivers in ]; the ] at ]; the ] at the ]; the ] near ]; the ] south of ]; and the ] at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the ] in Minnesota, the ] in Wisconsin, the ] and the ] in Iowa, and the ] and ].


The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many ] and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to ], the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through ]. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at ]). The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many ] and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to ], the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through ]. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at ]).
] of the Mississippi (left) and Ohio (right) rivers at ], Illinois, the demarcation between the Middle and the Lower Mississippi River]]


===Middle Mississippi===
] of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers at ], Illinois, the demarcation between the Middle and the Lower Mississippi River]]
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the ] at ], for {{convert|190|mi|km}} to its confluence with the ] at ].<ref name="Corps Middle Mississippi">{{cite book |title=Middle Mississippi River Regional Corridor: Collaborative Planning Study (July 2007 update) |year=2007 |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District |location=St. Louis, MO |page=28}}</ref><ref name=MMRP>{{cite web |title=MMRP: Middle Mississippi River Partnership |url=http://www.swircd.org/mmrp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328005434/http://www.swircd.org/mmrp |archive-date=March 28, 2009 |publisher=Middle Mississippi River Partnership |access-date=May 25, 2011}}</ref>


The Middle Mississippi is relatively free-flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls {{convert|220|ft}} over {{convert|180|mi|km}} for an average rate of {{convert|1.2|ft/mi}}. At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is {{convert|315|ft}} above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and ] rivers of Missouri and the ] of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
====Middle Mississippi====
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the ] at St. Louis, Missouri, for {{convert|190|mi|km}} to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.<ref name="Corps Middle Mississippi">{{cite book|title=Middle Mississippi River Regional Corridor: Collaborative Planning Study (July 2007 update)|year=2007|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District|location=St. Louis, Missouri, USA|page=28}}</ref><ref name=MMRP>{{cite web|title=MMRP: Middle Mississippi River Partnership|url=http://www.swircd.org/mmrp/|publisher=Middle Mississippi River Partnership|accessdate=May 25, 2011}}</ref>


===Lower Mississippi===
The Middle Mississippi is a relatively free-flowing river. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls a total of {{convert|220|ft}} over a distance of {{convert|180|mi}} for an average rate of {{convert|1.2|ft/mi}}. At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is {{convert|315|ft}} above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and ] rivers of Missouri and the ] of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
{{Main|Lower Mississippi River}}
]
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about {{convert|1000|mi|km}}. At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is {{convert|281500|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=off|sp=us}},<ref>Frits van der Leeden, Fred L. Troise, David Keith Todd: ''The Water Encyclopedia'', 2nd edition, p. 126, Chelsea, Mich. (Lewis Publishers), 1990, {{ISBN|0-87371-120-3}}</ref> while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is {{cvt|208200|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref>USGS stream gage {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105035721/http://waterdata.usgs.gov/usa/nwis/uv?07022000 |date=November 5, 2011 }}</ref> Thus, by volume, the main branch of the ] at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the ] further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.


In addition to the ], the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the ], flowing in at the ] in east-central Arkansas; the ], joining the Mississippi at ]; the ] in Mississippi; and the ], meeting the Mississippi at ].
====Lower Mississippi====
]
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. Measured by water volume, the Lower Mississippi's primary branch is the Ohio River. At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the Ohio is the bigger river, with its long-term mean discharge at Cairo, Illinois being {{convert|281500|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}},<ref>Frits van der Leeden, Fred L. Troise, David Keith Todd: ''The Water Encyclopedia'', 2nd edition, p 126, Chelsea, Mich. (Lewis Publishers), 1990, ISBN 0-87371-120-3</ref> while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is {{convert|208200|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}.<ref>USGS stream gage </ref> Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the ] further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.


Deliberate water diversion at the ] in ] allows the ] in Louisiana to be a major ] of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the combined flow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past ] and ] on a longer route to the Gulf.<ref name="NewYorker1987">{{cite magazine |last=McPhee |first=John |title=The Control of Nature: Atchafalaya |magazine=The New Yorker |date=February 23, 1987 |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1987/02/23/1987_02_23_039_TNY_CARDS_000347146 |access-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513171926/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1987/02/23/1987_02_23_039_TNY_CARDS_000347146 |archive-date=May 13, 2011 |url-status=live}} Republished in {{cite book |author=McPhee, John |title=The Control of Nature |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=1989 |isbn=0-374-12890-1 |page=272}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Old River Control |work=The Mighty Mississippi River |author=Angert, Joe and Isaac |url=http://users.stlcc.edu/jangert/oldriver/oldriver.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515010700/http://users.stlcc.edu/jangert/oldriver/oldriver.html |archive-date=May 15, 2009 |access-date=May 12, 2011}} Includes map and pictures.</ref><ref name="kemp">{{cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/FloodControl.htm |title=The Mississippi Levee System and the Old River Control Structure |first=Katherine |last=Kemp |date=January 6, 2000 |access-date=May 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513162258/http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/FloodControl.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=USACE Brochure: Old River Control, Jan 2009 |url=https://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/Portals/56/docs/PAO/Brochures/OldRiverControlBrochure.pdf |publisher=US Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District |access-date=April 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516032359/https://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/Portals/56/docs/PAO/Brochures/OldRiverControlBrochure.pdf |archive-date=May 16, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Although the ] was once an additional tributary, its water now flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Louisiana Old River Control Structure and Mississippi river flood protection |url=http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/LouisianaRiverControl.html |work=America's Wetland Resource Center |publisher=Loyola University's Center for Environmental Communication |access-date=June 24, 2011 |archive-date=March 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310124727/http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/LouisianaRiverControl.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In addition to the ], the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the ], flowing in at the ] in east central Arkansas; the ], joining the Mississippi at ]; the ] in Mississippi; the ], meeting the Mississippi at ]; and the ] in Louisiana. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds {{convert|1|mi|km}} in width in several places.


==Watershed==
Deliberate water diversion at the ] in ] allows the ] in Louisiana to be a major ] of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past ] and ] on a longer route to the Gulf.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McPhee|first=John|title=The Control of Nature: Atchafalaya|journal=The New Yorker|date=Feb 23, 1987|url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1987/02/23/1987_02_23_039_TNY_CARDS_000347146|accessdate=May 12, 2011}} Republished in {{cite book | author=McPhee, John | title=The Control of Nature | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | year=1989 | isbn=0-374-12890-1 | page = 272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Old River Control | work=The Mighty Mississippi River | author=Angert, Joe and Isaac | url=http://users.stlcc.edu/jangert/oldriver/oldriver.html |archiveurl=http://replay.web.archive.org/20090515010700/http://users.stlcc.edu/jangert/oldriver/oldriver.html |archivedate=May 15, 2009 |accessdate=May 12, 2011}}. Includes map and pictures.</ref><ref name="kemp">{{cite web |url=http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/FloodControl.htm |title=The Mississippi Levee System and the Old River Control Structure |first=Katherine |last=Kemp |date=January 6, 2000}}</ref>
]

]
===Watershed===
]
{{See also|List of drainage basins by area}} {{See also|List of drainage basins by area}}


The Mississippi River has the world's fourth largest ] ("watershed" or "catchment"). The basin covers more than {{convert|1245000|sqmi|abbr=on}}, including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the ], part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest ] ("watershed" or "catchment"). The basin covers more than {{convert|1245000|sqmi|abbr=out}}, including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the ], part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the ], ] at {{convert|14440|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mount Elbert, Colorado |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=5736 |publisher=Peakbagger |access-date=May 21, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410210818/http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=5736 |archive-date=April 10, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>


] images showing the outflow of fresh water from the Mississippi (arrows) into the Gulf of Mexico (2004)]] ] images showing the outflow of fresh water from the Mississippi (arrows) into the Gulf of Mexico (2004)]]


In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between crest of the ] and the crest of the ], except for various regions drained to ] by the ]; to the Atlantic Ocean by the ] and the ]; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the ], the ] and ] rivers, the ] and ] rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf. In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the ] and the crest of the ], except for various regions drained to ] by the ]; to the Atlantic Ocean by the ] and the ]; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the ], the ] and ] rivers, the ] and ] rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.


The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about {{convert|100|mi|km}} downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the ]'s number is {{convert|2340|mi|km}}. The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/features/factoids/|title=General Information about the Mississippi River|publisher=National Park Service|work=Mississippi National River and Recreation Area|year=2004|accessdate=July 15, 2006}}</ref> The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about {{convert|100|mi|km}} downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the ]'s number is {{convert|2340|mi|km|0}}. The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/features/factoids/ |title=General Information about the Mississippi River |publisher=National Park Service |work=Mississippi National River and Recreation Area |year=2004 |access-date=July 15, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613194952/http://www.nps.gov/miss/features/factoids/ |archive-date=June 13, 2006}}</ref> while speed varies along the course of the river, this gives an overall average of around {{cvt|26|mi|km}} per day, or {{cvt|1|mi|km}} per hour.


The ] of the entire river is 0.01%, a drop of 450 m over 3,766&nbsp;km.{{cn|date=September 2023}}
===Outflow===
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000–20,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s).<ref name="mississippirivercfs">{{cite web|url=http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/MississippiRiverAnatomy.html |title=Americas Wetland: Resource Center |publisher=Americaswetlandresources.com |date=November 4, 1939 |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref> Although it is the 5th largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a mere fraction of the output of ], which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8% the flow of the Amazon River.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Hydrologie du bassin de l'Amazone | journal = Grands Bassins Fluviaux, Paris | date = 22-24 Novembre 1993| id = | url = http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/42687.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate =January 11, 2012}}</ref>


==Outflow==
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from ]'s ] (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the ], and entered the ]. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of ] before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between {{convert|200|and|700|e3cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=out|sigfig=1}}.<ref name="mississippirivercfs">{{cite web |url=http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/MississippiRiverAnatomy.html |title=Americas Wetland: Resource Center |publisher=Americaswetlandresources.com |date=November 4, 1939 |access-date=November 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426091139/http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/MississippiRiverAnatomy.html |archive-date=April 26, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Mississippi is the fourteenth largest river in the world by volume. On average, the Mississippi has 8% the flow of the ],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Hydrologie du bassin de l'Amazone |journal=Grands Bassins Fluviaux, Paris |date=November 22–24, 1993 |url=http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/42687.pdf |language=fr |access-date=January 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007151725/http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/42687.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
which moves nearly {{convert|7|e6cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=out}} during wet seasons.


Prior to 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of ] per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in ]ed down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, ]s, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil ] control programs in the areas drained by them.<ref name="MeadelOthers1984">Meade, R. H., and J. A. Moody, 1984, ''Causes for the decline of suspended-sediment discharge in the Mississippi River system, 1940–2007'' Hydrology Processes vol. 24, pp. 35–49.</ref> Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated {{convert|400|e6MT|e6ST|abbr=off|order=flip}} of ] per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only {{convert|145|e6MT|e6ST|abbr=off|order=flip}} per year. The reduction in ]ed down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, ]s, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil ] control programs in the areas drained by them.<ref name="MeadelOthers1984">Meade, R. H., and J. A. Moody, 1984, ''Causes for the decline of suspended-sediment discharge in the Mississippi River system, 1940–2007'' Hydrology Processes vol. 24, pp. 35–49.</ref>


===Course changes=== ===Mixing with salt water===
Denser salt water from the Gulf of Mexico forms a ] along the river bottom near the mouth of the river, while fresh water flows near the surface. In drought years, with less fresh water to push it out, salt water can travel many miles upstream—{{convert|64|mi}} in 2022—contaminating drinking water supplies and requiring the use of ]. The ] constructed "saltwater sills" or "underwater levees" to contain this in 1988, 1999, 2012, and 2022. This consists of a large mound of sand spanning the width of the river 55 feet below the surface, allowing fresh water and large cargo ships to pass over.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/27/1131452623/saltwater-mississippi-river-drought-gulf-of-mexico |title=Saltwater is moving up the Mississippi River. Here's what's being done to stop it |website=] |access-date=November 4, 2022 |archive-date=November 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104230412/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/27/1131452623/saltwater-mississippi-river-drought-gulf-of-mexico |url-status=live }}</ref>

Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from ]'s ] show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the ], and entered the ]. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of ] before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.

==Course changes==
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region. Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.


As Pangaea began to break up about 95 million years ago, North America passed over a volcanic "]" in the Earth's ] (specifically, the ]) that was undergoing a period of intense activity. The upwelling of ] from the hotspot forced the further uplift to a height of perhaps 2–3&nbsp;km of part of the ] range, forming an ] that blocked southbound water flows. The uplifted land quickly eroded and, as North America moved away from the hot spot and as the hotspot's activity declined, the crust beneath the embayment region cooled, contracted and subsided to a depth of 2.6&nbsp;km, and around 80 million years ago the ] formed a ] that was flooded by the ]. As sea levels dropped, the Mississippi and other rivers extended their courses into the ], which gradually became filled with sediment with the Mississippi River at its center.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-mississippis-curious/ |title=The Mississippi's Curious Origins |last1=Van Arsdale |first1=Roy B. |last2=Cox |first2=Randel T. |date=January 2007 |website=] |language=en |access-date=September 1, 2019 |archive-date=October 16, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016205927/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=9346CA8F-E7F2-99DF-32CD319973C0B8BC&ref=sciam&chanID=sa006 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667117305414 |title=A Maastrichtian birth of the Ancestral Mississippi River system: Evidence from the U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology of the McNairy Sandstone, Illinois, USA |last1=Potter-McIntyre |first1=Sally L. |last2=Breeden |first2=Jeremy R. |last3=Malone |first3=David H. |journal=] |language=en |date=November 2018 |volume=91 |pages=71–79 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2018.05.010 |bibcode=2018CrRes..91...71P |s2cid=134158930 |access-date=April 18, 2023 |archive-date=April 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422094143/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667117305414 |url-status=live | issn = 0195-6671}}</ref>
Through a natural process known as ] or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as ]s. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (25–80&nbsp;km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after ], the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.


Through a natural process known as ] or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as ]s. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from {{convert|15|to|50|mi|km}}. The currently active ] is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the ], after ], the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
====Prehistoric courses====
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the ] of the ] ]. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the ], ], and ] valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary" rivers found paths to ] or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.


===Prehistoric courses===
Ice sheets during the ] about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The ] roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to ]. South of Hennepin, to ], the current ] follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.<ref name="McKay2007">McKay, E.D., 2007, Proceedings of the 2007 Governor's Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: Our continuing Commitment, 11th Biennial Conference, Oct. 2-4, 2007, 11 p.</ref><ref name="McKayOther2008">McKay, E.D., and R.C. Berg, 2008, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 40, No. 5, p. 78 with </ref>
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the ] of the ] ]. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the ], ], and ] valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary" rivers found paths to ] or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "over-sized" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.


Ice sheets during the ], about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The ] roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to ]. South of Hennepin, to ], the current ] follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.<ref name="McKay2007">McKay, E.D., 2007, {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019161927/http://ilrdss.sws.uiuc.edu/pubs/govconf2007/session2a/DonMcKay.pdf |date=October 19, 2013 }} (PDF) Proceedings of the 2007 Governor's Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: Our continuing Commitment, 11th Biennial Conference, Oct. 2–4, 2007, 11 p.</ref><ref name="McKayOther2008">McKay, E.D., and R.C. Berg, 2008, {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014092427/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2008NC/finalprogram/abstract_137641.htm |date=October 14, 2012 }} Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 40, No. 5, p. 78 with {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019204854/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/viewHandout.cgi?uploadid=295 |date=October 19, 2013 }}</ref>
]/] state line near ] (2007)]]


]/] state line near ] (2007)]]
====Historic course changes====

In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of ], leaving a small part of ], attached to ] and separated from the rest of ] by the new river channel. Since this event was an ], rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line remains located in the old channel.<ref name="Arkansas v. Tennessee, 246 U.S. 158">{{cite web|url=http://supreme.justia.com/us/246/158/case.html |title=ARKANSAS V. TENNESSEE, 246 U.S. 158 :: Volume 246 :: 1918 :: Full Text :: US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez |publisher=Supreme.justia.com |date= |accessdate=2013-03-12}}</ref>
Timeline of outflow course changes<ref> {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150918/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1987/02/23/atchafalaya?currentPage=all |date=April 2, 2015 }}, ], {{cite web |url=http://www.caddohistory.com/great_raft.html |title=Historical |access-date=October 12, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828180824/http://www.caddohistory.com/great_raft.html |archive-date=August 28, 2008}}</ref>
* c. 5000 BC: The ] ended; world sea level became what it is now.
* c. 2500 BC: ] became the main course of the Mississippi.
* c. 800 BC: The Mississippi diverted further east.
* c. 200 AD: ] became the main course of the Mississippi.
* c. 1000 AD: The Mississippi's present course took over.
* Before c. 1400 AD: The ] flowed parallel to the lower Mississippi to the sea
* 15th century: ] in the lower Mississippi extended so far west that it captured the Red River of the South. The Red River below the captured section became the ].
* 1831: ] dug a new short course for the Mississippi through the neck of Turnbull's Bend.
* 1833 to November 1873: The ] (a huge ] in the Atchafalaya River) was cleared. The Atchafalaya started to capture the Mississippi and to become its new main lower course.
* 1963: The ] was completed, controlling how much Mississippi water entered the Atchafalaya.

===Historic course changes===
]
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of ], leaving a small part of ], attached to ] and separated from the rest of ] by the new river channel. Since this event was an ], rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.<ref name="Arkansas v. Tennessee, 246 U.S. 158">{{cite web |url=http://supreme.justia.com/us/246/158/case.html |title=Arkansas v. Tennessee, 246 U.S. 158 :: Volume 246 :: 1918 |publisher=Supreme.justia.com |access-date=March 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302052148/http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/246/158/case.html |archive-date=March 2, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The town of ] once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and ]. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower {{convert|10|mile}} of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining {{convert|2,300|acre}} island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Knopp |first1=Lisa |title=What the River carries: Encounters with the Mississippi, Missouri, and Platte |date=2012 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, Missouri |isbn=978-0-8262-1974-9 |page=74}}</ref>


===New Madrid Seismic Zone=== ===New Madrid Seismic Zone===
The ], along the Mississippi River near ], between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an ] (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. ], estimated at approximately 8 on the ], had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created ] in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river, and temporarily reversed the direction of flow of the Mississippi itself. The ], along the Mississippi River near ], between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an ] (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. ], estimated at 8 on the ], had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the Midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created ] in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.


==Cultural geography== == Length ==
When measured from its traditional source at ], the Mississippi has a length of {{convert|2340|mi|km|0}}. When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), ] in ], the source of the ], it has a length of {{convert|3710|mi|km|0}}, making it the fourth longest river in the world after the ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKwx0VBB68IC&q=mississippi+missouri+river+3710+miles&pg=PA4 |title=Settlements of the Mississippi River |first=Rob |last=Bowden |date=January 27, 2005 |publisher=Heinemann-Raintree Library |via=Google Books |access-date=January 1, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120015935/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKwx0VBB68IC&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=mississippi+missouri+river+3710+miles&source=bl&ots=wPaH9BCeO3&sig=6L5kxtiX07EMsfp1xgSxBmeHGuw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiV3dGKj7PYAhVBmeAKHbaFAbk4ChDoAQg1MAQ#v=onepage&q=mississippi+missouri+river+3710+miles&f=false |archive-date=November 20, 2018 |url-status=live |isbn=9781403457196}}</ref> When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the ], by extension the ], would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in ].<ref>''Mississippi River Water Quality and the Clean Water Act: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities''. National Academies Press, 2008, ISBN 9780309177818, pp. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418143238/https://books.google.com/books?id=CaNbmH0sH_QC&pg=PT38 |date=April 18, 2023 }}</ref>


== Depth ==
At its source at ], the Mississippi River is about {{convert|3|feet}} deep. The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between {{convert|9|and(-)|12|ft}} deep, the deepest part being ], which averages {{convert|20|–|32|ft|0}} deep and has a maximum depth of {{convert|60|ft}}. Between where the Missouri River joins the Mississippi at Saint Louis, Missouri, and Cairo, Illinois, the depth averages {{convert|30|ft|0}}. Below Cairo, where the Ohio River joins, the depth averages {{convert|50|–|100|ft}} deep. The deepest part of the river is in New Orleans, where it reaches {{convert|200|ft}} deep.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mississippivalleytraveler.com/mississippi-river-geology/ |title=Geology of the Mississippi River |access-date=December 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230081157/https://mississippivalleytraveler.com/mississippi-river-geology/ |archive-date=December 30, 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/areas/fisheries/lakecity/pepin.html |title=Lake Pepin |work=Minnesota Department of Natural Resources |access-date=December 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181230081300/https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/areas/fisheries/lakecity/pepin.html |archive-date=December 30, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Cultural geography==
===State boundaries=== ===State boundaries===
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from ] to ], and was used to define portions of these states' borders, with ], ], ], ], and ] along the east side of the river, and ], ], and ] along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states. The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from ] to ], and is used to define portions of these states' borders, with ], ], ], ], and ] along the east side of the river, and ], ], and ] along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.


In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2546 |title=encyclopediaofarkansas.net |publisher=encyclopediaofarkansas.net |date=April 28, 2010 |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref><ref> "'']''" , Avalon project at the ]</ref> In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a ] is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state. In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2546 |title=encyclopediaofarkansas.net |publisher=encyclopediaofarkansas.net |date=April 28, 2010 |access-date=November 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102215918/http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2546 |archive-date=November 2, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> "'']''", Avalon project at the ]</ref> In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a ] is contiguous with Tennessee but isolated from the rest of its state.
{{wide image|Lake Pepin Panorama.jpg|800px|], the widest naturally occurring part of the Mississippi, is part of the ]–] border.}}
{{wide image|Mississippi_River_Panoramic.jpg|800px|The Mississippi River in downtown ]}}


===Communities along the river=== ===Major communities along the river===
{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
|- |-
Line 222: Line 215:
! Population ! Population
|- |-
| ] | ]
| 3,615,902 | 3,946,533
|- |-
| ] | ]
| 2,900,605 | 2,916,447
|- |-
| ] | ]
Line 238: Line 231:
|- |-
| ] | ]
| 382,630 | 387,630
|- |-
| ] | ]
Line 252: Line 245:
| 93,653 | 93,653
|} |}

] (2007)]] ] (2007)]]
] (2006)]]
]


===All communities along the river===
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
Notable communities listed from the source at Lake Itasca to the mouth the Mississippi Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 TIGER/Line® Places Shapefiles |url=https://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/geo/shapefiles/index.php |access-date=2024-12-07 |website=www.census.gov |publisher=] |type=]}}</ref>


{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
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] (2006)]]
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] near St. Louis (2006)]]


===Bridge crossings=== ===Bridge crossings===
Line 395: Line 1,065:
], the ] and the ] in Minneapolis (2004)]] ], the ] and the ] in Minneapolis (2004)]]


The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek") flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within ].<ref> {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818034845/https://www.google.com/maps/@47.1938103,-95.2306761,3a,90y,281.83h,31.65t/data=!3m11!1e1!3m9!1sAF1QipMW_jUkZhpA_bbXTVIxByYtcT4P6BJu3vVWfDtw!2e10!3e11!6shttps:%2F%2Flh5.googleusercontent.com%2Fp%2FAF1QipMW_jUkZhpA_bbXTVIxByYtcT4P6BJu3vVWfDtw%3Dw203-h100-k-no-pi-2.9999962-ya353.5-ro-0-fo100!7i8704!8i4352!9m2!1b1!2i51 |date=August 18, 2018 }} at 47.1938103 N, 95.2306761 W</ref>
The first bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in ] where the current ] is located.<ref>{{cite book|last = Costello|first = Mary Charlotte|year = 2002|title = Climbing the Mississippi River Bridge by Bridge, Volume Two: Minnesota|publisher = Adventure Publications|location = Cambridge, MN|isbn = 0-9644518-2-4}}</ref> No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.


The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in ] where the current ] is located.<ref>{{cite book |last=Costello |first=Mary Charlotte |year=2002 |title=Climbing the Mississippi River Bridge by Bridge |volume=Two: Minnesota |publisher=Adventure Publications |location=Cambridge, Minnesota |isbn=0-9644518-2-4}}</ref> No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the ] in ] and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat ''Effie Afton'' rammed part of the bridge, catching it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with ] defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the ] and was eventually ruled in favor of the railroad.


The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the ] in ] and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat ''Effie Afton'' rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with ] defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the ], which ruled in favor of the railroad.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michael A. Ross |title=Hell Gate of the Mississippi: The Effie Afton Trial and Abraham Lincoln's Role in It |journal=The Annals of Iowa |volume=68 |number=3 |date=Summer 2009 |pages=312–314 |doi=10.17077/0003-4827.1361 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.


Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges that have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Former ] (now pedestrian) bridge at ] in downtown Minneapolis.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Former ] (now pedestrian) bridge at ] connecting downtown Minneapolis with the historic Marcy-Holmes neighborhood.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}In Minneapolis, opened in September 2008, replacing the ] which had collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100. * ]{{spaced ndash}}In Minneapolis, opened in September 2008, replacing the ] which had collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}In ], opened by ] in November 1960.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ], located just south of ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ], located just south of ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] in ] and rural ]; locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] in ] and rural ]; locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the ].
Line 409: Line 1,081:
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Joins the cities of ], and ]; listed in the ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Joins the cities of ], and ]; listed in the ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] and causeway connecting the city of ], and the island city of ]. The bridge carries ] over the river, and is the terminus of both ] and ]. Added to the ] in 1999. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] and causeway connecting the city of ], and the island city of ]. The bridge carries ] over the river, and is the terminus of both ] and ]. Added to the ] in 1999.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A 4-lane steel girder bridge that connects ], and ]. Completed in 1966. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A 4-lane steel girder bridge that carries ] and connects ], and ]. Completed in 1966.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; originally known as the ''Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge''. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] that connects ] and ] (]), ]. Known as the '''Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Bridge'''.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] and ], adjacent to ]; the fourth crossing in this vicinity, built in 1896. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; originally known as the ''Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge''.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] and ], adjacent to ]; the fourth crossing in this vicinity, built in 1896.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; opened in 1940. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; opened in 1940.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; opened in 1973.], Iowa, with ] lighting]] * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; opened in 1973.], Iowa, with ] lighting]]
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; became first U.S. bridge to be illuminated with ] (LED) lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and ]; became first U.S. bridge to be illuminated with ] (LED) lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting Burlington, Iowa, to ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting Burlington, Iowa, to ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and unincorporated ]; also known as the ''Santa Fe Swing Span Bridge''; at the time of its construction the longest and heaviest electrified swing span on the Mississippi River. Listed in the ] since 1999. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ], and unincorporated ]; also known as the ''Santa Fe Swing Span Bridge''; at the time of its construction the longest and heaviest electrified swing span on the Mississippi River. Listed in the ] since 1999.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] and ]; opened in 1985 replacing an older bridge which is still in use as a railroad bridge. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects ] and ]; opened in 1985 replacing an older bridge which is still in use as a railroad bridge.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A cable-stayed bridge bringing westbound ] over the river, connecting the cities of ], and ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A cable-stayed bridge bringing westbound ] over the river, connecting the cities of ], and ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects the cities of ], and ], carrying eastbound U.S. 24, the older of these two U.S. 24 bridges. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Connects the cities of ], and ], carrying eastbound U.S. 24, the older of these two U.S. 24 bridges.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting ], and ], also known as the ''Super Bridge'' as the result of an appearance on the PBS program, '']''; built in 1994, carrying ] across the river. This is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area, replacing the '']'', a truss bridge built in 1928, named after explorer ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting ], and ], also known as the ''Super Bridge'' as the result of an appearance on the PBS program, '']''; built in 1994, carrying ] across the river. This is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area, replacing the '']'', a truss bridge built in 1928, named after explorer ].
] at ]]] ] at ]]]
* ]{{spaced ndash}}Located on the northern edge of St. Louis, notable for a 22-degree bend occurring at the middle of the crossing, necessary for navigation on the river; formerly used by ] to cross the Mississippi. * ]{{spaced ndash}}Located on the northern edge of St. Louis, notable for a 22-degree bend occurring at the middle of the crossing, necessary for navigation on the river; formerly used by ] to cross the Mississippi. Replaced for road traffic in 1966 by ]; now a pedestrian bridge.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A combined road and railway bridge, connecting St. Louis and ]. When completed in 1874, it was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of {{convert|6442|ft|abbr=on}}. The three ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material; it was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge project. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A combined road and railway bridge, connecting St. Louis and ]. When completed in 1874, it was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of {{convert|6442|ft}}. The three ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material; it was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge project.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting ] in Missouri with ], between ], and ]. The bridge can be seen in the beginning of the 1967 film '']''. In the 1940s, the main span was destroyed by a ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] connecting ] in Missouri with ], between ], and ]. The bridge can be seen at the beginning of the 1967 film '']''. In the 1940s, the main span was destroyed by a ].
* ]—Connecting ] and ], completed in 2003 and illuminated by 140 lights. * ]—Connecting ] and ], completed in 2003 and illuminated by 140 lights.
* ]{{spaced ndash}} A single tower cantilever bridge carrying ] and ] across the Mississippi River between ] and ].
] in ] (2009)]] ] in ] (2009)]]
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] carrying ] across the Mississippi between ], and ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] carrying ] across the Mississippi between ], and ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] ], carrying two rail lines of the ] across the river between ], and ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] through truss bridge, carrying two rail lines of the ] across the river between ], and ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] ], carrying a rail line across the river between ], and ], previously known as the ''Memphis Bridge''. When it opened on May 12, 1892, it was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest span in the U.S. Listed as a ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A cantilevered ], carrying a rail line across the river between ], and ], previously known as the ''Memphis Bridge''. When it opened on May 12, 1892, it was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest span in the U.S. Listed as a ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] ] bridge, carrying ] between Memphis and West Memphis; listed on the National Register of Historic Places. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] through truss bridge, carrying ] between Memphis and West Memphis; listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
]]]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]{{spaced ndash}}The longest ] in the Western Hemisphere; connects ] and ] Parishes in Louisiana. It is the only crossing between Baton Rouge and Natchez. This bridge was opened a month ahead of schedule in May 2011, due to the ]. * ]{{spaced ndash}}The second-longest ] in the Western Hemisphere; connects ] and ] Parishes in Louisiana. It is the only crossing between Baton Rouge and Natchez. This bridge was opened a month ahead of schedule in May 2011, due to the ].
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] ] carrying ] (]) and one rail line between ] and ] Parishes in Louisiana. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] cantilever bridge carrying ] (]) and one rail line between ] and ] Parishes in Louisiana.
* ]{{spaced ndash}}A ] ] bridge, carrying six lanes of ] between ] and ] in Louisiana. It is the highest bridge over the Mississippi River. * ]{{spaced ndash}}A cantilevered ] bridge, carrying six lanes of ] between ] and ] in Louisiana. It is the highest bridge over the Mississippi River.
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
Line 446: Line 1,121:


==Navigation and flood control== ==Navigation and flood control==
]]]
]
{{legend|#7E0179|Major flood stage}}
{{legend|#FF0000|Moderate flood stage}}
{{legend|#FE9A2E|Flood stage}}
{{legend|#F7FE2E|Action stage}}
{{legend-line|#00A2FF solid 3px|River levels}}
{{legend-line|#EE220C solid 3px|Minimum operating limit (-12 feet)}}
]]
] that held up over 100 tow boats with 2,000 barge units and caused barge rates to soar<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-09/huge-barge-backup-eases-on-mississippi-freeing-tons-of-cargo |title=Huge Barge Backup Eases on Mississippi, Freeing Tons of Cargo |last=Cavaliere |first=Victoria |date=2022-10-10 |work=Bloomberg |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=April 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430190437/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-09/huge-barge-backup-eases-on-mississippi-freeing-tons-of-cargo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/mississippi-river-reopens-barge-traffic-after-low-water-closures-us-coast-guard-2022-10-10/ |title=Mississippi River reopens to barge traffic after low water closures - U.S. Coast Guard |newspaper=Reuters |date=October 10, 2022 |last1=Plume |first1=Karl |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011051810/https://www.reuters.com/world/us/mississippi-river-reopens-barge-traffic-after-low-water-closures-us-coast-guard-2022-10-10/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ]]
{{main article|List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River}}
]]] ]]]
]
A clear channel is needed for the ]s and other vessels that make the ] Mississippi one of the great commercial ]s of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the ], which was established in 1802.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/History/Documents/Brief/03-transportation/transport.html |title=US Army Corps of Engineers, Brief History |publisher=Usace.army.mil |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref> Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and ]s.
A clear channel is needed for the ]s and other vessels that make the ] Mississippi one of the great commercial ]s of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the ], which was established in 1802.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usace.army.mil/History/Documents/Brief/03-transportation/transport.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328040856/http://www.usace.army.mil/History/Documents/Brief/03-transportation/transport.html |archive-date=March 28, 2010 |title=US Army Corps of Engineers, Brief History |publisher=Usace.army.mil |access-date=November 6, 2010}}</ref> Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and ].


]
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830{{spaced ndash}}1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans-shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio river; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons—the ] and the ] for instance.
]


The upper backwaters of the Mississippi normally freeze over by December, while the main channel freezes over only in the coldest years, historically as far south as St. Louis.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Heim |first1=Madeline |title=In the winter, the Mississippi River is 'a magical place.' Here's how you can enjoy it. |url=https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/2023/12/19/things-to-do-on-the-mississippi-river-during-winter/71896547007/ |access-date=21 April 2024 |work=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel |date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=April 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421224735/https://www.jsonline.com/story/news/2023/12/19/things-to-do-on-the-mississippi-river-during-winter/71896547007/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
A series of 29 ] and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a {{convert|9|ft|m}} deep channel for commercial barge traffic.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mississippi River | work=USGS: Status and trends of the nation's biological resources | url=http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/ms137.htm | accessdate=February 3, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060927145009/http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/ms137.htm |archivedate = September 27, 2006}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=U.S. Waterway System Facts, December 2005 | work=USACE Navigation Data Center | format=PDF | url=http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/ndc/factcard/fc05/factcard.pdf | accessdate=April 27, 2006}}</ref> The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous ]s.


A series of 29 ] and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a {{convert|9|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} channel for commercial barge traffic.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mississippi River |work=USGS: Status and trends of the nation's biological resources |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/ms137.htm |access-date=February 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927145009/http://biology.usgs.gov/s%2Bt/SNT/noframe/ms137.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2006 |url-status=dead}}
{{Panorama
</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Waterway System Facts, December 2005 |work=USACE Navigation Data Center |url=http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/ndc/factcard/fc05/factcard.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703141148/http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/ndc/factcard/fc05/factcard.pdf |archive-date=July 3, 2007 |access-date=April 27, 2006}}</ref> The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No ] is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous ]s. The scope and scale of the levees, built along either side of the river to keep it on its course, has often been compared to the ].<ref name="NewYorker1987"/>
|image = File:Photograph of Barges on the Mississippi near Ste Genevieve MO.jpg

|caption = Barges on the Mississippi River near ].
On the lower Mississippi, from ] to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is {{convert|45|ft}}, allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the ] and bulk cargo ships shorter than {{convert|150|ft|m|adj=on}} air draft that fit under the ] to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mvttc.com/news_details.php?id=182 |title=Mississippi Valley Trade & Transport Council |access-date=August 19, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205234735/http://www.mvttc.com/news_details.php?id=182 |archive-date=February 5, 2016}}</ref> There is a ] to dredge this portion of the river to {{convert|50|ft}} to allow ] ship depths.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dredgemag.com/June-2015/Corps-to-Study-Lower-Mississippi-River-Deepening-Project/ |title=Corps to Study Lower Mississippi River Deepening Project – International Dredging Review – June 2015 |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311043226/http://www.dredgemag.com//June-2015/Corps-to-Study-Lower-Mississippi-River-Deepening-Project |archive-date=March 11, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|height = 230
}}


===19th century=== ===19th century===
], north of Dubuque, Iowa (2007)]] ], north of Dubuque, Iowa (2007)]]
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11&nbsp;mi (18&nbsp;km) long and just above the mouth of the ] at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between ] and ]. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable. In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the ] and the ], where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about {{convert|11|mi|km}} long and just above the mouth of the ] at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between ] and ]. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.


In 1848, the ] was built to connect the Mississippi River to ] via the Illinois River near ]. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the ]. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (], ] and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan. In 1848, the ] was built to connect the Mississippi River to ] via the Illinois River near ]. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the ]. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (], ] and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.


The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5&nbsp;ft (1.5&nbsp;m) deep channel at the ], but work did not begin until after Lieutenant ] endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a {{convert|4.5|ft|m|adj=on}} deep channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907. The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a {{convert|5|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant ] endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a {{convert|4.5|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} channel to be obtained by building ] that direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.


To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and ], the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including ] and ]. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth. To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and ], the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including ] and ]. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.

In 1907, Congress authorized a {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} deep channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the {{convert|9|ft|m}} deep channel project.


<div style="float:right;clear:right"> <div style="float:right;clear:right">
], near ] (2007)]] ], near ] (2007)]]
], is the largest roller dam in the world ]; ]. (1990)]] ], is the largest ] in the world ]; ]. (1990)]]
</div> </div>


===20th century=== ===20th century===
In 1907, Congress authorized a {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the {{convert|9|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on ] at ], the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (] of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for ]), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest ] plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. ] was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. ], near ] was completed in 1930.


In 1913, construction was complete on ] at ], the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (] of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for ]), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest ] plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. ] was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. ], near ], was completed in 1930.
Prior to the ], the Corps' primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's ] would scour off bottom ]s, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.


Before the ], the Corps's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's ] would scour off bottom ]s, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the {{convert|9|ft|m}} channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9&nbsp;ft (2.7&nbsp;m) deep and 400&nbsp;ft (120&nbsp;m) wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Mississippi and its Uses | work=Natural Resource Management Section, Rock Island Engineers | url=http://www.mvr.usace.army.mil/missriver/Interp/MissUses.htm | accessdate=June 21, 2006}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Appendix E: Nine-foot navigation channel maintenance activities | work=National Park Service, Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Comprehensive Management Plan | url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/info/cmp/appendices/appendix_e.html | accessdate=June 21, 2006}}</ref> This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.


The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the {{convert|9|ft|m|adj=mid}} channel project, which called for a navigation channel {{convert|9|ft}} feet deep and {{convert|400|ft}} wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mississippi and its Uses |work=Natural Resource Management Section, Rock Island Engineers |url=http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/mrc/mrt/Docs/Designing%20the%20Project%20Flood%20info%20paper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604005433/http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/mrc/mrt/Docs/Designing%20the%20Project%20Flood%20info%20paper.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011 |access-date=June 21, 2006}}
] flow capacity for the Mississippi river in thousands of cubic feet per second.<ref name='USACE 2008'>{{Cite journal | contribution = The Mississippi River & Tributaries Project: Designing the Project Flood | title = United States Army Corps of Engineers | date = April | year = 2008| id = | contribution-url = http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/mrc/mrt/Docs/Designing%20the%20Project%20Flood%20info%20paper.pdf | format = PDF | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>]]
</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Appendix E: Nine-foot navigation channel maintenance activities |work=National Park Service, Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Comprehensive Management Plan |url=http://www.nps.gov/miss/info/cmp/appendices/appendix_e.html |access-date=June 21, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041215001640/http://www.nps.gov/miss/info/cmp/appendices/appendix_e.html |archive-date=December 15, 2004}}</ref> This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
]


]
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. ] (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low-water dam and an {{convert|8.4|mi|km|abbr=on}} long canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
] flow capacity for the Mississippi river in thousands of cubic feet per second.<ref name='USACE 2008'>{{cite book |title=The Mississippi River & Tributaries Project: Designing the Project Flood |publisher=United States Army Corps of Engineers |year=2008 |series=Information Paper |url=http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/mrc/mrt/Docs/Designing%20the%20Project%20Flood%20info%20paper.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604005433/http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/mrc/mrt/Docs/Designing%20the%20Project%20Flood%20info%20paper.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref>]]


Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. ] (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low-water dam and an {{convert|8.4|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}} canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the ] authorized a project called the ], which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.<ref name="SJSU">{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/oldriver.htm|title=The Old River Control Structure on the Lower Mississippi River|publisher=sjsu.edu|accessdate=June 12, 2009}}</ref>


U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually, the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the ] authorized a project called the ], which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.<ref name="SJSU">{{cite web |url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/oldriver.htm |title=The Old River Control Structure on the Lower Mississippi River |publisher=sjsu.edu |access-date=June 12, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204205943/http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/oldriver.htm |archive-date=December 4, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This US$ 300 million project was completed in 1986 by the ]. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied ]s to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at ], which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.

Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300&nbsp;million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied ]s to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.


{{clear-left}}
] near St. Louis (2006)]]
] sandbag the River in ], June 2008, following flooding.]] ] sandbag the River in ], June 2008, following flooding.]]


===21st century=== ===21st century===
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the ] and from there to the ], bypassing ] and ]. The main structures are the ] in Missouri; the ] and the ] in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the ]; and the ], also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to ] (see diagram). The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the ] and from there to the ], bypassing ] and ]. The main structures are the ] in Missouri; the ] and the ] in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the ]; and the ], also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to ] (see diagram). Some experts blame ] for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.<ref name="The Associated Press">{{cite web |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d9bb6d9bfbfe46d58305ad591c105243/st-louis-area-faces-big-cleanup-effort-after-flooding |title=Levees among possible cause of more frequent flooding |author=Jim Salter |date=January 4, 2016 |access-date=January 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106064145/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d9bb6d9bfbfe46d58305ad591c105243/st-louis-area-faces-big-cleanup-effort-after-flooding |archive-date=January 6, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of ], allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights. Some of the pre-1927 strategy remains in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of ], allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.<ref name="US Army Corps of Engineers">{{cite web |url=http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060128111022/http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm |archive-date=January 28, 2006 |title=History of the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project |work=US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District}}</ref>
<ref name="US Army Corps of Engineers">{{cite web|url=http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm|title=History of the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project|work=US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District}}</ref>


==History== ==History==
Approximately 50,000 years ago, the ] was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large ]s and extending the continent further to the south in the process. The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Nicks |editor-first=Oran W. |title=This Island Earth |publisher=] |year=1970 |page=137}}</ref>


===Native Americans=== ===Native Americans===
{{main|Woodland period|Hopewell tradition|Mississippian culture}} {{See also|Woodland period|Hopewell tradition|Mississippian culture|Winona (legend)}}
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first ] by ] ] and is considered one of the few independent centers of ] in human history.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=P.J. |last1=Richerson |first2=R. |last2=Boyd |first3=R.L. |last3=Bettinger |title=Was Agriculture Impossible During the Pleistocene but Mandatory during the Holocene? A Climate Change Hypothesis |journal=American Antiquity |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=387–411 |year=2001 |doi=10.2307/2694241 |jstor=2694241 |s2cid=163474968}}</ref> Evidence of early ] of ], a ], a ] and an indigenous ] dates to the ]. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000&nbsp;BC during what is now called the ], with increasing evidence of shelter construction, ], ] and other practices.
<div style="float:right;clear:right;">

], a ] at the site of the ] city of ].]]
A network of trade routes referred to as the ] was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from ] based on the ] (maize, ] and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the ], with evidence of highly ] ] ]s and large ].
]''{{spaced ndash}}] by ] (1857)]]</div>


The area of the Mississippi River basin was first ] by ] ] and is considered one the few independent centers of ] in human history.<ref>P. J. Richerson, R. Boyd, and R. L. Bettinger, "Was Agriculture Impossible During the Pleistocene but Mandatory during the Holocene? A Climate Change Hypothesis", ''American Antiquity'' 66: 387–411, 2001</ref> Evidence of early ] of ], a ], a ] and an indigenous ] dates to the ]. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the ], with increasing evidence of shelter construction, ], ] and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the ] was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from ] based on the ] (maize, ] and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the ], with evidence of highly ] ] ]s and large ]. The most prominent of these, now called ], was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE<ref>, Sacred Land Film Project</ref> and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and ] finds attest to increased social stress.<ref>Pauketat, Timothy R. (2003) “Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity” American Antiquity Vol. 68 No. 1</ref><ref>Pauketat, Timothy R. (1998) “Refiguring the Archaeology of Greater Cahokia” Journal of Archaeological Research Vol. 6 No. 1</ref><ref>Sullivan, Lynne P., 'Archaeology of the Appalachian highlands,' Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2001 ISBN 1-57233-142-9</ref> The most prominent of these, now called ], was occupied between about 600 and 1400 AD<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208230201/http://www.sacredland.org/historical_sites_pages/miss_mounds.html |archive-date=February 8, 2005 |url=http://www.sacredland.org/historical_sites_pages/miss_mounds.html |publisher=Sacredland.org |title=Mississippian Mounds |work=Sacred Land Film Project}}</ref> and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and ] finds attest to increased social stress.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pauketat |first=Timothy R. |year=2003 |title=Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity |journal=American Antiquity |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=39–66 |doi=10.2307/3557032 |jstor=3557032 |s2cid=163856087}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pauketat |first=Timothy R. |year=1998 |title=Refiguring the Archaeology of Greater Cahokia |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=45–89 |doi=10.1023/A:1022839329522 |s2cid=195219118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Lynne P. |title=Archaeology of the Appalachian highlands |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |year=2001 |isbn=1-57233-142-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofapp0000unse |access-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102045548/https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofapp0000unse |archive-date=January 2, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].


The word ''Mississippi'' itself comes from ''Messipi'', the French rendering of the ] (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html |title=Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/m/m0343500.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070220085858/http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/m/m0343500.html |archivedate=February 20, 2007 |title=Mississippi |accessdate =March 6, 2007 |work=] |publisher=Yourdictionary.com}}</ref> The ] called Lake Itasca ''Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan'' (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it ''Omashkoozo-ziibi'' (Elk River). After flowing into ], the Ojibwe called the river ''Bemijigamaag-ziibi'' (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into ], the name of the river changes to ''Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi'' (Red Cedar River) and then out of ] as ''Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi'' (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), ''Gichi-ziibi'' (Big River) after the confluence with the ], then finally as ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River) after the confluence with the ].<ref>] "Minnesota Geographical Names Derived from the Chippewa Language" in ''The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota: The Fifteenth Annual Report for the Year 1886'' (St. Paul: Pioneer Press Company, 1887)</ref> After the expeditions by ] and ], the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and ''Gichi-ziibi'' was named "Mississippi River". The ], known as the ''Gichi-ziibiwininiwag'', are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the ''Gichi-ziibi''. The ], one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the ''Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe'' (Big Greasy River) in the ]. The ] name for the river is Beesniicíe.<ref>{{cite web The word ''Mississippi'' itself comes from ''Messipi'', the French rendering of the ] (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.html |title=Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary |access-date=September 22, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011201846/http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/ojibwe.php |archive-date=October 11, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/m/m0343500.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220085858/http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/m/m0343500.html |archive-date=February 20, 2007 |title=Mississippi |access-date=March 6, 2007 |work=] |publisher=Yourdictionary.com}}</ref> The ] called Lake Itasca ''Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan'' (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it ''Omashkoozo-ziibi'' (Elk River). After flowing into ], the Ojibwe called the river ''Bemijigamaag-ziibi'' (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into ], the name of the river changes to ''Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi'' (Red Cedar River) and then out of ] as ''Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi'' (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), ''Gichi-ziibi'' (Big River) after the confluence with the ], then finally as ''Misi-ziibi'' (Great River) after the confluence with the ].<ref>], "Minnesota Geographical Names Derived from the Chippewa Language" in ''The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota: The Fifteenth Annual Report for the Year 1886'' (St. Paul: Pioneer Press Company, 1887)</ref> After the expeditions by ] and ], the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and ''Gichi-ziibi'' was named "Mississippi River". The ], known as the ''Gichi-ziibiwininiwag'', are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the ''Gichi-ziibi''. The ], one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the ''Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe'' (Big Greasy River) in the ]. The ] name for the river is ''Beesniicíe''.<ref>{{cite web |title=English-Arapaho dictionary |access-date=May 23, 2012 |url=http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~arapaho/english_arapaho.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611032359/http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~arapaho/english_arapaho.html |archive-date=June 11, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] name is ''Kickaátit''.<ref>{{cite web |title=AISRI Dictionary Database Search—prototype version. "River", Southband Pawnee |work=American Indian Studies Research Institute |access-date=May 26, 2012 |url=http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=south&srchtype=AND&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053713/http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=south&srchtype=AND&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

| title = English-Arapaho dictionary
The Mississippi was spelled {{not a typo|Mississipi or Missisipi}} during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint-Louis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8490378j |title=Carte de la Louisiane, cours du Mississipi et pais voisins... / par Nicolas Bellin... ; Dheulland sculpsit |first1=Jacques-Nicolas (1703–1772) Cartographe |last1=Bellin |first2=Guillaume (17 ?-177) Graveur |last2=Dheulland |first3=Pierre-François-Xavier de (1682–1761) Auteur du texte |last3=Charlevoix |date=January 1, 1744 |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115020954/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8490378j |archive-date=November 15, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84912758 |title=Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississipi. 100 lieues françoises . Dressé sur un grand nombre de mémoires entre autres sur ceux de M. Le Maire / par Guillaume Delisle de l'Académie Royale des Sciences |first=Guillaume (1675–1726) Auteur du texte |last=Delisle |date=January 1, 1718 |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115021003/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84912758 |archive-date=November 15, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b53065061q |title=Le cours du Mississipi ou de St Louis, fameuse rivière... aux environs de laquelle se trouve le pays appellé Louisiane / dressée... par N. de Fer |first=Nicolas de (1647?–1720) Cartographe |last=Fer |date=January 1, 1718 |access-date=August 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115014452/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b53065061q |archive-date=November 15, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| accessdate =May 23, 2012
| url = http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~arapaho/english_arapaho.html
}}</ref> The ] name is ''Kickaátit''.<ref>{{cite web
| title = AISRI Dictionary Database Search—prototype version. "River", Southband Pawnee
| work = American Indian Studies Research Institute
| accessdate =May 26, 2012
| url = http://zia.aisri.indiana.edu/~dictsearch/cgi-bin/testengltoxsrchNP.pl?host=zia&pass=&hasfont=0&srchlang=English&srchstring=river&database=south&srchtype=AND&sortlang=English&sndformat=ra&maxhits=200&find=Run_Search
}}</ref>


===European exploration=== ===European exploration===
] depicts ] and Spanish ] seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.]]
] and ]'s 1673 expedition.]]
] (blue) in North America in 1750, before the ] (1754 to 1763).]]
] depicts ] seeing the River for the first time.]]
] and ]'s 1673 expedition.]]
]


On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer ] became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called ''Río del Espíritu Santo'' ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called ''Río Mississippi''.<ref>{{dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref> In 1519 Spanish explorer ] became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, followed by ] who reached the river on May 8, 1541, and called it ''Río del Espíritu Santo'' ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Álvarez de Pineda, Alonso (unknown–1520) |url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/alvarez-de-pineda-alonso |work=Texas State Historical Association |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628171827/https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/alvarez-de-pineda-alonso |url-status=live }}</ref> In Spanish, the river is called ''Río Mississippi''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cec.org/naatlas/NA-Watersheds.gif |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070612063513/http://www.cec.org/naatlas/NA-Watersheds.gif |url-status=dead |title=NA-Watersheds.gif (3060x2660 pixels) |date=June 12, 2007 |archive-date=June 12, 2007 |website=cec.org |access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref>


French explorers ] and ] began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a ] Indian who named it ''Ne Tongo'' ("Big river" in ]) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the ''River of the ]''. French explorers ] and ] began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a ] Indian who named it ''Ne Tongo'' ("Big river" in ]) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the ''River of the ]''.


When ] explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the ], he remarked that a canal of "only half a ]" (less than 2 miles (3.2&nbsp;km), 3&nbsp;km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1437.html |title=Jolliet and La Salle's Canal Plans|publisher=Encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref> In 1848, the ] separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the ] via the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/ilmi/ |title=Illinois & Michigan Canal National Heritage Corridor |publisher=Nps.gov |date=August 24, 1984|accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref> This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes. When ] explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the ], he remarked that a canal of "only half a ]" (less than {{convert|2|mi|km|0|disp=or|sp=us}}) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1437.html |title=Jolliet and La Salle's Canal Plans |publisher=Encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org |access-date=November 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201051932/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1437.html |archive-date=December 1, 2010}}</ref> In 1848, the ] separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the ] via the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/ilmi/ |title=Illinois & Michigan Canal National Heritage Corridor |publisher=Nps.gov |date=August 24, 1984 |access-date=November 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528042135/http://www.nps.gov/ilmi/ |archive-date=May 28, 2010}}</ref> This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.


In 1682, ] and ] claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river ''Colbert River'' after ] and the region '']'', for ]. On March 2, 1699, ] rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle.<ref name="CathEn">"Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville" (bio), webpage from ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', Volume VII, 1910, New York: .</ref> The French built the small fort of ] there to control passage.<ref name=WDL1>{{cite web|title=Plan of New Orleans the Capital of Louisiana; With the Disposition of Its Quarters and Canals as They Have Been Traced by Mr. de la Tour in the Year 1720|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9558|publisher=]|accessdate=14 February 2013}}</ref> In 1682, ] and ] claimed the entire Mississippi River valley for France, calling the river ''Colbert River'' after ] and the region '']'', for ]. On March 2, 1699, ] rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle.<ref name="CathEn">"Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville" (bio), webpage from ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', Volume VII, 1910, New York: {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515002256/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07614b.htm |date=May 15, 2008 }}.</ref> The French built the small fort of ] there to control passage.<ref name=WDL1>{{cite news |title=Plan of New Orleans the Capital of Louisiana; With the Disposition of Its Quarters and Canals as They Have Been Traced by Mr. de la Tour in the Year 1720 |newspaper=The Library of Congress |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9558 |publisher=] |access-date=February 14, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227125322/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9558/ |archive-date=December 27, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>


In 1718, about {{convert|100|mi|km}} upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by ], with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of ], the capital of French Louisiana at the time. In 1718, about {{convert|100|mi|km}} upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by ], with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of ], the capital of French Louisiana at the time.

In 1727, ] begins work, using enslaved African laborers, on the first ]s on the Mississippi River.


===Colonization=== ===Colonization===
{{see also|Flood of 1851}} {{see also|Flood of 1851}}
]'' (1871)]] ]'' (1871)]]
Following ] the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The ] gave ] rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded ] to Britain to regain ], which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into ] and ]. Following ], the Mississippi became the border between the British and ]s. The ] gave ] rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded ] to Britain to regain ], which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into ] and ].


Article 8 of the ] states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States". With this treaty, which ended the ], Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain ], which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the US in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing ] in 1795. Article 8 of the ] states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States". With this treaty, which ended the ], Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain ], which Spain had occupied during the war. Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing ] in 1795. However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret ]. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the ] from France in the ] of 1803. This triggered a dispute between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida Spain had ceded to France in the first place, which would decide which parts of West Florida the U.S. had bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase, versus which were unceded Spanish property. Due to ongoing U.S. colonization creating facts on the ground, and U.S. military actions, Spain ceded both West and East Florida in their entirety to the United States in the ] of 1819.


The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of the ], when British forces mounted an attack on ] just 15 days after the signing of the ]. The attack ] by an American army under the command of General ].
France reacquired 'Louisiana' from Spain in the secret ] in 1800. The United States then bought the territory from France in the ] of 1803. In 1815, the U.S. defeated Britain at the ], part of the ], securing American control of the river. So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called '']'', detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.

In the ], the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the ] to the ] along the ]. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the ] basin.

So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guidebook called '']'', detailing the features, dangers, and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over 25 years.


] made early navigation difficult.]] ] made early navigation difficult.]]


The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three ], estimated at approximately 8 on the ], that were centered near ]. The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three ], estimated at 8 on the ], that were centered near ].


===Steamboat era=== ===Steamboat era===
{{Main|Steamboats of the Mississippi}} {{Main article|Steamboats of the Mississippi}}

Mark Twain's book, '']'', covered the ] commerce, which took place from 1830 to 1870, before more modern ships replaced the steamer. '']'' first published the book as a seven-part ] in 1875. ] & Company published the full version, including a passage from the then unfinished '']'' and works from other authors, in 1885.

The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the '']'' in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of ] in 1811–12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s, only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats, which suggests it was not very profitable.<ref>Roseman, Curtis C., and Elizabeth M. Roseman. Grand Excursions on the Upper Mississippi River : Places, Landscapes, And Regional Identity After 1854. Iowa City: University Of Iowa Press, 2004.</ref>


Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight, until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted ], which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Mark Twain's book, '']'', covered the ] commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in '']'' in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the unfinished '']'' and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.


Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami wrote about his journey on the ''Virginia'', which was the first steamboat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourist trade.<ref>Smith, Thomas Ruys. River of Dreams : Imagining The Mississippi Before Mark Twain. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007.</ref>
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the ''New Orleans'' in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of ]s in 1811–12. Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted ], which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.


===Civil War=== ===Civil War===
{{Main|Mississippi River in the American Civil War}}
] (ca.&nbsp;1888)]] ] (ca.&nbsp;1888)]]
], a settlement destroyed by gunboats during the Civil War.]]


Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the ]. In 1862 ] forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at ] and ], while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured ]. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at ], and the Union's ] (December 1862 to July, 1863), and the fall of ], completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the ] on July 4, 1863 was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War. Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the ], forming a part of the U.S. ]. In 1862, ] forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at ] and ], while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured ]. One of the last major Confederate strongholds was on the heights overlooking the river at ]; the Union's ] (December 1862–July 1863), and the fall of ], completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ended the ] on July 4, 1863, and was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tomblin |first=Barbara |title=The Civil War on the Mississippi: Union Sailors, Gunboat Captains, and the Campaign to Control the River |date=2016 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-6703-9 |location=Lexington, Kentucky |pages=281–290}}</ref>


===20th and 21st centuries=== ===20th and 21st centuries===
{{see also|Great Mississippi Flood of 1927|Great Flood of 1951|Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993}} {{see also|List of Mississippi River floods}}
The "Big Freeze" of 1918/19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.semo.edu/sepr/programming/ay_episodes_14160.htm |title=Southeast Missouri State University: The Big Freeze, 1918–1919 |publisher=Semo.edu |accessdate=November 6, 2010}}</ref> The "Big Freeze" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.semo.edu/sepr/programming/ay_episodes_14160.htm |title=Southeast Missouri State University: The Big Freeze, 1918–1919 |publisher=Semo.edu |access-date=November 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627225013/http://www.semo.edu/sepr/programming/ay_episodes_14160.htm |archive-date=June 27, 2010}}</ref>


In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the ] and inundated {{convert|27000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} to a depth of up to {{convert|30|ft|m|abbr=on}}. In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the ] and inundated {{cvt|27000|sqmi|km2}} to a depth of up to {{convert|30|ft}}.


In 1930, ] was the first person to swim the length of the river, from Minneapolis to New Orleans. The journey took 176 days and covered 1,836 miles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Greg |date=September 2020 |title=The Man Who Swam the Full Length of the Mississippi River |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/fred-newton-swam-mississippi-river-180975512/ |access-date=2021-05-02 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |archive-date=May 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502220612/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/fred-newton-swam-mississippi-river-180975512/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tomalin |first=Terry |date=2010-06-07 |title=AN OPEN WATER EXPERIENCE |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2010/05/22/an-open-water-experience/ |access-date=2021-05-02 |website=Tampa Bay Times |language=en |archive-date=May 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502220612/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2010/05/22/an-open-water-experience/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million gallons of ] into the Mississippi and ]s. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnopedia.org/event/mississippi-river-oil-spill-1962-1963 |title= Mississippi River Oil Spill, 1962–1963|author= Joseph Manulik|date= October 29, 2012

|work= MNopedia|publisher= ]|accessdate=November 3, 2012}}</ref>
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled {{convert|3.5|e6usgal|m3}} of ] into the Mississippi and ] rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnopedia.org/event/mississippi-river-oil-spill-1962-1963 |title=Mississippi River Oil Spill, 1962–1963 |author=Manulik, Joseph |date=October 29, 2012 |work=MNopedia |publisher=] |access-date=November 3, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117053817/http://www.mnopedia.org/event/mississippi-river-oil-spill-1962-1963 |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>


On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, '']'', was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from ], to ]. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident. On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, '']'', was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from ], to ]. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.


In 1988, record low water levels provided an opportunity and obligation to examine the climax of the wooden-hulled age. The Mississippi fell to {{convert|10|ft|m}} below zero on the Memphis gauge. Water craft remains were exposed in an area of {{convert|4.5|acre|m2}} on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.<ref>{{cite web In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to {{convert|10|ft}} below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden-hulled water craft were exposed in an area of {{convert|4.5|acre|ha}} on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.<ref>{{cite web |last=UA-WRI Research Station |first=Historical Archeology |title=Ghost Boats of the Mississippi |url=http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/archinfo/atughostboats.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212235537/http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/archinfo/atughostboats.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |access-date=March 31, 2008}}</ref>
| last = UA-WRI Research Station
| first = Historical Archeology
| title = Ghost Boats of the Mississippi
| url=http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/archinfo/atughostboats.html}}</ref>


The ] was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. The ] was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.


Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as ] in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin. The Nature Conservancy's project called "America's Rivershed Initiative" announced a 'report card' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.<ref>"Mississippi River Basin Receives D+ in First-Ever Report Card" (Press Release). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Mississippi Valley Division. October 14, 2015. Retrieved November 7, 2015. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005012017/https://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Releases/Article/623057/mississippi-river-basin-receives-d-in-first-ever-report-card/ |date=October 5, 2023 }}</ref>
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as ] in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri.


] ]


In 2002, ]n long-distance swimmer ] swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sourcetosea.net/ |title=Source to Sea |publisher=Source to Sea |access-date=March 12, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408092708/http://sourcetosea.net/ |archive-date=April 8, 2013}}</ref> paddled the Mississippi and ]s to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.<ref>{{cite web |title=Upper Mississippi River Campaign |publisher=National Audubon Society |year=2006 |url=http://www.audubon.org/campaign/umr |access-date=November 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061124015242/http://www.audubon.org/campaign/umr |archive-date=November 24, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Paddling the Mississippi River to Benefit the Audubon Society |work=Source to Sea: The Mississippi River Project |publisher=Source to Sea 2006 |year=2006 |url=http://www.sourcetosea.net |access-date=November 29, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207211641/http://sourcetosea.net/ |archive-date=December 7, 2006 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>
In 2002, ]n long-distance swimmer ] swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days.


===Future===
In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sourcetosea.net/ |title=Source to Sea |publisher=Source to Sea |date= |accessdate=2013-03-12}}</ref> paddled the Mississippi and ]s to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.<ref>{{cite web| title = Upper Mississippi River Campaign| publisher = National Audubon Society| year = 2006| url = http://www.audubon.org/campaign/umr| accessdate =November 29, 2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061124015242/http://www.audubon.org/campaign/umr |archivedate = November 24, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Paddling the Mississippi River to Benefit the Audubon Society| work = Source to Sea: The Mississippi River Project| publisher = Source to Sea 2006| year = 2006| url = http://www.sourcetosea.net| accessdate =November 29, 2006}}</ref>
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes—through the ] or through ]—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.<ref name="AmericasWetlands">{{cite web |url=http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/LouisianaRiverControl.html |title=Controlling the Mighty Mississippi's path to the sea |publisher=Americaswetlandresources.com |date=January 6, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310124727/http://www.americaswetlandresources.com/background_facts/detailedstory/LouisianaRiverControl.html |archive-date=March 10, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="DailyImpact">{{cite web |title=Mississippi Rising: Apocalypse Now? (April 28, 2011) |url=http://www.dailyimpact.net/2011/04/28/mississippi-rising-apocalypse-now/ |publisher=Daily Impact |access-date=May 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505162323/http://www.dailyimpact.net/2011/04/28/mississippi-rising-apocalypse-now/ |archive-date=May 5, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="InteractiveMap">{{cite web |url=http://www.mappingsupport.com/p/gmap4.php?q=https://sites.google.com/site/gmap4files/p/news/mississippi_course_change.txt&ll=30.417887,-91.201416&t=h&z=9&label=on |title=Will the Mississippi River change its course in 2011 to the red line? |access-date=May 8, 2011 |publisher=Mappingsupport |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511223418/http://www.mappingsupport.com/p/gmap4.php?q=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Fgmap4files%2Fp%2Fnews%2Fmississippi_course_change.txt&ll=30.417887%2C-91.201416&t=h&z=9&label=on |archive-date=May 11, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1798 |title=Dr. Jeff Masters' WunderBlog : Mississippi River sets all-time flood records; 2nd major spillway opens : Weather Underground |publisher=Wunderground.com |access-date=March 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108192306/http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1798 |archive-date=November 8, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Nola article with flood volume">{{cite news |author=Contributing Op-Ed columnist |url=http://www.nola.com/environment/index.ssf/2011/05/floods_are_a_reminder_of_the_m.html |title=Floods are a reminder of the Mississippi River's power: John Barry |newspaper=NOLA.com |access-date=May 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515061347/http://www.nola.com/environment/index.ssf/2011/05/floods_are_a_reminder_of_the_m.html |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>


Failure of the ], the ], or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's ] and down the ] to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of ] in southern ]. This route provides a more direct path to the ] than the present Mississippi River channel through ] and ].<ref name="InteractiveMap"/> While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the ].
On August 1, 2007, the ] in Minneapolis collapsed during the evening rush hour.


], looking downriver on the Mississippi, with the three dams across channels of the ] to the right of the Mississippi. ] is in the foreground, on the right, and ], is in the background, across the Mississippi on the left.]]
] was compared to the ] and the ].
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30% of the Mississippi flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would ] and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the ], but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of ].

Because the ] is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theadvertiser.com/article/20110512/NEWS01/105120319/Morganza-ready-flood?odyssey=tab%7Ctopnews%7Cimg%7CFRONTPAGE |title=Morganza ready for flood &#124; The Advertiser |publisher=theadvertiser.com |date=May 12, 2011 |access-date=May 16, 2011}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the floodwaters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location.<ref name="USACE">{{cite web |title=Morganza Floodway |url=http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/bcarre/morganza.asp |publisher=US Army Corps of Engineers |access-date=2011-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111181513/http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/bcarre/morganza.asp |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Letting the River Run: Using Nature to Decrease Mississippi River Flooding |url=https://www.nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine-articles/reduce-mississippi-river-flooding/ |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=The Nature Conservancy |language=en-US |archive-date=October 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010092117/https://www.nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine-articles/reduce-mississippi-river-flooding/ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1/4 of its capacity to allow {{convert|150,000|ft3/s|m3/s}} of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans.<ref name="usace-inundation"> (US Army Corps of Engineers)</ref> In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.<ref>{{cite news |author=Mark Schleifstein, The Times-Picayune |url=http://www.nola.com/weather/index.ssf/2011/05/army_corps_fears_massive_flood.html |title=Mississippi River flooding in New Orleans area could be massive if Morganza spillway stays closed |newspaper=NOLA.com |access-date=May 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514051400/http://www.nola.com/weather/index.ssf/2011/05/army_corps_fears_massive_flood.html |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty-year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere—when the structures can't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river's going to jump its banks and try to break through."<ref>{{cite web |last=McPhee |first=John |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1987/02/23/1987_02_23_039_TNY_CARDS_000347146?currentPage=all |title=McPhee, The Control of Nature: Atchafalaya |publisher=Newyorker.com |date=February 23, 1987 |access-date=May 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514052013/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1987/02/23/1987_02_23_039_TNY_CARDS_000347146?currentPage=all |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into ] near ]. This route is controlled by the ], built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about {{cvt|12-20|ft}} high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.johnweeks.com/river_mississippi/pages/lmiss25.html |title=Bonnet Carre Spillway, Norco, LA |publisher=Johnweeks.com |date=April 10, 2008 |access-date=May 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515092839/http://www.johnweeks.com/river_mississippi/pages/lmiss25.html |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Diversion of the Mississippi's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.


==Recreation== ==Recreation==
] in Wisconsin near ] (2005)]] ] in Wisconsin near ] (2005)]]
The sport of ] was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as ].<ref name="usaws">{{cite web|title=The Beginning|url= http://www.usawaterski.org/pages/USA-WS%20Profile.htm|year=2009|publisher=USA Water Ski.org|accessdate=July 30, 2009}}</ref> ] of ], created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at {{convert|80|mph|abbr=on}} by a Curtiss ] later that year.<ref name="usaws"/> The sport of ] was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as ].<ref name="usaws">{{cite web |title=The Beginning |url=http://www.usawaterski.org/pages/USA-WS%20Profile.htm |year=2009 |publisher=USA Water Ski.org |access-date=July 30, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927194235/http://www.usawaterski.org/pages/USA-WS%20Profile.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ] of ], created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at {{cvt|80|mph}} by a Curtiss ] later that year.<ref name="usaws"/>


There are seven ] sites along the Mississippi River. The ] is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south): There are seven ] sites along the Mississippi River. The ] is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
*] * ]
*] (AKA: The Arch) * ] (includes ])
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]


==Ecology==
==Cultural references==
{{Further|Mississippi River System#Ecology}}
{{unsourced|section|date=October 2013}}
] is an ancient ] from the Mississippi]]
===Literature===
*] uses the Mississippi River and Delta as the setting for many hunts throughout his novels. It has been proposed that in Faulkner's famous story, '']'', young Ike first begins his transformation into a man, thus relinquishing his birthright to land in ] through his realizations found within the woods surrounding the Mississippi River.
*Many of the works of Mark Twain deal with or take place near the Mississippi River. One of his first major works, ''],'' is in part a history of the river, in part a memoir of Twain's experiences on the river, and a collection of tales that either take place on or are associated with the river. The river was noted for the number of bandits which called its islands and shores home, including ] who was a well-known murderer, horse stealer and slave "re-trader". His notoriety was such that author Twain devoted an entire chapter to him in ''Life on the Mississippi'', and Murrell was rumored to have an island headquarters on the river at Island 37. Twain's most famous work, ''],'' is largely a journey down the river. The novel works as an episodic meditation on American culture with the river having multiple different meanings including independence, escape, freedom, and adventure.
*]'s novel '']'' portrayed a ]-style group of steamboat passengers whose interlocking stories are told as they travel down the Mississippi River. The novel is written both as cultural satire and a metaphysical treatise. Like ''Huckleberry Finn,'' it uses the Mississippi River as a metaphor for the larger aspects of American and human identity that unify the otherwise disparate characters. The river's fluidity is reflected by the often shifting personalities and identities of Melville's "confidence man".
* Much of ]'s 1926 novel '']'' takes place on the Mississippi River. The novel is the basis for the celebrated ] by ] and ].


The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic ] and has been called the "mother fauna" of North American freshwater.<ref name=Matthews1998>{{cite book |author=Matthews, W.J. |title=Patterns in Freshwater Fish Ecology |year=1998 |pages=5 and 236 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4615-4066-3}}</ref>
===Music===

]
===Fish===
*The song "]", made famous in the version performed by ] on the album '']'', was composed by ] McCoy in 1929 after the ]. Another song about the flood was "Louisiana 1927" by ] for the album ''Good Old Boys.''
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basins exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions,<ref name=Matthews1998/> except the ].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ye, S. |author2=Li, Z. |author3=Liu, J. |author4=Zhang, T. |author5=Xie, S. |chapter=Distribution, Endemism and Conservation Status of Fishes in the Yangtze River Basin, China |year=2011 |pages=41–66 |title=Ecosystems Biodiversity |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-953-307-417-7}}</ref> Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and ] highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous ]s, as well as ] such as ], ], ] and ].<ref name=Matthews1998/>
*] composed a set of movements for symphony orchestra entitled "]", based on the lands the river travels through.

*The stage and movie musical '']'''s central musical piece is the ]-influenced ballad "]". Its composer, ], also composed an orchestral piece entitled "Mark Twain Suite".
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fish of the Mississippi River |url=http://www.mvr.usace.army.mil/Portals/48/docs/Recreation/ODM/pdf/Fish%20of%20the%20Mississippi%20River.pdf |access-date=March 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224103239/http://www.mvr.usace.army.mil/Portals/48/docs/Recreation/ODM/pdf/Fish%20of%20the%20Mississippi%20River.pdf |archive-date=February 24, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fish Species of the Mississippi River |url=http://bestdamfishingfloat.com/fish-species-of-the-mississippi-river/ |access-date=March 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012121314/http://bestdamfishingfloat.com/fish-species-of-the-mississippi-river/ |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
*The musical '']'' is based on the travels of Huckleberry Finn down the river.

*The ] song "]" is about the Mississippi River, and about drifting the length of the river to pursue a relationship that fails. The places mentioned in the song are ], ], ], ], ] and ].
===Other fauna===
*"]" and "]" are two classics from ] that refer to the Mississippi River.
A large number of reptiles are native to the river channels and basin, including ]s, several species of turtle, aquatic amphibians,<ref>{{cite book |author1=Conant, R. |author2=J.T. Collins |title=Reptiles and Amphibians, Eastern and Central North America |year=1998 |series=Peterson Field Guides |edition=3 |isbn=0-395-90452-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0 |access-date=August 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025033222/https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetorept00cona_0 |archive-date=October 25, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and ] crayfish, are native to the Mississippi basin.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hobbs, H.H. Jr. |title=An Illustrated Checklist of the American Crayfishes (Decapoda, Astacidae, Cambaridae, Parastacidae) |year=1989 |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology |volume=480 |issue=480 |pages=1–236 |doi=10.5479/si.00810282.480}}</ref>
*In one of his books, ] claims that jazz got its name from a black itinerant musician called ]. Around the turn of the 19th century the semi-legendary Brown is said to have played on boats along the Mississippi River, as suggested in "Jazzbo Brown from Memphis Town", performed by ].

*The late ] and ] collaborated on the song '']''.
In addition, approximately 40% of the ] in the US use the Mississippi River corridor during the Spring and Fall migrations; 60% of all migratory birds in ] (326 species) use the river basin as their flyway.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blvd |first1=Mailing Address: 111 E. Kellogg |last2=Paul |first2=Suite 105 Saint |last3=Us |first3=MN 55101 Phone: 651 293-0200 This is the general phone line at the Mississippi River Visitor Center Contact |title=Mississippi River Facts - Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |access-date=2022-07-04 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117213831/https://www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Introduced species===
Numerous ] are found in the Mississippi and some of these are ]. Among the introductions are fish such as ], including the ] that have become infamous for out-competing native fish and their potentially dangerous ]. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes.<ref>{{cite news |author=Matheny, K. |date=December 23, 2016 |title=Invasive Asian carp less than 50 miles from Lake Michigan |url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2016/12/22/asian-carp-great-lakes-michigan/93970746/ |newspaper=Detroit Free Press |access-date=June 13, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625090825/http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2016/12/22/asian-carp-great-lakes-michigan/93970746/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species ]s and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Designation of Infested Waters |publisher=] |url=http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/ais/infested.html |access-date=May 31, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140601003658/http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/ais/infested.html |archive-date=June 1, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
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* ] * ]
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* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
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* ] * ]
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* '']'' * '']''
* ]
{{div col end}} {{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Notes
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist|group=US Army Corps of Engineers}} {{Reflist|group=US Army Corps of Engineers}}


==Further reading==
;Bibliography
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|first=John O.|last=Anfinson|coauthors=Thomas Madigan, Drew M. Forsberg, and Patrick Nunnally|year=2003|title=The River of History: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area|location=St. Paul, MN|publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District|oclc=53911450}}
* {{Cite book | last=Bartlett | first=Richard A.| title=Rolling rivers: an encyclopedia of America's rivers | year=1984 | publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=0-07-003910-0|oclc=10807295}} * {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Michael |title=Mississippi River Valley: The Course of American Civilization |publisher=] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-958291-00-9 |location=Ames, IA |language= |doi=10.31274/isudp.2023.135 |s2cid=259469983}}
* Ambrose, Stephen. ''The Mississippi and the Making of a Nation: From the Louisiana Purchase to Today'' (National Geographical Society, 2002) heavily illustrated
* Morris, Christopher.. ''The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples From Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina'' (Oxford University Press; 2012) 300 pages; links drought, disease, and flooding to the impact of centuries of increasingly intense human manipulation of the river.
* {{cite web |first=John O. |last=Anfinson |author2=Thomas Madigan |author3=Drew M. Forsberg |author4=Patrick Nunnally |year=2003 |title=The River of History: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area |location=St. Paul, MN |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District |url=https://www.nps.gov/miss/learn/historyculture/upload/hrs-full-comp.pdf |access-date=January 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222110135/https://www.nps.gov/miss/learn/historyculture/upload/hrs-full-comp.pdf |archive-date=February 22, 2017 |oclc=53911450 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Penn | first=James R.| title=Rivers of the world: a social, geographical, and environmental sourcebook|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO| location=Santa Barbara, Calif.| isbn=1-57607-042-5|oclc=260075679}}
* Anfinson, John Ogden. ''Commerce and conservation on the Upper Mississippi River'' (US Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul District, 1994)
* {{Cite book | last=Smith | first=Thomas Ruys|title=River of dreams: imagining the Mississippi before Mark Twain | year=2007 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press | location=Baton Rouge|isbn=978-0-8071-3233-3|oclc=182615621}}
* {{cite book|first=Quinta|last=Scott|title=The Mississippi: A Visual Biography|year=2010|publisher=University of Missouri Press|location=Columbia, Missouri|isbn=978-0-8262-1840-7|oclc=277196207}} * {{Cite book |last=Bartlett |first=Richard A. |title=Rolling rivers: an encyclopedia of America's rivers |year=1984 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=0-07-003910-0 |oclc=10807295 |url=https://archive.org/details/rollingriversenc00bart }}
* Botkin, Benjamin Albert. ''A Treasury of Mississippi River folklore: stories, ballads & traditions of the mid-American river country'' (1984).
* {{cite book|first=Michael|last=Pasquier|title=Gods of the Mississippi|year=2013|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-2530-0806-0}}
* Carlander, Harriet Bell. ''A history of fish and fishing in the upper Mississippi River'' (PhD Diss. Iowa State College, 1954) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430134438/http://www.nativefishlab.net/library/textpdf/17391.pdf |date=April 30, 2015 }} (PDF)
* Daniel, Pete. ''Deep'n as it come: The 1927 Mississippi River flood'' (University of Arkansas Press, 1977)
* Fremling, Calvin R. ''Immortal river: the Upper Mississippi in ancient and modern times'' (U. of Wisconsin Press, 2005), popular history
* Knox, James C. The Mississippi River System. In Avijit Gupta, ed., Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. 2nd Ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 205-252. ISBN 9781119412601
* Milner, George R. "The late prehistoric Cahokia cultural system of the Mississippi River valley: Foundations, florescence, and fragmentation." ''Journal of World Prehistory'' (1990) 4#1 pp: 1–43.
* Morris, Christopher. ''The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples From Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina'' (Oxford University Press; 2012) 300 pages; links drought, disease, and flooding to the impact of centuries of increasingly intense human manipulation of the river.
* {{Cite book |last=Penn |first=James R. |title=Rivers of the world: a social, geographical, and environmental sourcebook |year=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=1-57607-042-5 |oclc=260075679 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/riversofworldsoc00penn }}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Thomas Ruys |title=River of dreams: imagining the Mississippi before Mark Twain |year=2007 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |location=Baton Rouge |isbn=978-0-8071-3233-3 |oclc=182615621 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/riverofdreamsima0000smit }}
* {{cite book |first=Quinta |last=Scott |title=The Mississippi: A Visual Biography |year=2010 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia, MO |isbn=978-0-8262-1840-7 |oclc=277196207}}
* {{cite book |first=Michael |last=Pasquier |title=Gods of the Mississippi |year=2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0-253-00806-0}}
{{refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{commons}} {{commons}}
{{wikisource|links=]}} {{wikivoyage|Mississippi River}}
{{EB1911 poster|Mississippi River}}
*, project of the ]
* – project of the ]
*
* (PDF). {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818030107/http://www.apfm.info/publications/casestudies/cs_usa_mississippi_full.pdf |date=August 18, 2018 }}.
**
** * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314162338/https://fmr.org/ |date=March 14, 2022 }}
** – annual canoe & kayak event on the Twin Cities stretch
* from the ]
** from the ] **

*, from the digital library of Northern Illinois University
*
* – PDF files of publications about and maps of the geology of the Mississippi River Valley and its tributaries.
*
* article on 1930-40s project to improve barge navigation between Helena and Natchez
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.fdr.352.2a.2|name="The River (1938)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=RiverThe1937_2|name="The River (Part II) (1937)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.12767|name="The Valley of the Giant: Mississippi River story"}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|1756854}}
*
{{AHR}} {{AHR}}
{{United States topics}} {{United States topics}}

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Revision as of 03:39, 10 January 2025

Major river in the United States

"Mississippi Valley" and "The Mississippi" redirect here. For other uses, see Mississippi Valley (disambiguation), Mississippi (disambiguation), and Mississippi River (disambiguation).

Mississippi River
The Mississippi River in Iowa
Mississippi River basin
EtymologyOjibwe Misi-ziibi, meaning "Great River"
Nickname(s)"Old Man River," "Father of Waters"
Location
CountryUnited States
StateMinnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana
CitiesSaint Cloud, MN, Minneapolis, MN, St. Paul, MN, La Crosse, WI, Quad Cities, IA/IL, St. Louis, MO, Memphis, TN, Greenville, MS, Vicksburg, MS, Baton Rouge, LA, New Orleans, LA
Physical characteristics
SourceLake Itasca (traditional)
 • locationItasca State Park, Clearwater County, MN
 • coordinates47°14′23″N 95°12′27″W / 47.23972°N 95.20750°W / 47.23972; -95.20750
 • elevation1,475 ft (450 m)
MouthGulf of Mexico
 • locationPilottown, Plaquemines Parish, LA
 • coordinates29°09′04″N 89°15′12″W / 29.15111°N 89.25333°W / 29.15111; -89.25333
 • elevation0 ft (0 m)
Length2,340 mi (3,770 km)
Basin size1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km)
Discharge 
 • locationNone (Summative representation of catchment: View source); max and min at Baton Rouge, LA
 • average593,000 cu ft/s (16,800 m/s)
 • minimum159,000 cu ft/s (4,500 m/s)
 • maximum3,065,000 cu ft/s (86,800 m/s)
Discharge 
 • locationVicksburg
 • average768,075 cu ft/s (21,749.5 m/s) (2009–2020 water years)
 • minimum144,000 cu ft/s (4,100 m/s)
 • maximum2,340,000 cu ft/s (66,000 m/s)
Discharge 
 • locationSt. Louis
 • average168,000 cu ft/s (4,800 m/s)
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftSt. Croix River, Wisconsin River, Rock River, Illinois River, Kaskaskia River, Ohio River, Yazoo River, Big Black River
 • rightMinnesota River, Iowa River, Des Moines River, Missouri River, St. Francis River, White River, Arkansas River, Red River

The Mississippi River is the primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for 2,340 miles (3,766 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is 1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km), of which only about one percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the world's tenth-largest river by discharge flow, and the largest in North America.

Native Americans have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years. Many were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations, and some practiced aquaculture. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and throughout as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several tributaries, most notably its largest, the Ohio and Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. The river also became the subject of American literature, particularly in the writings of Mark Twain.

Formed from thick layers of the river's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment, and American Bottom are some of the most fertile regions of the United States; steamboats were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi's final capture by Union forces marked a turning point to victory for the Union. Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination. A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the Atchafalaya River and bypassing New Orleans.

Since the 20th century, the Mississippi River has also experienced major pollution and environmental problems — most notably elevated nutrient and chemical levels from agricultural runoff, the primary contributor to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone.

Name and significance

The word Mississippi itself comes from Misi zipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River).

In the 18th century, the river was set by the Treaty of Paris as, for the most part, the western border of the new United States. With the Louisiana Purchase and the country's westward expansion, it became a convenient boundary line between the western and eastern halves of the country. This is reflected in the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, which was designed to symbolize the opening of the West, and the focus on the "Trans-Mississippi" region in the Trans-Mississippi Exposition.

Regional landmarks are often classified in relation to the river, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi" or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi". The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast call-signs, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, overlapping in media markets along the river.

Due to its size and importance, it has been nicknamed The Mighty Mississippi River or simply The Mighty Mississippi.

Divisions

The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.

Upper Mississippi

Main article: Upper Mississippi River
The source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itasca
A log bridge over a very small river on an autumnal, cloudy day with flurries of snow
The first bridge (and only log bridge) over the Mississippi, about 25 feet south of its source at Lake Itasca
St. Anthony Falls
De facto head of navigation, St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers, viewed from Wyalusing State Park in Wisconsin

The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:

  1. The headwaters, 493 miles (793 km) from the source to Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota; and
  2. A navigable channel, formed by a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some 664 miles (1,069 km).
Barge on Upper Mississippi North of Lock and Dam No. 8

The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name Itasca was chosen to designate the "true head" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.

From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.

The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the St. Anthony Falls Lock. Before the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota, was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.

The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49-foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.

After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.

The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.

By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.

The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.

The Upper Mississippi River at its confluence with the Missouri River north of St. Louis

The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).

The confluence of the Mississippi (left) and Ohio (right) rivers at Cairo, Illinois, the demarcation between the Middle and the Lower Mississippi River

Middle Mississippi

The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.

The Middle Mississippi is relatively free-flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm/km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.

Lower Mississippi

Main article: Lower Mississippi River
Lower Mississippi River at Algiers Point in New Orleans

The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic meters per second), while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft/s (5,900 m/s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.

In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the combined flow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River was once an additional tributary, its water now flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.

Watershed

Map of the Mississippi River watershed
An animation of the flows along the rivers of the Mississippi watershed
See also: List of drainage basins by area

The Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest drainage basin ("watershed" or "catchment"). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).

Sequence of NASA MODIS images showing the outflow of fresh water from the Mississippi (arrows) into the Gulf of Mexico (2004)

In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.

The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey's number is 2,340 miles (3,766 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days; while speed varies along the course of the river, this gives an overall average of around 26 mi (42 km) per day, or 1 mi (1.6 km) per hour.

The stream gradient of the entire river is 0.01%, a drop of 450 m over 3,766 km.

Outflow

The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (6,000 and 20,000 m/s). The Mississippi is the fourteenth largest river in the world by volume. On average, the Mississippi has 8% the flow of the Amazon River, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m/s) during wet seasons.

Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 440 million short tons (400 million metric tons) of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 160 million short tons (145 million metric tons) per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.

Mixing with salt water

Denser salt water from the Gulf of Mexico forms a salt wedge along the river bottom near the mouth of the river, while fresh water flows near the surface. In drought years, with less fresh water to push it out, salt water can travel many miles upstream—64 miles (103 km) in 2022—contaminating drinking water supplies and requiring the use of desalination. The United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed "saltwater sills" or "underwater levees" to contain this in 1988, 1999, 2012, and 2022. This consists of a large mound of sand spanning the width of the river 55 feet below the surface, allowing fresh water and large cargo ships to pass over.

Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA's MODIS show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.

Course changes

Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.

As Pangaea began to break up about 95 million years ago, North America passed over a volcanic "hotspot" in the Earth's mantle (specifically, the Bermuda hotspot) that was undergoing a period of intense activity. The upwelling of magma from the hotspot forced the further uplift to a height of perhaps 2–3 km of part of the Appalachian-Ouachita range, forming an arch that blocked southbound water flows. The uplifted land quickly eroded and, as North America moved away from the hot spot and as the hotspot's activity declined, the crust beneath the embayment region cooled, contracted and subsided to a depth of 2.6 km, and around 80 million years ago the Reelfoot Rift formed a trough that was flooded by the Gulf of Mexico. As sea levels dropped, the Mississippi and other rivers extended their courses into the embayment, which gradually became filled with sediment with the Mississippi River at its center.

Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.

Prehistoric courses

The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary" rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "over-sized" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.

Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage, about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.

View along the former riverbed at the Tennessee/Arkansas state line near Reverie, Tennessee (2007)

Timeline of outflow course changes

  • c. 5000 BC: The last ice age ended; world sea level became what it is now.
  • c. 2500 BC: Bayou Teche became the main course of the Mississippi.
  • c. 800 BC: The Mississippi diverted further east.
  • c. 200 AD: Bayou Lafourche became the main course of the Mississippi.
  • c. 1000 AD: The Mississippi's present course took over.
  • Before c. 1400 AD: The Red River of the South flowed parallel to the lower Mississippi to the sea
  • 15th century: Turnbull's Bend in the lower Mississippi extended so far west that it captured the Red River of the South. The Red River below the captured section became the Atchafalaya River.
  • 1831: Captain Henry M. Shreve dug a new short course for the Mississippi through the neck of Turnbull's Bend.
  • 1833 to November 1873: The Great Raft (a huge logjam in the Atchafalaya River) was cleared. The Atchafalaya started to capture the Mississippi and to become its new main lower course.
  • 1963: The Old River Control Structure was completed, controlling how much Mississippi water entered the Atchafalaya.

Historic course changes

Visual guide to Mississippi River nomenclature

In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.

The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles (16 km) of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acres (930 ha) island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.

New Madrid Seismic Zone

The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the Midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.

Length

When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of 2,340 miles (3,766 km). When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower's Spring in Montana, the source of the Missouri River, it has a length of 3,710 miles (5,971 km), making it the fourth longest river in the world after the Nile, Amazon, and Yangtze. When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the Ohio River, by extension the Allegheny River, would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in Pennsylvania.

Depth

At its source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi River is about 3 feet (0.91 m) deep. The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between 9 and 12 feet (2.7–3.7 m) deep, the deepest part being Lake Pepin, which averages 20–32 feet (6–10 m) deep and has a maximum depth of 60 feet (18 m). Between where the Missouri River joins the Mississippi at Saint Louis, Missouri, and Cairo, Illinois, the depth averages 30 feet (9 m). Below Cairo, where the Ohio River joins, the depth averages 50–100 feet (15–30 m) deep. The deepest part of the river is in New Orleans, where it reaches 200 feet (61 m) deep.

Cultural geography

State boundaries

The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.

In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee but isolated from the rest of its state.

Lake Pepin, the widest naturally occurring part of the Mississippi, is part of the Minnesota–Wisconsin border. The Mississippi River in downtown Baton Rouge

Major communities along the river

Metro Area Population
Minneapolis–Saint Paul 3,946,533
St. Louis 2,916,447
Memphis 1,316,100
New Orleans 1,214,932
Baton Rouge 802,484
Quad Cities, IA-IL 387,630
St. Cloud, MN 189,148
La Crosse, WI 133,365
Cape Girardeau–Jackson MO-IL 96,275
Dubuque, IA 93,653
In Minnesota, the Mississippi River runs through the Twin Cities (2007)

All communities along the river

Notable communities listed from the source at Lake Itasca to the mouth the Mississippi Delta.

Name Designation
Bemidji, Minnesota Incorporated
Cass Lake, Minnesota Incorporated
Ball Club, Minnesota CDP
Cohasset, Minnesota Incorporated
Grand Rapids, Minnesota Incorporated
La Prairie, Minnesota Incorporated
Coleraine, Minnesota Incorporated
Jacobson, Minnesota Non-designated
Palisade, Minnesota Incorporated
Aitkin, Minnesota Incorporated
Brainerd, Minnesota Incorporated
Baxter, Minnesota Incorporated
Fort Ripley, Minnesota Incorporated
Little Falls, Minnesota Incorporated
Rice, Minnesota Incorporated
Sartell, Minnesota Incorporated
Sauk Rapids, Minnesota Incorporated
St. Cloud, Minnesota Incorporated
Clearwater, Minnesota Incorporated
Becker, Minnesota Incorporated
Monticello, Minnesota Incorporated
Big Lake, Minnesota Incorporated
Otsego, Minnesota Incorporated
Elk River, Minnesota Incorporated
Dayton, Minnesota Incorporated
Ramsey, Minnesota Incorporated
Anoka, Minnesota Incorporated
Champlin, Minnesota Incorporated
Coon Rapids, Minnesota Incorporated
Brooklyn Park, Minnesota Incorporated
Fridley, Minnesota Incorporated
Brooklyn Center, Minnesota Incorporated
Minneapolis, Minnesota Incorporated
Saint Paul, Minnesota Incorporated
Mendota, Minnesota Incorporated
Lilydale, Minnesota Incorporated
South St. Paul, Minnesota Incorporated
Newport, Minnesota Incorporated
St. Paul Park, Minnesota Incorporated
Inver Grove Heights, Minnesota Incorporated
Rosemount, Minnesota Incorporated
Cottage Grove, Minnesota Incorporated
Hastings, Minnesota Incorporated
Prescott, Wisconsin Incorporated
Prairie Island, Minnesota Non-designated
Red Wing, Minnesota Incorporated
Diamond Bluff, Wisconsin CDP
Hager City, Wisconsin CDP
Bay City, Wisconsin Incorporated
Maiden Rock, Wisconsin Incorporated
Stockholm, Wisconsin Incorporated
Lake City, Minnesota Incorporated
Maple Springs, Minnesota Non-designated
Camp Lacupolis, Minnesota Non-designated
Pepin, Wisconsin Incorporated
Reads Landing, Minnesota Non-designated
Wabasha, Minnesota Incorporated
Nelson, Wisconsin Incorporated
Alma, Wisconsin Incorporated
Buffalo City, Wisconsin Incorporated
Weaver, Minnesota Non-designated
Minneiska, Minnesota Incorporated
Fountain City, Wisconsin Incorporated
Minnesota City, Minnesota Incorporated
Goodview, Minnesota Incorporated
Winona, Minnesota Incorporated
Homer, Minnesota CDP
Trempealeau, Wisconsin Incorporated
Brice Prairie, Wisconsin CDP
Dakota, Minnesota Incorporated
Dresbach, Minnesota CDP
French Island, Wisconsin CDP
La Crescent, Minnesota Incorporated
La Crosse, Wisconsin Incorporated
Brownsville, Minnesota Incorporated
Stoddard, Wisconsin Incorporated
Genoa, Wisconsin Incorporated
Victory, Wisconsin Non-designated
De Soto, Wisconsin Incorporated
Lansing, Iowa Incorporated
Ferryville, Wisconsin Incorporated
Lynxville, Wisconsin Incorporated
Harpers Ferry, Iowa Incorporated
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin Incorporated
Marquette, Iowa Incorporated
McGregor, Iowa Incorporated
Wyalusing, Wisconsin Non-designated
Clayton, Iowa Incorporated
Bagley, Wisconsin Incorporated
Glen Haven, Wisconsin CDP
Guttenberg, Iowa Incorporated
Cassville, Wisconsin Incorporated
North Buena Vista, Iowa Incorporated
Dubuque, Iowa Incorporated
East Dubuque, Illinois Incorporated
Bellevue, Iowa Incorporated
Savanna, Illinois Incorporated
Sabula, Iowa Incorporated
Thomson, Illinois Incorporated
Clinton, Iowa Incorporated
Fulton, Illinois Incorporated
Albany, Illinois Incorporated
Camanche, Iowa Incorporated
Cordova, Illinois Incorporated
Princeton, Iowa Incorporated
Port Byron, Illinois Incorporated
LeClaire, Iowa Incorporated
Rapids City, Illinois Incorporated
Hampton, Illinois Incorporated
Bettendorf, Iowa Incorporated
Campbell's Island, Illinois CDP
East Moline, Illinois Incorporated
Riverdale, Iowa Incorporated
Moline, Illinois Incorporated
Rock Island Arsenal, Illinois CDP
Davenport, Iowa Incorporated
Rock Island, Illinois Incorporated
Buffalo, Iowa Incorporated
Andalusia, Illinois Incorporated
Montpelier, Iowa CDP
Fairport, Iowa CDP
Muscatine, Iowa Incorporated
New Boston, Illinois Incorporated
Keithsburg, Illinois Incorporated
Oquawka, Illinois Incorporated
Burlington, Iowa Incorporated
Gulfport, Illinois Incorporated
Dallas City, Illinois Incorporated
Pontoosuc, Illinois Incorporated
Fort Madison, Iowa Incorporated
Niota, Illinois CDP
Nauvoo, Illinois Incorporated
Montrose, Iowa Incorporated
Sandusky, Iowa CDP
Keokuk, Iowa Incorporated
Hamilton, Illinois Incorporated
Warsaw, Illinois Incorporated
Alexandria, Missouri Incorporated
Meyer, Illinois CDP
Canton, Missouri Incorporated
La Grange, Missouri Incorporated
Quincy, Illinois Incorporated
Hannibal, Missouri Incorporated
Saverton, Missouri CDP
Louisiana, Missouri Incorporated
Clarksville, Missouri Incorporated
Hamburg, Illinois Incorporated
Grafton, Illinois Incorporated
Elsah, Illinois Incorporated
Portage Des Sioux, Missouri Incorporated
West Alton, Missouri Incorporated
Godfrey, Illinois Incorporated
Alton, Illinois Incorporated
East Alton, Illinois Incorporated
Wood River, Illinois Incorporated
Hartford, Illinois Incorporated
St. Louis, Missouri Incorporated
Madison, Illinois Incorporated
Venice, Illinois Incorporated
Brooklyn, Illinois Incorporated
Fairmont City, Illinois Incorporated
East St. Louis, Illinois Incorporated
Sauget, Illinois Incorporated
Cahokia Heights, Illinois Incorporated
East Carondelet, Illinois Incorporated
Lemay, Missouri Incorporated
Mehlville, Missouri CDP
Oakville, Missouri CDP
Arnold, Missouri Incorporated
Imperial, Missouri CDP
Barnhart, Missouri CDP
Pevely, Missouri Incorporated
Herculaneum, Missouri Incorporated
Crystal City, Missouri Incorporated
Ste. Genevieve, Missouri Incorporated
Chester, Illinois Incorporated
Grand Tower, Illinois Incorporated
Cape Girardeau, Missouri Incorporated
Thebes, Illinois Incorporated
Commerce, Missouri Incorporated
Cairo, Illinois Incorporated
Wyatt, Missouri Incorporated
Wickliffe, Kentucky Incorporated
Hickman, Kentucky Incorporated
Tiptonville, Tennessee Incorporated
New Madrid, Missouri Incorporated
Caruthersville, Missouri Incorporated
Luxora, Arkansas Incorporated
Osceola, Arkansas Incorporated
Randolph, Tennessee CDP
Memphis, Tennessee Incorporated
West Memphis, Arkansas Incorporated
Tunica Resorts, Mississippi Incorporated
Helena-West Helena, Arkansas CDP
Napoleon, Arkansas Demolished
Friars Point, Mississippi Incorporated
Rosedale, Mississippi Incorporated
Greenville, Mississippi Incorporated
Delta, Louisiana Incorporated
Vicksburg, Mississippi Incorporated
Natchez, Mississippi Incorporated
Vidalia, Louisiana Incorporated
Morganza, Louisiana Incorporated
Baton Rouge, Louisiana Incorporated
Port Allen, Louisiana Incorporated
Brusly, Louisiana Incorporated
Addis, Louisiana Incorporated
St. Gabriel, Louisiana Incorporated
Plaquemine, Louisiana Incorporated
Bayou Goula, Louisiana CDP
White Castle, Louisiana Incorporated
Donaldsonville, Louisiana Incorporated
Lemannville, Louisiana CDP
Union, Louisiana CDP
Welcome, Louisiana CDP
Romeville, Louisiana CDP
St. James, Louisiana CDP
Convent, Louisiana CDP
Moonshine, Louisiana CDP
Hester, Louisiana CDP
Grand Point, Louisiana CDP
Paulina, Louisiana CDP
North Vacherie, Louisiana CDP
Lutcher, Louisiana Incorporated
Wallace, Louisiana CDP
Gramercy, Louisiana CDP
Garyville, Louisiana CDP
Edgard, Louisiana CDP
Reserve, Louisiana CDP
LaPlace, Louisiana CDP
Montz, Louisiana CDP
Killona, Louisiana CDP
Taft, Louisiana CDP
Hahnville, Louisiana CDP
Norco, Louisiana CDP
New Sarpy, Louisiana CDP
Destrehan, Louisiana CDP
Luling, Louisiana CDP
St. Rose, Louisiana CDP
Ama, Louisiana CDP
Kenner, Louisiana CDP
Waggaman, Louisiana CDP
River Ridge, Louisiana CDP
Harahan, Louisiana Incorporated
Avondale, Louisiana CDP
Elmwood, Louisiana CDP
Bridge City, Louisiana CDP
Jefferson, Louisiana CDP
New Orleans, Louisiana Incorporated
Westwego, Louisiana Incorporated
Marrero, Louisiana CDP
Harvey, Louisiana CDP
Gretna, Louisiana Incorporated
Arabi, Louisiana CDP
Chalmette, Louisiana CDP
Meraux, Louisiana CDP
Violet, Louisiana CDP
Poydras, Louisiana CDP
Belle Chasse, Louisiana CDP
Pointe à la Hache, Louisiana CDP
Port Sulphur, Louisiana CDP
Empire, Louisiana CDP
Buras, Louisiana CDP
Triumph, Louisiana CDP
Boothville, Louisiana CDP
Venice, Louisiana CDP
Pilottown, Louisiana Non-designated
Community of boathouses on the Mississippi River in Winona, MN (2006)
The Mississippi River at the Chain of Rocks just north of St. Louis (2005)
A low-water dam deepens the pool above the Chain of Rocks Lock near St. Louis (2006)

Bridge crossings

See also: List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River and List of crossings of the Lower Mississippi River
The Stone Arch Bridge, the Third Avenue Bridge and the Hennepin Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis (2004)

The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek") flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.

The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.

The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.

Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges that have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.

The Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge (2004)
The Chain of Rocks Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri
The Hernando de Soto Bridge in Memphis, Tennessee (2009)
Vicksburg Bridge

Navigation and flood control

The Mississippi River frozen over near Potosi, Wisconsin
Mississippi River levels at Memphis, Tennessee   Major flood stage   Moderate flood stage   Flood stage   Action stage   River levels   Minimum operating limit (-12 feet)
Downbound barge rates
In late 2022 there was low river levels that caused two backups on the Lower Mississippi River that held up over 100 tow boats with 2,000 barge units and caused barge rates to soar
Main article: List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River
Towboat and barges at Memphis, Tennessee
Ships on the lower part of the Mississippi

A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.

Oil tanker on the Lower Mississippi near the Port of New Orleans
Barge on the Lower Mississippi River

The upper backwaters of the Mississippi normally freeze over by December, while the main channel freezes over only in the coldest years, historically as far south as St. Louis.

A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams. The scope and scale of the levees, built along either side of the river to keep it on its course, has often been compared to the Great Wall of China.

On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150-foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.

19th century

Lock and Dam No. 11, north of Dubuque, Iowa (2007)

In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.

In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.

The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5-foot-deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5-foot-deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams that direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.

To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.

Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota (2007)
Lock and Dam No. 15, is the largest roller dam in the world Davenport, Iowa; Rock Island, Illinois. (1990)

20th century

In 1907, Congress authorized a 6-foot-deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel project.

In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.

Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.

The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9-foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.

Formation of the Atchafalaya River and construction of the Old River Control Structure.
Project design flood flow capacity for the Mississippi river in thousands of cubic feet per second.

Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low-water dam and an 8.4-mile-long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.

U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually, the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.

Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.

Soldiers of the Missouri Army National Guard sandbag the River in Clarksville, Missouri, June 2008, following flooding.

21st century

The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.

Some of the pre-1927 strategy remains in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.

History

Approximately 50,000 years ago, the Central United States was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large floodplains and extending the continent further to the south in the process. The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.

Native Americans

See also: Woodland period, Hopewell tradition, Mississippian culture, and Winona (legend)

The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BC. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BC during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices.

A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers.

The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 AD and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.

Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.

The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo-ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag-ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi-ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi-ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi-ziibi was named "Mississippi River". The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi-ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi-ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.

The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint-Louis.

European exploration

Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto A.D. 1541 by William Henry Powell depicts Hernando de Soto and Spanish Conquistadores seeing the Mississippi River for the first time.
Map of the French settlements (blue) in North America in 1750, before the French and Indian War (1754 to 1763).
c. 1681 map of Marquette and Jolliet's 1673 expedition.
Route of the Marquette-Jolliete Expedition of 1673

In 1519 Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, followed by Hernando de Soto who reached the river on May 8, 1541, and called it Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.

French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river" in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.

When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league" (less than 2 miles or 3 kilometers) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.

In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.

In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.

In 1727, Étienne Perier begins work, using enslaved African laborers, on the first levees on the Mississippi River.

Colonization

See also: Flood of 1851
A Home on the Mississippi (1871)

Following Britain's victory in the Seven Years War, the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.

Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States". With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795. However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. This triggered a dispute between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida Spain had ceded to France in the first place, which would decide which parts of West Florida the U.S. had bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase, versus which were unceded Spanish property. Due to ongoing U.S. colonization creating facts on the ground, and U.S. military actions, Spain ceded both West and East Florida in their entirety to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.

The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of the War of 1812, when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans just 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.

In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.

So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guidebook called The Navigator, detailing the features, dangers, and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over 25 years.

Shifting sand bars made early navigation difficult.

The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.

Steamboat era

Main article: Steamboats of the Mississippi

Mark Twain's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce, which took place from 1830 to 1870, before more modern ships replaced the steamer. Harper's Weekly first published the book as a seven-part serial in 1875. James R. Osgood & Company published the full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, in 1885.

The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s, only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats, which suggests it was not very profitable.

Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight, until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.

Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steamboat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourist trade.

Civil War

Main article: Mississippi River in the American Civil War
Battle of Vicksburg (ca. 1888)
Mississippi River from Eunice, Arkansas, a settlement destroyed by gunboats during the Civil War.

Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War, forming a part of the U.S. Anaconda Plan. In 1862, Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. One of the last major Confederate strongholds was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi; the Union's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862–July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ended the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, and was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War.

20th and 21st centuries

See also: List of Mississippi River floods

The "Big Freeze" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.

In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).

In 1930, Fred Newton was the first person to swim the length of the river, from Minneapolis to New Orleans. The journey took 176 days and covered 1,836 miles.

In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000 m) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.

On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.

In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden-hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.

The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.

Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin. The Nature Conservancy's project called "America's Rivershed Initiative" announced a 'report card' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.

Campsite at the river in Arkansas

In 2002, Slovenian long-distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.

Future

Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes—through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.

Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The Old River Control Structure complex. View is to the east-southeast, looking downriver on the Mississippi, with the three dams across channels of the Atchafalaya River to the right of the Mississippi. Concordia Parish, Louisiana is in the foreground, on the right, and Wilkinson County, Mississippi, is in the background, across the Mississippi on the left.

The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30% of the Mississippi flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.

Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the floodwaters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1/4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 cubic feet per second (4,200 m/s) of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.

Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty-year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere—when the structures can't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river's going to jump its banks and try to break through."

Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 12–20 ft (3.7–6.1 m) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.

Recreation

Great River Road in Wisconsin near Lake Pepin (2005)

The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km/h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.

There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):

Ecology

Further information: Mississippi River System § Ecology
The American paddlefish is an ancient relict from the Mississippi

The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna" of North American freshwater.

Fish

About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basins exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.

Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum, and shovelnose sturgeon.

Other fauna

A large number of reptiles are native to the river channels and basin, including American alligators, several species of turtle, aquatic amphibians, and cambaridae crayfish, are native to the Mississippi basin.

In addition, approximately 40% of the migratory birds in the US use the Mississippi River corridor during the Spring and Fall migrations; 60% of all migratory birds in North America (326 species) use the river basin as their flyway.

Introduced species

Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for out-competing native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.

See also

Notes

  1. The United States Geological Survey recognizes two contrasting definitions of a river's source. By the stricter definition, the Mississippi would share its source with its longest tributary, the Missouri, at Brower's Spring in Montana. The other definition acknowledges "somewhat arbitrary decisions" and places the Mississippi's source at Lake Itasca, which is publicly accepted as the source, and which had been identified as such by Brower himself. However, the river continues for several miles upstream from Lake Itasca to Nicolet Lake and its feeder stream.
  2. Ojibwe: Misi-ziibi, Dakota: Mníšošethąka, Myaamia: Mihsi-siipiiwi, Cheyenne: Ma'xeé'ometāā'e, Kiowa: Xósáu, Arapaho: Beesniicie, Pawnee: Kickaátit
  3. Arguably, the Mississippi basin is the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system, although Hudson Bay may rather be considered an arm of the ocean.

References

  1. James L. Shaffer and John T. Tigges. The Mississippi River: Father of Waters. Chicago, Ill.: Arcadia Pub., 2000.
  2. The Upper Mississippi River Basin: A Portrait of the Father of Waters As Seen by the Upper Mississippi River Comprehensive Basin Study. Chicago, Ill.: Army Corps of Engineers, North Central Division, 1972.
  3. Heilbron, Bertha L. "Father of Waters: Four Centuries of the Mississippi". American Heritage, vol. 2, no. 1 (Autumn 1950): 40–43.
  4. ^ Kammerer, J.C. (May 1990). "Largest Rivers in the United States". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on June 30, 2017. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
  5. "USGS 07289000 Mississippi River at Vicksburg, MS". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on October 5, 2021. Retrieved October 6, 2021.
  6. ^ Median of the 14,610 daily streamflows recorded by the USGS for the period 1967–2006.
  7. "The True Utmost Reaches of the Missouri". MT.gov. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved February 19, 2024.
  8. Hirschfelder, Arlene B. (2012). The Extraordinary Book of Native American Lists. Paulette Fairbanks Molin. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-8108-7710-8. OCLC 794706782.
  9. "AISRI Dictionary Database Search". Archived from the original on May 10, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  10. "Myaamia Dictionary Search". Archived from the original on August 28, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
  11. "English – Cheyenne". Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
  12. "English – Kiowa". Archived from the original on July 13, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
  13. "XML File of Arapaho Place Names". Archived from the original on September 19, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  14. "Southband Pawnee Dictionary". Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved May 26, 2012.
  15. United States Geological Survey Hydrological Unit Code: 08-09-01-00- Lower Mississippi-New Orleans Watershed
  16. ^ "Lengths of the major rivers". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on March 5, 2009. Retrieved March 14, 2009.
  17. "Mississippi River Facts – Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on November 17, 2018. Retrieved November 16, 2018.
  18. "United States Geography: Rivers". www.ducksters.com. Archived from the original on April 28, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
  19. "The 10 States That Border the Mississippi". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on September 7, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
  20. "Mississippi (river US) facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Mississippi (river US)". www.encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
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