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{{History of Chile}} {{History of Chile}}
The territory of present-day ] has been populated since at least 12,000 BC. In the 16th century ] ]s began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile, and the territory became a colony from 1540 to 1818, when it gained independence from Spain. Chile's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then ] and later ] until the 1970s. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. Failure to address the economic social disparities and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population led to a polarization under socialist President ]. U.S. economic interests were also disturbed under Allende's socialism, and various covert acts meant to fund the opposition and foment the public were carried out by the CIA.<ref>http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp</ref> These factors in turn resulted in the ] and the government of General ]. The 17-year military-led government was marked by severe human-rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms. In 1988, Chile made a peaceful ]. The territory of present-day ] has been populated since 12,000 BC. In the 16th century ] ]s began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile. Chile gained independence from Spain in the early 19th century. Chile's development was marked by the export of ] and later ] until the ]. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. After a decade of Christian Democratic presidency, the socialist President ] was elected ] in 1970. The coup of General ] in ] ] launched a 17-year dictatorship and radical market-oriented economic reforms. In 1988, Chile made a ]. ] was elected the first woman president in the ].


== Early history == == Early history ==
{{main|Prehispanic history of Chile}} {{main|Prehispanic history of Chile}}
It is possible that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the ], or even trans-] migration, is attracting more interest in recent times. These theories are backed by findings in the ] archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different indigenous peoples. Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify them into three major cultural groups: The northern peoples, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by ]; the ] culture, who inhabited the area between the river ] and the island of ], and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).
] were the original inhabitants of central and southern Chile.]]
About 12,000 years ago, migrating ] settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present day Chile. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies. The current prevalent theories are that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the ], or even trans-] migration. These theories are backed by findings in the ] archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the ] and the ]'s ]<ref name=Hogan>{{cite book |title=Pali Aike |last=Hogan |first=C. Michael |authorlink= |coauthors=Andy Burnham ed. |year=2008 |publisher=Megalithic Portal |location= |language= |isbn= |chapter= |page= |pages= |quote= |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18657}}</ref>.


Specific early human settlement sites in Chile include the ] and the ].<ref>C. Michael Hogan {2008) ''Pali Aike'', Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham </ref>
Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify the indigenous people into three major cultural groups: the northern people, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by ]; the Araucanian culture, who inhabited the area between the river ] and the island of ], and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).


As the ] expanded it was only able to integrate the northern part of Chile. Incan attempts to colonize Central Chile were unsuccessful, having met fierce resistance by ] warriors in the ]. The ] subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands.
No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme. The Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest native American group in Chile. A mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with other indigenous groups, they lived in scattered family clusters and small villages. Although the Araucanians had no written language, they did use a common tongue. Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation. Those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the ], meaning "people of the land."


==Spanish conquest and colony==
The ] briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, where they collected tribute from small groups of fishermen and oasis farmers but were not able to establish a strong cultural presence in the area<ref name=Chile>{{cite book |title=Chile |last=Minnis |first=Natalie |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2002 |publisher=Langenscheidt Publishing Group |location= |language= |isbn=9812348905, 9789812348906 |chapter= |page= |pages=381 |quote= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nf8SnJ_ZJbkC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=inca+did+not+conquer+araucanians&source=web&ots=GKMOvVrZk4&sig=o4L95tJNazXsyNh72Zb89viAlNM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA27,M1}}</ref>. As the Spaniards would after them, the Incas encountered fierce resistance and so were unable to exert control in the south. During their attempts at conquest in 1460 and again in 1491, the Incas established forts in the Central Valley of Chile, but they could not colonize the region. The ] fought against the Sapa ] (1471-93 CE)<ref name=Garcilaso>{{cite book |title=Comentarios reales |last=De la Vega |first=Garcilaso |authorlink=Inca Garcilaso de la Vega |coauthors= |year=1616 |publisher= |location= |language=Spanish |isbn= |chapter=Segunda Parte: Libro VII Cap. 18, 19 & 20 |page= |pages= |quote= |url=http://es.wikisource.org/Comentarios_reales}}</ref> and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the ] was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the ]<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm</ref>, which subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands until the arrival of the Spaniards.
:''Main articles: ] and ]''
]
The first European to sight Chilean territory was ], who crossed the ] on ], ]. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to ]. De Almagro was ]'s partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire ('''Nueva Toledo'''). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War.


After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, ], captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now ], on ], ].<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm</ref>
Scholars speculate that the total Araucanian population may have numbered 1 million at most when the Spaniards arrived in the 1530s; a century of European conquest and disease reduced that number by at least half. During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and bows and arrows. They became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late nineteenth century. The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first ]s. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the ] culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is traditionally labeled as the ].
==Spanish conquest and colony==
{{see|Captaincy General of Chile|Arauco War|Conquest of Chile}}
]]]
The first European to sight Chilean territory was ], who crossed the ] on ], ]. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to ]. Almagro was ]'s partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire ('''Nueva Toledo'''). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War.


Valdivia died at the ], defeated by ], a young Mapuche '']'' (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the ] except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.
After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, ], captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now ], on February 12, 1541<ref>{{cite book |title=Carta a sus apoderados en la corte |last=Valdivia |first=Pedro de |authorlink=Pedro de Valdivia |coauthors= |date=October 15, 1550 |publisher= |location= |language=Spanish |isbn= |page= |pages= |quote=...y llegado al valle de Copiapó, lo que trabajé en hacer la guerra a los naturales e fuertes que les rompí y la guerra que hice por todos los valles adelante, hasta que llegué al valle de Mapocho, que es cien leguas de Copiapó, e fundé la cibdad de Sanctiago del Nuevo Extremo, a los veinte e cuatro de hebrero del año de mill quinientos e cuarenta e uno, formando Cabildo, Justicia e Regimiento. |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/12593842001258285209068/index.htm}}</ref>.

Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first ]s. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the ] culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is known as the ]. Valdivia died at the ], defeated by ], a young Mapuche '']'' (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the ] except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.
North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the ]. North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the ].

Valdivia became the first governor of the ]. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the King of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as ] administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a Royal Appeals Court ({{lang-es|Real Audiencia}}) from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.


Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's ] and a more stable situation along the frontier. Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's ] and a more stable situation along the frontier.


==Independence (1810-1826)== == Independence ==
{{main|Chilean War of Independence}} {{main|Chilean Independence}}
]]] ]
The drive for independence from ] was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by ]'s brother ]. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the larger ] movement, and it was far from having unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war between pro-Independence ] who sought political and economic independence from ] and ] criollos, who supported the continued allegiance to and permanence within the ] of the ]. The struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and native Americans. The drive for independence from ] was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by ]'s brother ]; and can be divided into 3 stages. A national junta was established in the name of ]&mdash; the deposed king &mdash; on ], ]. This period is known as the "Patria Vieja" (''old republic''). The second was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known in Chile as the '']'' ("Reconquest": the term echoes the '']'' in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims) which in turn led to a prolonged struggle under ] and ], Chile's most renowned patriot and a member of South America's ]. Other revolutionary leaders included the guerrilla leader ] and the exiled British admiral ], who commanded the Chilean Navy from 1817-1822.


Chilean independence was ] on ], ], and the last of its territory, ], was wrested from Spanish rule by 1826.
The beginning of the Independence movement is traditionally dated as September 18, 1810 when a national junta was established to govern Chile in the name of the deposed king ]. Depending on what terms one uses to define the end, the movement extended until 1821 (when the Spanish were expelled from mainland Chile) or 1826 (when the last Spanish troops surrendered and ] was incorporated to the Chilean republic). The independence process is normally divided into three stages: ''Patria Vieja'', ''Reconquista'', and ''Patria Nueva''.


== The nineteenth century==
Chile's first experiment with self-government, the "Patria Vieja" (''old republic'', 1810-14), was led by ], an aristocrat then in his mid-twenties. The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition. Another of the earliest advocates of full independence, ], captained a rival faction that plunged the criollos into civil war. For him and for certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other criollos remained loyal to Spain. Among those favoring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by winning the ] on October 12. O'Higgins, Carrera and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.
]
The political revolt brought little social change however and nineteenth century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the ]. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile.


Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the ] during the ]. In 1881, it signed a treaty with ] confirming Chilean sovereignty over the ], but conceding all of oriental ], and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the ] with ] and ] (1879-1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable ] deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.
The second period was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known as the '']'' of 1814-17 ("Reconquest": the term echoes the '']'' in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims). During this period, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more and more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp. More members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain. As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, ] became a national symbol of resistance.


In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.
In exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with ]. Their combined army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the ] on February 12 and marking the beginning of the ''Patria Nueva''. San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish. Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the ] on April 5, 1818. San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826.


In ], ] was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the ] and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. ], among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the ] of 1891. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.
A ] was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1840, when full diplomatic relations were established.


==End of the 19th century to the 1970 election of Salvador Allende ==
==Republican period==
===Constitutional organization (1818-1833)===
{{main|Chilean Civil War of 1829}}
From 1817 to 1823, Bernardo O'Higgins ruled Chile as supreme director (president). He won plaudits for defeating royalists and founding schools, but civil strife continued. O'Higgins alienated liberals and provincials with his authoritarianism, conservatives and the church with his anticlericalism, and landowners with his proposed reforms of the land tenure system. His attempt to devise a constitution in 1818 that would legitimize his government failed, as did his effort to generate stable funding for the new administration. O'Higgins's dictatorial behavior aroused resistance in the provinces. This growing discontent was reflected in the continuing opposition of partisans of Carrera, who was executed by the Argentine regime in Mendoza in 1821, like his two brothers were three years earlier.


{{see|History of Chile during the Parliamentary Era (1891-1925)|Presidential Republic (1925-1973)}}
Although opposed by many liberals, O'Higgins angered the Roman Catholic Church with his liberal beliefs. He maintained Catholicism's status as the official state religion but tried to curb the church's political powers and to encourage religious tolerance as a means of attracting Protestant immigrants and traders. Like the church, the landed aristocracy felt threatened by O'Higgins, resenting his attempts to eliminate noble titles and, more important, to eliminate entailed estates.
In the late 19th century and early 20th Chile temporary resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the ] of 1899, the ] and the ]. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. A military coup led by General ] in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The '']'' (sabre rattling) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the ] and the exile of Alessandri. However, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to ], which ended with the establishment of the ] as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return. The latter assumed power in March, and a new Constitution giving increased powers to the president was approved in September 1925. Alessandri broke with the ]'s policies of '']'' by creating a ] and imposing a ]. However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the ] in March 1925 followed by the ].


The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of Gen. ], who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a ''de facto'' dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.
O'Higgins's opponents also disapproved of his diversion of Chilean resources to aid San Martín's liberation of Peru. O'Higgins insisted on supporting that campaign because he realized that Chilean independence would not be secure until the Spaniards were routed from the Andean core of the empire. However, amid mounting discontent, troops from the northern and southern provinces forced O'Higgins to resign. Embittered, O'Higgins departed for Peru, where he died in 1842.


The ] took place on ], ], in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative ], the radical ]'s ], and the newly-formed Popular Alliance candidate, ]. The ] supported Ibáñez's candidacy, which had been announced on ]. In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a ] that was intended to take down the rightwing government of ] and place Ibáñez in power.
After O'Higgins went into exile in 1823, civil conflict continued, focusing mainly on the issues of anticlericalism and regionalism. Presidents and constitutions rose and fell quickly in the 1820s. The civil struggle's harmful effects on the economy, and particularly on exports, prompted conservatives to seize national control in 1830.


During the period of ] dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. ] succeeded Ibáñez in 1958.
In the minds of most members of the Chilean elite, the bloodshed and chaos of the late 1820s were attributable to the shortcomings of liberalism and federalism, which had been dominant over conservatism for most of the period. The abolition of slavery in 1823--long before most other countries in the Americas--was considered one of the liberals' few lasting achievements. One liberal leader from the south, ], rode in and out of the presidency several times (1823-27, 1828, 1829, 1830) but could not sustain his authority. From May 1827 to September 1831, with the exception of brief interventions by Freire, the presidency was occupied by ], Freire's former vice president. In August 1828, Pinto's first year in office, Chile abandoned its short-lived federalist system for a unitary form of government, with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. By adopting a moderately liberal constitution in 1828, Pinto alienated both the federalists and the liberal factions. He also angered the old aristocracy by abolishing estates inherited by primogeniture (mayorazgo) and caused a public uproar with his anticlericalism. After the defeat of his liberal army at the Battle of Lircay on April 17, 1830, Freire, like O'Higgins, went into exile in Peru.


The ] of ] ] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.
===Conservative Era (1830-1861)===
{{main|War of the Confederation}}
]]]
Although never president, ] dominated Chilean politics from the cabinet and behind the scenes from 1830 to 1837. He installed the "autocratic republic," which centralized authority in the national government. His political program enjoyed support from merchants, large landowners, foreign capitalists, the church, and the military. Political and economic stability reinforced each other, as Portales encouraged economic growth through free trade and put government finances in order.


== From the 1970 election of Allende to Pinochet's 1973 coup ==
Portales was an agnostic who said that he believed in the clergy but not in God. He realized the importance of the Roman Catholic Church as a bastion of loyalty, legitimacy, social control, and stability, as had been the case in the colonial period. He repealed Liberal reforms that had threatened church privileges and properties.


:''See also: ], ]''
Portales brought the military under civilian control by rewarding loyal generals, cashiering troublemakers, and promoting a victorious war against the Peru-Bolivia Confederation (1836-39). After defeating Peru and Bolivia, Chile dominated the Pacific Coast of South America. The victory over its neighbors gave Chile and its new political system a psychological boost. Chileans experienced a surge of national enthusiasm and cohesion behind a regime accepted as legitimate and efficacious.
In ], ] gained the presidency of Chile. Allende was a ] and a member of Chile's ], who headed the "]" (UP) coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the ] (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. His program included ] and the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines. Allende had two main competitors in the election — ], representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president ].


Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%. This was not the first time the leading candidate received less than half of the popular vote. Such had been the case in every post-war election, save that of 1964 — Alessandri himself was elected president in 1958 with 31%. In the absence of an absolute majority, the Chilean constitution required the president-elect to be confirmed by the Chilean parliament. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, and in spite of pressure from the U.S. government, Tomic's Christian Democrats voted together with Allende's supporters to confirm him as president. Allende received 153 votes to Alessandri's 35. Following his election, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently took control of ranches, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises.
Portales also achieved his objectives by wielding dictatorial powers, censoring the press, and manipulating elections. For the next forty years, Chile's armed forces would be distracted from meddling in politics by skirmishes and defensive operations on the southern frontier, although some units got embroiled in domestic conflicts in 1851 and 1859. In later years, conservative Chileans canonized Portales as a symbol of order and progress, exaggerating the importance of one man in that achievement.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


Immediately after the election, the ] expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the ]'s website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and "sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office(.)"<ref>https://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/#6</ref><ref></ref>
The "Portalian State" was institutionalized by the 1833 constitution. One of the most durable charters ever devised in Latin America, the Portalian constitution lasted until 1925. The constitution concentrated authority in the national government, more precisely, in the hands of the president, who was elected by a tiny minority. The chief executive could serve two consecutive five-year terms and then pick a successor. Although the Congress had significant budgetary powers, it was overshadowed by the president, who appointed provincial officials. The constitution also created an independent judiciary, guaranteed inheritance of estates by primogeniture, and installed Catholicism as the state religion. In short, it established an autocratic system under a republican veneer.


In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Minister of the Economics ]'s expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in ], accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However, these results were not sustained and in 1972 the Chilean ''escudo'' had runaway ] of 140%. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of ]s in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a "disappearance" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves.<ref></ref>
The first Portalian president was General ], who served two terms (1831-36, 1836-41). President Prieto had four main accomplishments: implementation of the 1833 constitution, stabilization of government finances, defeat of provincial challenges to central authority, and victory over the Peru-Bolivia Confederation. During the presidencies of Prieto and his two successors, Chile modernized through the construction of ports, railroads, and telegraph lines, some built by United States entrepreneur William Wheelwright. These innovations facilitated the export-import trade as well as domestic commerce.


By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military ] was attempted against Allende in June 1973.
Prieto and his adviser, Portales, feared the efforts of Bolivian general ] to unite with Peru against Chile. These qualms exacerbated animosities toward Peru dating from the colonial period, now intensified by disputes over customs duties and loans. Chile also wanted to become the dominant South American military and commercial power along the Pacific. Portales got Congress to declare war on Peru in 1836. When a Chilean colonel who opposed the war killed Portales in 1837, this act and the suspicion that Peruvians were involved in the assassination plot inspired an even greater war effort by the government.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


In its "]", on ], 1973, the ] asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for Allende's removal, by military force if necessary, to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on ], ], the Chilean military deposed Allende, who allegedly ] as the ] was surrounded and bombed. {{Fact|date=March 2008}} Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, ] exploited his role as Commander of the Army to ] and to establish himself at the head of a ].
===Liberal era (1861-1891)===
]]]
The political revolt brought little social change however and nineteenth century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the ]. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


Controversy surrounds alleged ] involvement in the coup.<ref name="NSA-2000-9-19">Peter Kornbluh, , Chile Documentation Project, National Security Archive, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> As early as the ] Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power.<ref>, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted May 26, 2004. This particular dialogue can be found at . Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> Still, they deny having taken any active role in the events in Chile after Allende took office. ''(See: ])''
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the ] during the ]. In 1881, it signed a treaty with ] confirming Chilean sovereignty over the ], but conceding all of oriental ], and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the ] with ] and ] (1879-1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable ] deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.


Following the coup in 1973, Chile was ruled by a military regime which lasted until 1990. The army established a junta, made up of the army commander, General Augusto Pinochet; the navy commander, Admiral ]; the air commander, ]; and the director of the ''carabineros''; ]. Resigning after disagreements with Pinochet on ], 1978, Leigh was replaced by General ]. Mendoza resigned after the carabineros were blamed for the deaths of three communists in 1985 and was replaced by ].
In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.


The ] pursued decidedly laissez-faire economic policies. During Pinochet's 16 years in power, Chile moved away from a largely state controlled economy towards a free-market economy, increasingly controlled by a few large economic groups that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment.
In ], ] was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the ] and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. ], among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the ] of 1891. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.


== Pinochet's military dictatorship (1973-1989) ==
==Parliamentary republic (1891-1925)==
{{main|History of Chile during the Parliamentary Era (1891-1925)}} {{main|Chile under Pinochet}}
===1973–1978===
The so-called Parliamentary Republic was not a true parliamentary system, in which the chief executive is elected by the legislature. It was, however, an unusual regime in presidentialist Latin America, for Congress really did overshadow the rather ceremonial office of the president and exerted authority over the chief executive's cabinet appointees. In turn, Congress was dominated by the landed elites. This was the heyday of classic political and economic liberalism.


After the coup, Chileans witnessed a large-scale repression, which started as soon as October 1973, with at least 70 persons murdered by the ]. The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished ], dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the ] and the ], close to 3,200 were executed, murdered or "disappeared"<ref>BBC: Finding Chile's disappeared</ref>, and at least 29 000 imprisoned and torturedEl campo de concentración de Pinochet cumple 70 años</ref>; higher estimates exist. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons<ref></ref><ref></ref>; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families.
For many decades thereafter, historians derided the Parliamentary Republic as a quarrel-prone system that merely distributed spoils and clung to its laissez-faire policy while national problems mounted.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} The characterization is epitomized by an observation made by President ] (1910-15), reputedly made in reference to labor unrest: "There are only two kinds of problems: those that solve themselves and those that can't be solved." At the mercy of Congress, cabinets came and went frequently, although there was more stability and continuity in public administration than some historians have suggested. Chile also temporary resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the ] of 1899, the ] and the ].


The ], ] (''Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional'') spread its network throughout the country and carried out targeted ]s abroad, made possible by ], an operations and intelligence sharing network of the security services of ], ], ], ], ] and ], formed in the mid-1970s. The ] also set up at least six ]s.
Political authority ran from local electoral bosses in the provinces through the congressional and executive branches, which reciprocated with payoffs from taxes on nitrate sales. Congressmen often won election by bribing voters in this clientelistic and corrupt system. Many politicians relied on intimidated or loyal peasant voters in the countryside, even though the population was becoming increasingly urban. The lackluster presidents and ineffectual administrations of the period did little to respond to the country's dependence on volatile nitrate exports, spiraling inflation, and massive urbanization. They also ignored what was called "the social question." This euphemism referred mainly to the rise of the labor movement and its demands for better treatment of the working class. Critics complained that the upper class, which had given Chile such dynamic leadership previously, had grown smug and lethargic thanks to the windfall of nitrate wealth.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


The regime outlawed or suspended all political parties and suspended dissident labour and peasant leaders and clergymen. ] and other Christian Democratic leaders initially supported the coup. Later, they assumed the role of an opposition to the military rulers, but soon lost most of their influence. Meanwhile, left-wing Christian Democratic leaders like Radomiro Tomic were jailed or forced into exile. The church, which at first expressed its gratitude to the armed forces for saving the country from the danger of a "Marxist dictatorship," became increasingly critical of the regime's social and economic policies.
In recent years, however, particularly when the authoritarian regime of Augusto Pinochet is taken into consideration, some scholars have reevaluated the Parliamentary Republic of 1891-1925.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} Without denying its shortcomings, they have lauded its democratic stability. They have also hailed its control of the armed forces, it respect for civil liberties, its expansion of suffrage and participation, and its gradual admission of new contenders, especially reformers, to the political arena. In particular, two young parties grew in importance - the Democrat Party, with roots among artisans and urban workers, and the ], representing urban middle sectors and provincial elites. By the early twentieth century, both parties were winning increasing numbers of seats in Congress. The more leftist members of the Democrat Party became involved in the leadership of labor unions and broke off to launch the ] ({{lang-es|Partido Obrero Socialista}} - POS) in 1912. The founder of the POS and its best-known leader, ], also founded the ] ({{lang-es|Partido Comunista de Chile}} - PCCh) in 1922.


In 1974, the country was divided into 13 regions (it had previously been divided into provinces). This design has continued until today, with the addition of two new regions on 2005: Region XV Arica y Parinacota on the north and region XIV De los ríos.
==Presidential republic (1925-1973)==
{{main|Presidential Republic (1925-1973)}}
By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, ]. Alessandri appealed to those who believed the social question should be addressed, to those worried by the decline in nitrate exports during World War I, and to those weary of presidents dominated by Congress. Promising "evolution to avoid revolution," he pioneered a new campaign style of appealing directly to the masses with florid oratory and charisma. After winning a seat in the Senate representing the mining north in 1915, he earned the sobriquet "Lion of Tarapacá." As a dissident Liberal running for the presidency, Alessandri attracted support from the more reformist Radicals and Democrats and formed the so-called Liberal Alliance. He received strong backing from the middle and working classes as well as from the provincial elites. Students and intellectuals also rallied to his banner. At the same time, he reassured the landowners that social reforms would be limited to the cities.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


The junta embarked on a radical program of ] and ], slashing ]s as well as government welfare programs and ]s. The new economic program was designed by a group of technocrats known as the ] because many of them had been trained or influenced by ] professors.
Alessandri soon discovered that his efforts to lead would be blocked by the conservative Congress. Like Balmaceda, he infuriated the legislators by going over their heads to appeal to the voters in the congressional elections of 1924. His reform legislation was finally rammed through Congress under pressure from younger military officers, who were sick of the neglect of the armed forces, political infighting, social unrest, and galloping inflation. whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress.


The economy grew rapidly from 1976 to 1981, fueled by the influx of private foreign ]s until the debt crisis of the early 1980s. Despite high growth in the late 1970s, ] became more regressive. While the upper 5% of the population received 25% of the total national income in 1972, it received 50% in 1975. Wage and salary earners got 64% of the national income in 1972 but only 38% at the beginning of 1977. ] affected half of the nation's children, and 60% of the population could not afford the minimum ] and ] per day. ] increased sharply. Beggars flooded the streets.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
A double military coup set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. First military right-wingers opposing Alessandri seized power in September 1924, and then reformers in favor of the ousted president took charge in January 1925. The '']'' (ruido de sables) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the ] led by General ] and the exile of Alessandri. However, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to ], which ended with the establishment of the ] as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return. The latter group was led by two colonels, ] and ]. They returned Alessandri to the presidency that March and enacted his promised reforms by decree. The latter re-assumed power in March, and a new Constitution encapsulating his proposed reforms was ratified in a plebiscite in September 1925. The new constitution gave increased powers to the presidency. Alessandri broke with the ]'s policies of '']'' by creating a ] and imposing a ]. However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the ] in March 1925 followed by the ].


The junta relied on the army, the police, the oligarchy, huge foreign corporations, and foreign loans to maintain itself. As a whole, the armed services received large salary increases and new equipment. The oligarchy recovered most of its lost industrial and agricultural holdings, for the junta sold to private buyers most of the industries expropriated by Allende's Popular Unity government. This period saw the expansion of monopolies and widespread speculation.
The longest lasting of the ten governments between 1924 and 1932 was that of General Carlos Ibáñez, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a ''de facto'' dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.


Financial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans. Large foreign banks received large sums in repayments of interest and principal from the junta; in return, they lent the government millions more. International lending organizations such as the ], the ], and the ] lent vast sums.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Foreign multinational corporations such as ] (ITT), ], and ], all expropriated by Allende, returned to Chile.
The ] took place on ], ], in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative ], the radical ]'s ], and the newly-formed Popular Alliance candidate, ]. The ] supported Ibáñez's candidacy, which had been announced on ]. In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a ] that was intended to take down the rightwing government of ] and place Ibáñez in power.


===1978–1990===
During the period of ] dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. ] succeeded Ibáñez in 1958.


Chile's main industry, copper mining, remained in government hands, but new mineral deposits were open to private investment. Capitalist involvement was increased, ] and health care were privatized, and Superior Education was also placed in private hands. One of the junta's economic moves was fixing the exchange rate in the early 1980s, leading to a boom in imports and a collapse of domestic industrial production; this together with a world recession caused a serious economic crisis in 1982, where GDP plummeted by 14%, and unemployment reached 33%. At the same time a series of massive protests{{Fact|date=April 2008}} were organized trying to cause the fall of the regime, without success.
The ] of ] ] by an ] initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and ], including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.


After the economic crisis of 1982, Hernan Buchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.
==Collapse of democracy==
{{see|Chile under Allende|Chilean nationalization of copper}}
In the ], Senator ] won a ] of votes in a three-way contest. He was a ] physician and member of Chile's ], who headed the "]" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the ] (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. Allende had two main competitors in the election — ], representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president ]. In the end, Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%.


An important initiative begun in 1981 and carried on until today, aimed at modernizing the use of ], greatly contributed to disentangle the traditional bureaucratic and cumbersome clerical procedures in all dealings with branches of the government, from ] to import/export documentation, thereby fostering a more agile economy and a more efficient ].
Despite pressure from the government of the ]<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20001113/|title=Chile: 16,000 Secret Documents Declassified|date=2000|publisher=Chile Documentation Project, The National Security Archive|location=Washington DC}}</ref>, the ], keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president ]. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, the murder of the Army Commander-in-Chief, General ] and Frei's refusal to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende - on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs - Allende was chosen by a vote of 153 to 35. .


The military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General ]. Due to the ] ("slit throats case"), in which three ] members were assassinated, ], member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the ], resigned in 1985 and was replaced by ]. The next year, ] was burnt alive in what became known as the ] ("Burnt Alive case").
The Popular Unity platform included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major ] mines, the advancement of workers' rights, implementation of ], reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors, a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. Immediately after the election, the ] expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the ]'s website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and "sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office". At the same time, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently started to take control of agricultural lands, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises.


Problems with Argentina coming from the 19th century reached a high in 1978, with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped England during the ].
In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Economics Minister ]'s ] were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in ], accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private ] projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was ]. Many enterprises within the copper, ], ], ], and ] industries were ], nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the administration's first year. However, these results were not sustainable and in 1972 the Chilean ''escudo'' had runaway ] of 140%. An ] that had began in 1967 peaked in 1972, exacerbated by ], plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and ] rose. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of ]s in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a "disappearance" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves<ref></ref>.


Chile's ] was approved in a national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March 1981. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 54.5% of the vote.<ref>, (U.S.) Library of Congress Country Study of Chile (), based on information available as of March 31, 1994. </ref>
The ] revealed arms smuggling from the Communist Cuba to Chile; Allende - surrounded by ] advisors<ref name=Times/> - had turned Chile into a center for Soviet operations in Latin America<ref>{{cite news|last= |first= |coauthors= |title=Bultos Cubanos|work=Special edition|pages=21|language=Spanish|publisher="Que Pasa" magazine|date=1982|url= | accessdate= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Sigmund | first = Paul | coauthors = | title = Los años verde olivo | work = Special edition | pages = | language = {{es icon}} | publisher = "La Tercera" newspaper | date = 2005 | url = http://docs.tercera.cl/especiales/2001/verdeolivo/capitulo01/entrevista01.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-07 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Cold War espionage, spies, and secret operations|author=R. C. S. Trahair|page=377}}</ref><ref name=Andrew>{{cite book |title=The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World|last=Andrew |first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Andrew|coauthors=]|date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |location=UK |language= |isbn=0-465-00311-7 |page= |pages=69-85 |quote= |url=}}</ref>. Salvador Allende now had a personal ] adviser. According to Allende’s KGB file, Allende "was made to understand the necessity of reorganising Chile's army and intelligence services, and of setting up a relationship between Chile’s and the ]'s intelligence services"<ref name=Times>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article568154.ece|title=How 'weak' Allende was left out in the cold by the KGB|date=September 19, 2005|publisher=]|location=London, UK}}</ref>. The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the United States. As a result, the ] administration ] in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende’s government.<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch27-01.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch05-01.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm</ref> In addition, international financial pressure restricted economic credit to Chile.
Simultaneously, the ] funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed, and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.


==Transition to Democracy : The ''Concertación'' ==
By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military ] was attempted against Allende in June 1973<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foia.state.gov/Reports/HincheyReport.asp|title=CIA Activities in Chile|date=September 18, 2000|publisher=Hinchey Report|location=Washington DC}}</ref>.
]
{{main|Chilean transition to democracy}}
After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the constitution, create more seats in the senate, diminish the role of the ] and equalize the number of civilian and military members (four members each). Many among Chile's political class consider these and other provisions as "authoritarian enclaves" of the constitution and have pressed for reform.


Representing the '']'' coalition which supported the return to democracy, gathering the ] (PDC), the ] (PS), the ] (PPD) and the ] (PRSD), Christian Democrat ] won a sweeping victory in the ], in December 1989, since the ] won by ]. Patricio Aylwin had gathered around him 3,850,023 votes (55.17%), while the center-right supermarket tycoon ], who represented the ] party, managed to take 15.05% of the vote, which had as main effects to lower right-wing candidate ]'s score to 29.40% (approximately 2 million votes, almost half of Patricio Aylwin).
In its "]", on ], 1973, the ] asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for Allende's removal, by military force if necessary, to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on ], ], the Chilean military deposed Allende, who ]<ref name=Allende>{{cite web|url=http://www2.eluniversal.com.mx/pls/impreso/noticia.html?id_nota=164983&tabla=notas |title=Admite hija de Allende suicidio de su padre |date=August 17, 2003|publisher=]|location=Mexico City, Mexico |language=Spanish}}</ref> as the ] was surrounded and bombed. Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, ] exploited his role as Commander of the Army to ] and to establish himself at the head of a ].


The ''Concertación'' coalition would dominate Chilean politics for the next two decades, with its most recent victory being the 2006 election of Socialist candidate ]. It established in February 1991{{Fact|date=October 2007}} the ], which released in February 1991 {{Fact|date=October 2007}} the ] on human rights violations during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship. This report, contested by human rights NGOs and associations of political prisoners, counted 2,279 cases of "]" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of "disappearances" made such investigations very difficult, while many victims were still intimidated by the authorities, and did not dare go to the local police center register themselves on lists, since the police officers were the same as during the dictatorship. The same problem arose, several years later, for the ], released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of ], among testimonies from 35,000 persons. However, the Rettig Report did list important detention and torture centers, such as the ], the ] Stadium, ], etc. The registering of victims of the dictatorship, and then, in the 2000s, trials of militaries guilty of human right violations, would dominate the
Controversy surrounds alleged ] involvement in the coup.<ref name="NSA-2000-9-19">Peter Kornbluh, , Chile Documentation Project, National Security Archive, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> As early as the ] Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power.<ref>, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted May 26, 2004. This particular dialogue can be found at . Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> Still, they deny having taken any active role in the events in Chile after Allende took office. ''(See: ])''


]
According to the ] and ], the ] and the Cuban ] launched a ]<ref name=Andrew/>. For instance, in 1976, the New York Times published 66 articles on alleged human rights abuses in Chile and only 4 on Cambodia, where the Communist ] tortured and killed some 1.5 million out of the nation's 7.5 million people<ref>{{cite news|title=The Soviet struggle for Third World domination|publisher=]|date=January 15, 2006}}</ref>.
In the 1993 election, ] of the Christian Democratic Party was elected president for a 6-year term leading the Concertacion coalition, and took office in March 1994. Following an agreement between Pinochet and ], president of the ], the latter voted to abolish the date of 11 September as a National Holiday which celebrated the 1973 coup. Supporters of Pinochet had blocked until then any such attempt.<ref>, '']'', August 20, 1998 </ref> The same year, Pinochet traveled to London for an operation. But under orders of Spanish judge ], he was ], lifting worldwide attention, not only because of the past history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrest of a dictator based on the ] principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the ], an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary ] took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President ], who had just sworn in on March 11, said the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him.<ref>, '']'', March 4, 2000 </ref>


Representing the '']'' coalition for democracy, Ricardo Lagos had won ] just a few months before, by a very tight score of less than 200,000 votes (51,32%) against ] (less than 49%), who represented the right-wing ]. None of the six candidates had obtained an absolute majority on the first turn held on December 12, 1999. Lagos was sworn in March 11, 2000, for a 6-year term.
==Military government (1973-1989)==
{{see|Chilean coup of 1973|Chile under Pinochet}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: ]]] -->
By early 1973, ] was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous ] by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A ] overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (]), Allende committed suicide.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Óscar|last=Soto|title=El Último dia de Salvador Allende}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Eugenio|last=Ahumada|title=Chile: La memoria prohibida}}</ref> A military government, led by General ], took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by allegations of ]s. On October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/850932.stm| work=]|title=Flashback: Caravan of Death| accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref> At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the ]. About 30,000 left the country, and tens of thousands of people were detained and tortured, as investigated by the 2004 ]. A new ] was approved by ] characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term.


In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the ] (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the ], and in 2004 with ], expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub.
In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, ], and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms, which have continued ever since. Chile moved toward a ] that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened for competition. In a plebiscite on October 5, 1988, General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president (56% against 44%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/chile/88.htm|title=Country Study of Chile: Authoritarianism Defeated by Its Own Rules|date=March 31, 1994|publisher=US Library of Congress|location=Washington DC}}</ref>.


Meanwhile, the trials concerning human rights violations during the dictatorship continued. Pinochet was stripped of his ] in August 2000 by the ], and indicted by judge ]. Guzmán had ordered in 1999 the arrest of five militarists, including General ] of the ], for their role in the ] following the 11 September coup. Arguing that the bodies of the "]" were still missing, he made ] which had as effect to lift any ] on the crimes committed by the military. Pinochet's trial continued until his death on December 10, 2006, with an alternation of indictments for specific cases, lifting of immunities by the Supreme Court or to the contrary immunity from prosecution, with his health a main argument for, or against, his prosecution. The Supreme Court affirmed in March 2005 Pinochet's immunity concerning the 1974 assassination of General ] in Buenos Aires, which had taken place in the frame of ]. However, he was deemed fit to stand trial for ], during which 119 political opponents were "disappeared" in Argentina. The Chilean justice also lifted his immunity on the ] case, a detention and torture center in the outskirts of Santiago. Pinochet, who still benefited from a reputation of righteousness from his supporters, lost legitimacy when he was put under house arrest on tax fraud and passport forgery, following the publication by the US Senate ] of a report concerning the ] in July 2004. The report was a consequence of investigations on financial funding of the ] in the US. The bank controlled between USD $4 million and $8 million of Pinochet's assets, who lived in Santiago in a modest house, dissimulating his wealth. According to the report, Riggs participated in ] for Pinochet, setting up offshore ] (referring to Pinochet as only "a former public official"), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. Related to Pinochet's and his family secret bank accounts in United States and in Caraïbs islands, this tax fraud filing for an amount of 27 million dollars shocked the conservative sectors who still supported him. Ninety percent of these funds would have been raised between 1990 and 1998, when Pinochet was chief of the Chilean armies, and would essentially have come from ] (when purchasing Belgian 'Mirage' air-fighters in 1994, Dutch 'Léopard' tanks, Swiss 'Mowag' tanks or by illegal sales of weapons to ], in the middle of the ].) His wife, ], and his son, Marco Antonio Pinochet, were also sued for complicity. For the fourth time in seven years, Pinochet was indicted by the Chilean justice.<ref> , '']'', January 28, 2006 </ref>
After the coup, Chileans witnessed a large-scale repression, which started as soon as October 1973, with at least 70 persons murdered by the ].{{Fact|date=April 2009}} The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished ], dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the ] and the ], close to 3,200 were executed or "disappeared"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1109861.stm |title=Finding Chile's disappeared |date=10 January, 2001|publisher=]|location=London, UK}}</ref>, and at least 29,000 imprisoned and tortured<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/solotexto/articulo.html?xref=20081203elpepudep_19&type=Tes |title=El campo de concentración de Pinochet cumple 70 años|date=12 April, 2009|publisher=]|location=Madrid, Spain}}</ref>. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons.<ref></ref><ref></ref>; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families.


The Chilean authorities took control in August 2005 of the ] "community", directed by ] ].
The secret police, ] (''Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional'') spread its network throughout the country and carried out targeted ]s abroad, made possible by ], an operations and intelligence sharing network of the security services of ], ], ], ], ] and ], formed in the mid-1970s. The ] also set up at least six ]s.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


The ''Concertación'' again won the ]. ], first woman president, won against ] (Alliance for Chile), with more than 53% of the votes.
The regime outlawed or suspended all political parties and suspended dissident labour and peasant leaders and clergymen.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} ] and other Christian Democratic leaders initially supported the coup. Later, they assumed the role of an opposition to the military rulers, but soon lost most of their influence. Meanwhile, left-wing Christian Democratic leaders like Radomiro Tomic were jailed or forced into exile. The church became increasingly critical of the regime's social and economic policies.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}


== References ==
The junta embarked on a radical program of ] and ], slashing ]s as well as government welfare programs and ]s. The new economic program was designed by a group of technocrats known as the ] because many of them had been trained or influenced by ] professors.
{{reflist}}


==See also==
After the economic crisis of 1982, ] became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.

An important initiative begun in 1981 and carried on until today, aimed at modernizing the use of ], greatly contributed to disentangle the traditional bureaucratic and cumbersome clerical procedures in all dealings with branches of the government, from ] to import/export documentation, thereby fostering a more agile economy and a more efficient ].

The military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General ]. Due to the ] ("slit throats case"), in which three ] members were assassinated, ], member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the ], resigned in 1985 and was replaced by ]. The next year, ] was burnt alive in what became known as the ] ("Burnt Alive case").

Problems with Argentina coming from the 19th century reached a high in 1978, with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped England during the ].

Chile's ] was approved in a national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March 1981. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 54.5% of the vote.

==Return to Democracy==
{{main|Chilean transition to democracy}}
Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989. Christian Democrat ], the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the '']'', received an absolute majority of votes (55%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE6DD1E3BF935A25751C1A96F948260|title=Man in the News: Patricio Aylwin; A Moderate Leads Chile|work=]| accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In February 1991 Aylwin created the ], which released in February 1991 the ] on human rights violations committed during the military rule. This report counted 2,279 cases of "]" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of "disappearances" made such investigations very difficult. The same problem arose, several years later, with the ], released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of ], among testimonies from 35,000 persons.

In December 1993, Christian Democrat ], the son of previous president ], led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8257609.html|title=Chile elects new leader Late president's son wins big|accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>. Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist ], who won the presidency in an unprecedented ] against ] of the rightist ]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/01/17/chile.elex.01/|title=Moderate socialist Lagos wins Chilean presidential election|publisher=]|date=January 16, 2000| accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>, by a very tight score of less than 200,000 votes (51,32%).
]]]
In 1998, ] traveled to London for back surgery. But under orders of Spanish judge ], he was ], attracting worldwide attention, not only because of the past history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrest of a former president based on the ] principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the ], an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary ] took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President ] later commented that the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/665342.stm|title=Thousands march against Pinochet|date=March 4, 2000|publisher=]|location=London, UK|accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>.

The ''Concertación'' coalition has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first woman president, ], of the Socialist Party<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10819903/|title=Chile elects first woman president|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the ''Concertación'' coalition governance for another four years<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/11/AR2006031101381.html|title=Bachelet Sworn In As Chile's President|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-05-02}}</ref>.

In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the ] (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the ], and in 2004 with ], expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub. Continuing the coalition's free-trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a ] with the ] (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), the first Chinese free-trade agreement with a Latin American nation; similar deals with Japan and India were promulgated in August 2007. In October 2006, Bachelet promulgated a multilateral trade deal with ], ] and ], the ] (P4), also signed under Lagos' presidency. Regionally, she has signed bilateral free-trade agreements with ], ] and ].

==Additional information==
===See also===
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==Articles about Allende/Pinochet coup d'état in Chile==
===References===
*] - deposed by 1973 coup
{{reflist}}
*]
*]
*]
*]: about the 1973 coup itself
*] - about the controversy surrounding President Allende's death
*] - took power in 1973 coup
*]

==Sources==
* ] in the Spanish-language Misplaced Pages.
* Paul Drake et al., ''Chile: A Country Study'' (Library of Congress, 1994). Brian Lovemen, ''Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism'', 3rd. ed., (Oxford University Press). John L. Rector, ''The History of Chile'', (Palgrave Macmillian, 2005). Simon Collier and William F. Sater, ''A History of Chile, 1808-1994'', (Cambridge University Press).


===Sources=== ==External links==
*
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* {{1911}}
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*{{cite book |last=Barros Arana |first=Diego |authorlink=Diego Barros Arana |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia Jeneral de Chile |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lSsOAAAAQAAJ |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=I-XVI |date= |origyear= |year=1884-1902 |month= |publisher=Rafael Jover |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Bulnes |first=Gonzalo |authorlink=Gonzalo Bulnes |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=La Guerra del Pacífico |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition=5th |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1955 |month= |publisher=Editorial del Pacífico |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Carvallo y Goyeneche |first=Vicente |authorlink=Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche |coauthors= |editor=Miguel Luis Amunategui |others= |title=Descripción Histórica y Geografía del Reino de Chile Vol. I (1542 - 1626) |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0008928 |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=VIII |date= |origyear= |year=1875 |month= |publisher=Imprenta de La Estrella de Chile |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Carvallo y Goyeneche |first=Vicente |authorlink=Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche |coauthors= |editor=Miguel Luis Amunategui |others= |title=Descripción Histórica y Geografía del Reino de Chile Vol. II (1626 - 1787) |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0008929 |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=IX |date= |origyear= |year=1875 |month= |publisher=Imprenta de La Estrella de Chile |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=483 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Carvallo y Goyeneche |first=Vicente |authorlink=Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche |coauthors= |editor=Miguel Luis Amunategui |others= |title=Descripción Histórica y Geografía del Reino de Chile Vol. III |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0008930 |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=X |date= |origyear= |year=1875 |month= |publisher=Imprenta de La Estrella de Chile |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Castedo |first=Leopoldo |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Resumen de la Historia de Chile de Francisco Antonio Encina |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=2 |date= |origyear= |year=1954 |month= |publisher=Empresa Editora Zig-Zag |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Córdoba y Figueroa |first=Pedro de |authorlink=Pedro de Cordoba y Figueroa |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia de Chile (1492-1717) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PFADAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PRA1-PA319,M1 |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=II |date= |origyear= |year=1862 |month= |publisher=Imprenta del Ferrocarril |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Collier |first=Simon |authorlink= |coauthors=William F. Sater |editor= |others= |title=A History of Chile: 1808-1994 |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1994 |month= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*] in the Spanish-language Misplaced Pages.
*{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Epic of Latin America |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition=4th |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1992 |month= |publisher=University of California Press |location=New York, NY |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=331-333 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.xs4all.nl/~rehue/art/far1.html |title=An overview of the Mapuche and Aztec military response to the Spanish Conquest |accessdate=15 October 2008 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last=Cruz Farias |first=Eduardo |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2002 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |location= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
*{{cite book |last=Drake |first=Paul |authorlink= |coauthors=et al |editor= |others= |title=Chile: A Country Study |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1994 |month= |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington DC |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Encina |first=Francisco Antonio |authorlink=Francisco Antonio Encina |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia de Chile: desde la prehistoria hasta 1891 |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=I-XX |date= |origyear= |year=1940-1952 |month= |publisher=Editorial Nascimento |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Ercilla |first=Alonso de |authorlink=Alonso de Ercilla |coauthors= |editor= |others=Eswikisource |title=La Araucana |url=http://es.wikisource.org/La_Araucana |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year= |month= |publisher= |location= |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Eyzaguirre |first=José Ignacio Víctor |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia eclesiastica: Politica y literaria de Chile |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C8C2FNNWaBEC |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1850 |month= |publisher=Imprenta del Comercio |location=Valparaíso, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page=205-206 |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Faundez |first=Julio |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Marxism and democracy in Chile: From 1932 to the fall of Allende |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1988 |month= |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Claudio |authorlink=Claudio Gay |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia física y política de Chile (1564-1638) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YvAcAiOvTmUC |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=II |date= |origyear= |year=1845 |month= |publisher=En casa del autor |location=Paris, France |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Claudio |authorlink=Claudio Gay |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia física y política de Chile (1638-1716) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YkBOf69iIEgC |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=III |date= |origyear= |year=1847 |month= |publisher=En casa del autor |location=Paris, France |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Claudio |authorlink=Claudio Gay |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia física y política de Chile (1749-1808) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=33sd9vdoKZ4C |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=IV |date= |origyear= |year=1848 |month= |publisher=En casa del autor |location=Paris, France |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=506 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Claudio |authorlink=Claudio Gay |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia de la Independencia Chilena |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9pEOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=I & II |date= |origyear= |year=1856 |month= |publisher=Imprenta de E. Thunot y Cia. |location=Paris, France |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Gómez de Vidaurre |first=Felipe |authorlink=Felipe Gomez de Vidaurre |coauthors= |editor=José Toribio Medina |others= |title=Historia Geográfica, Natural y Civil del Reino de Chile Vol. II |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlLx6KdkZ2oC |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=XV |date= |origyear= |year=1889 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Ercilla |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Góngora Marmolejo |first=Alonso de |authorlink=Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Historia de Todas las Cosas que han Acaecido en el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado (1536-1575) |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=1102&portal=157 |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Crónicas del Reino de Chile |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1960 |month= |publisher=Atlas |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=75-224 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=González Camus|first=Ignacio|authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=El dia en que murio Allende|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1988 |month= |publisher=Instituto Chileno de Estudios Humanísticos (ICHEH) and Centro de Estudios Sociales (CESOC) |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=González de Nájera |first=Alonso |authorlink=Alonso González de Nájera |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Desengaño y reparo de la guerra del Reino de Chile |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OiJJAAAAMAAJ |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Colección de Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de España |volume=XLVIII |date= |origyear= |year=1866 |month= |publisher=Imprenta de la Viuda de Calero |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary=History of Chile (1425-1655) |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Herring |first=Hubert |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=A History of Latin America |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1968 |month= |publisher=Alfred A Knopf |location=New York, NY |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Jufré del Águila |first=Melchor |authorlink=Melchor Jufré del Aguila |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Compendio historial del Descubrimiento y Conquista del Reino de Chile |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/bnc/12252742020148273321435/index.htm |format= |accessdate= |edition=Universidad de Chile |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1897 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Cervantes |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Karamessines |first=Thomas |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Operation Guide for the Conspiration in Chile |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch05-01.htm |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1970 |month= |publisher=United States National Security Council |location=Washington DC |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Kaufman |first=Edy |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Crisis in Allende's Chile: New Perspectives|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1988 |month= |publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=New York, NY|language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Korth |first=Eugene E |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Spanish Policy in Colonial Chile: the Struggle for Social Justice, 1535-1700 |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1968 |month= |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Lovemen |first=Brian |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition=3rd |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year= |month= |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Mariño de Lobera |first=Pedro |authorlink=Pedro Mariño de Lobera |coauthors= |editor=Fr. Bartolomé de Escobar |others= |title=Crónica del Reino de Chile, escrita por el capitán Pedro Mariño de Lobera... reducido a nuevo método y estilo por el Padre Bartolomé de Escobar (1593) |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/13582842323460728544424/index.htm |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Crónicas del Reino de Chile |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1960 |month= |publisher=Atlas |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=227-562 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Medina |first=José Toribio |authorlink=José Toribio Medina |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Diccionario Biográfico Colonial de Chile |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0008968.pdf |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1906 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Elzeviriana |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=1,006 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Pérez García |first=José |authorlink=José Pérez García |coauthors= |editor=José Toribio Medina |others= |title=Historia Natural, Militar, Civil y Sagrada del Reino de Chile (Vol. I) |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0008926.pdf |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=XXII |date= |origyear= |year=1900 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Elzeviriana |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Pérez García |first=José |authorlink=José Pérez García |coauthors= |editor=José Toribio Medina |others= |title=Historia Natural, Militar, Civil y Sagrada del Reino de Chile (Vol. II) |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0008927.pdf |format= |accessdate= |edition=Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia |series=Coleccion de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional |volume=XXIII |date= |origyear= |year=1900 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Elzeviriana |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Prago |first=Albert |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Revolutions in Spanish America |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1970 |month= |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York, NY |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Rector |first=John L |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The History of Chile |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=2005 |month= |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=US|language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Rosales |first=Diego de |authorlink=Diego de Rosales |coauthors= |editor=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |others= |title=Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano (1425-1553) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2SaDFre_Ez4C |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=I |date= |origyear= |year=1877 |month= |publisher=Imprenta i Libreria del Mercurio |location=Valparaíso, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Rosales |first=Diego de |authorlink=Diego de Rosales |coauthors= |editor=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |others= |title=Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano (1554-1625) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=II |date= |origyear= |year=1878 |month= |publisher=Imprenta i Libreria del Mercurio |location=Valparaíso, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Rosales |first=Diego de |authorlink=Diego de Rosales |coauthors= |editor=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |others= |title=Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano (1625-1655) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HhHbyQaRGnkC |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=III |date= |origyear= |year=1878 |month= |publisher=Imprenta i Libreria del Mercurio |location=Valparaíso, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm |title=Background Note: Chile |accessdate= 16 January 2009|dateformat=dmy |author=US State Department |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |location= |pages= |language=Spanish |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
*{{cite book |last=Vega |first=Garcilaso de la |authorlink=Inca Garcilaso de la Vega |coauthors= |editor= |others=Eswikisource |title=Comentarios reales |url=http://es.wikisource.org/Comentarios_reales |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1616 |month= |publisher= |location= |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Valdivia |first=Pedro de |authorlink=Pedro de Valdivia |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Cartas |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?Ref=1101 |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Crónicas del Reino de Chile |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1960 |month= |publisher=Atlas |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=1-74 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Vicuña Mackenna |first=Benjamín |authorlink=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Diego de Almagro |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1889 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Cervantes |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=122 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Vicuña Mackenna |first=Benjamín |authorlink=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=La guerra a muerte: memoria sobre las últimas campañas de la Independencia de Chile (1819-1824) |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1868 |month= |publisher=Imprenta Nacional |location=Santiago, Chile |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages=562 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Vivar |first=Jerónimo de |authorlink=Jerónimo de Vivar |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile (1558) |url=http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/11498.htm |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1987 |month= |publisher=ARTEHISTORIA REVISTA DIGITAL |location=Madrid, Spain |language=Spanish |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{cite book |last=Whelan|first=James|authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Out of the Ashes: The Life, Death and Transfiguration of Democracy in Chile|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |origyear= |year=1989 |month= |publisher=Regnery Gateway|location=Washington DC |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator=. |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://vlib.iue.it/history/americas/Chile/ |title=WWW-VL: History: Chile |accessdate= 16 January 2009|dateformat=dmy |author=World Wide Web Virtual Library History Central Catalogue |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |location= |pages= |language=Spanish |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}
{{refend}}


{{History of South America}} {{History of South America}}
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{{Royal Governors of Chile}}
{{Supreme Directors of Chile}}
{{Presidents of Chile}}
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Revision as of 15:08, 20 April 2009

Part of a series on the
History of Chile
Chili, from Atlas Van der Hagen
Timeline • Years in Chile
Early history
Colonial times
Nation-building
Republican period
Parliamentary period
Presidential period
Military dictatorship
Contemporary
Related topics

The territory of present-day Chile has been populated since 12,000 BC. In the 16th century Spanish conquistadors began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile. Chile gained independence from Spain in the early 19th century. Chile's development was marked by the export of saltpeter and later copper until the Second World War. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. After a decade of Christian Democratic presidency, the socialist President Salvador Allende was elected president in 1970. The coup of General Augusto Pinochet in 11 September 1973 launched a 17-year dictatorship and radical market-oriented economic reforms. In 1988, Chile made a transition to a path of democracy. Michelle Bachelet was elected the first woman president in the 2006 presidential election.

Early history

Main article: Prehispanic history of Chile

It is possible that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the Clovis culture, or even trans-Pacific migration, is attracting more interest in recent times. These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different indigenous peoples. Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify them into three major cultural groups: The northern peoples, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by pre-Incan cultures; the Mapuche culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of Chiloé, and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).

Specific early human settlement sites in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater.

As the Inca Empire expanded it was only able to integrate the northern part of Chile. Incan attempts to colonize Central Chile were unsuccessful, having met fierce resistance by Mapuche warriors in the Battle of the Maule. The Maule River subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands.

Spanish conquest and colony

Main articles: Captaincy General of Chile and Arauco War
Pedro de Valdivia

The first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1, 1520. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro. De Almagro was Francisco Pizarro's partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire (Nueva Toledo). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War.

After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, Pedro de Valdivia, captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Santiago de Chile, on February 12, 1541.

Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first encomiendas. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the Mapuche culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is traditionally labeled as the Arauco War.

Valdivia died at the Battle of Tucapel, defeated by Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the Bío-Bío River except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm. North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's Bourbon dynasty and a more stable situation along the frontier.

Independence

Main article: Chilean Independence
Bernardo O'Higgins

The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte; and can be divided into 3 stages. A national junta was established in the name of Ferdinand VII— the deposed king — on September 18, 1810. This period is known as the "Patria Vieja" (old republic). The second was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known in Chile as the Reconquista ("Reconquest": the term echoes the Reconquista in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims) which in turn led to a prolonged struggle under José de San Martín and Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot and a member of South America's Irish diaspora. Other revolutionary leaders included the guerrilla leader Manuel Rodríguez and the exiled British admiral Thomas Cochrane, who commanded the Chilean Navy from 1817-1822.

Chilean independence was formally proclaimed on February 12, 1818, and the last of its territory, Chiloé, was wrested from Spanish rule by 1826.

The nineteenth century

José Manuel Balmaceda, the president of the civil war

The political revolt brought little social change however and nineteenth century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of the Araucanía. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan, but conceding all of oriental Patagonia, and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879-1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.

In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.

In 1886, José Manuel Balmaceda was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. Jorge Montt, among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the Chilean Civil War of 1891. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.

End of the 19th century to the 1970 election of Salvador Allende

Further information: History of Chile during the Parliamentary Era (1891-1925) and Presidential Republic (1925-1973)

In the late 19th century and early 20th Chile temporary resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899, the 1881 Border Treaty and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The ruido de sables (sabre rattling) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the September Junta and the exile of Alessandri. However, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to another coup in January, which ended with the establishment of the January Junta as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return. The latter assumed power in March, and a new Constitution giving increased powers to the president was approved in September 1925. Alessandri broke with the classical liberalism's policies of laissez-faire by creating a Central Bank and imposing a revenue tax. However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the Marusia massacre in March 1925 followed by the La Coruña massacre.

The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of Gen. Carlos Ibáñez, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.

The Seguro Obrero Massacre took place on September 5, 1938, in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative Gustavo Ross Santa María, the radical Popular Front's Pedro Aguirre Cerda, and the newly-formed Popular Alliance candidate, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo. The National Socialist Movement of Chile supported Ibáñez's candidacy, which had been announced on September 4. In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a coup d'etat that was intended to take down the rightwing government of Arturo Alessandri Palma and place Ibáñez in power.

During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez in 1958.

The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.

From the 1970 election of Allende to Pinochet's 1973 coup

See also: Chile under Allende, Chilean coup of 1973

In the presidential election of 1970, Salvador Allende gained the presidency of Chile. Allende was a Marxist and a member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP) coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. His program included land reform and the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines. Allende had two main competitors in the election — Radomiro Tomic, representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president Jorge Alessandri.

Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%. This was not the first time the leading candidate received less than half of the popular vote. Such had been the case in every post-war election, save that of 1964 — Alessandri himself was elected president in 1958 with 31%. In the absence of an absolute majority, the Chilean constitution required the president-elect to be confirmed by the Chilean parliament. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, and in spite of pressure from the U.S. government, Tomic's Christian Democrats voted together with Allende's supporters to confirm him as president. Allende received 153 votes to Alessandri's 35. Following his election, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently took control of ranches, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises.

Immediately after the election, the United States expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the CIA's website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and "sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office(.)"

In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Minister of the Economics Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However, these results were not sustained and in 1972 the Chilean escudo had runaway inflation of 140%. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a "disappearance" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves.

By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military coup was attempted against Allende in June 1973.

In its "Declaration of the Breakdown of Chile’s Democracy", on August 22, 1973, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for Allende's removal, by military force if necessary, to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on September 11, 1973, the Chilean military deposed Allende, who allegedly committed suicide as the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed. Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, Augusto Pinochet exploited his role as Commander of the Army to seize total power and to establish himself at the head of a junta.

Controversy surrounds alleged CIA involvement in the coup. As early as the Church Committee Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power. Still, they deny having taken any active role in the events in Chile after Allende took office. (See: U.S. intervention in Chile)

Following the coup in 1973, Chile was ruled by a military regime which lasted until 1990. The army established a junta, made up of the army commander, General Augusto Pinochet; the navy commander, Admiral José Toribio Merino; the air commander, Gustavo Leigh; and the director of the carabineros; César Mendoza. Resigning after disagreements with Pinochet on July 24, 1978, Leigh was replaced by General Fernando Matthei. Mendoza resigned after the carabineros were blamed for the deaths of three communists in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange.

The military dictatorship pursued decidedly laissez-faire economic policies. During Pinochet's 16 years in power, Chile moved away from a largely state controlled economy towards a free-market economy, increasingly controlled by a few large economic groups that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment.

Pinochet's military dictatorship (1973-1989)

Main article: Chile under Pinochet

1973–1978

After the coup, Chileans witnessed a large-scale repression, which started as soon as October 1973, with at least 70 persons murdered by the Caravan of Death. The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the Rettig commission and the Valech Report, close to 3,200 were executed, murdered or "disappeared", and at least 29 000 imprisoned and torturedEl campo de concentración de Pinochet cumple 70 años</ref>; higher estimates exist. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families.

The secret police, DINA (Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional) spread its network throughout the country and carried out targeted assassinations abroad, made possible by Operation Condor, an operations and intelligence sharing network of the security services of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, formed in the mid-1970s. The junta also set up at least six concentration camps.

The regime outlawed or suspended all political parties and suspended dissident labour and peasant leaders and clergymen. Eduardo Frei and other Christian Democratic leaders initially supported the coup. Later, they assumed the role of an opposition to the military rulers, but soon lost most of their influence. Meanwhile, left-wing Christian Democratic leaders like Radomiro Tomic were jailed or forced into exile. The church, which at first expressed its gratitude to the armed forces for saving the country from the danger of a "Marxist dictatorship," became increasingly critical of the regime's social and economic policies.

In 1974, the country was divided into 13 regions (it had previously been divided into provinces). This design has continued until today, with the addition of two new regions on 2005: Region XV Arica y Parinacota on the north and region XIV De los ríos.

The junta embarked on a radical program of liberalization and privatization, slashing tariffs as well as government welfare programs and deficits. The new economic program was designed by a group of technocrats known as the Chicago boys because many of them had been trained or influenced by University of Chicago professors.

The economy grew rapidly from 1976 to 1981, fueled by the influx of private foreign loans until the debt crisis of the early 1980s. Despite high growth in the late 1970s, income distribution became more regressive. While the upper 5% of the population received 25% of the total national income in 1972, it received 50% in 1975. Wage and salary earners got 64% of the national income in 1972 but only 38% at the beginning of 1977. Malnutrition affected half of the nation's children, and 60% of the population could not afford the minimum protein and food energy per day. Infant mortality increased sharply. Beggars flooded the streets.

The junta relied on the army, the police, the oligarchy, huge foreign corporations, and foreign loans to maintain itself. As a whole, the armed services received large salary increases and new equipment. The oligarchy recovered most of its lost industrial and agricultural holdings, for the junta sold to private buyers most of the industries expropriated by Allende's Popular Unity government. This period saw the expansion of monopolies and widespread speculation.

Financial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans. Large foreign banks received large sums in repayments of interest and principal from the junta; in return, they lent the government millions more. International lending organizations such as the World Bank, the IMF, and the Inter-American Development Bank lent vast sums. Foreign multinational corporations such as International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT), Dow Chemical, and Firestone, all expropriated by Allende, returned to Chile.

1978–1990

Chile's main industry, copper mining, remained in government hands, but new mineral deposits were open to private investment. Capitalist involvement was increased, the national pension system and health care were privatized, and Superior Education was also placed in private hands. One of the junta's economic moves was fixing the exchange rate in the early 1980s, leading to a boom in imports and a collapse of domestic industrial production; this together with a world recession caused a serious economic crisis in 1982, where GDP plummeted by 14%, and unemployment reached 33%. At the same time a series of massive protests were organized trying to cause the fall of the regime, without success.

After the economic crisis of 1982, Hernan Buchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.

An important initiative begun in 1981 and carried on until today, aimed at modernizing the use of Information and Communication technology, greatly contributed to disentangle the traditional bureaucratic and cumbersome clerical procedures in all dealings with branches of the government, from civil registry to import/export documentation, thereby fostering a more agile economy and a more efficient public administration.

The military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General Fernando Matthei. Due to the Caso Degollados ("slit throats case"), in which three Communist party members were assassinated, César Mendoza, member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the carabineros, resigned in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange. The next year, Carmen Gloria Quintana was burnt alive in what became known as the Caso Quemado ("Burnt Alive case").

Problems with Argentina coming from the 19th century reached a high in 1978, with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped England during the Falklands War.

Chile's constitution was approved in a national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March 1981. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 54.5% of the vote.

Transition to Democracy : The Concertación

File:26042007g00010 Bachelet.jpg
Michelle Bachelet.
Main article: Chilean transition to democracy

After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the constitution, create more seats in the senate, diminish the role of the National Security Council and equalize the number of civilian and military members (four members each). Many among Chile's political class consider these and other provisions as "authoritarian enclaves" of the constitution and have pressed for reform.

Representing the Concertación coalition which supported the return to democracy, gathering the Christian Democrat Party (PDC), the Socialist Party (PS), the Party for Democracy (PPD) and the Social Democrat Radical Party (PRSD), Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin won a sweeping victory in the first democratic elections, in December 1989, since the 1970 election won by Salvador Allende. Patricio Aylwin had gathered around him 3,850,023 votes (55.17%), while the center-right supermarket tycoon Francisco Javier Errázuriz, who represented the UCCP party, managed to take 15.05% of the vote, which had as main effects to lower right-wing candidate Hernán Büchi's score to 29.40% (approximately 2 million votes, almost half of Patricio Aylwin).

The Concertación coalition would dominate Chilean politics for the next two decades, with its most recent victory being the 2006 election of Socialist candidate Michelle Bachelet. It established in February 1991 the National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human rights violations during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship. This report, contested by human rights NGOs and associations of political prisoners, counted 2,279 cases of "disappearances" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of "disappearances" made such investigations very difficult, while many victims were still intimidated by the authorities, and did not dare go to the local police center register themselves on lists, since the police officers were the same as during the dictatorship. The same problem arose, several years later, for the Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from 35,000 persons. However, the Rettig Report did list important detention and torture centers, such as the Esmeralda ship, the Víctor Jara Stadium, Villa Grimaldi, etc. The registering of victims of the dictatorship, and then, in the 2000s, trials of militaries guilty of human right violations, would dominate the

Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle

In the 1993 election, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Christian Democratic Party was elected president for a 6-year term leading the Concertacion coalition, and took office in March 1994. Following an agreement between Pinochet and Andrés Zaldívar Larraín, president of the Senate, the latter voted to abolish the date of 11 September as a National Holiday which celebrated the 1973 coup. Supporters of Pinochet had blocked until then any such attempt. The same year, Pinochet traveled to London for an operation. But under orders of Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, he was arrested there, lifting worldwide attention, not only because of the past history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrest of a dictator based on the universal jurisdiction principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President Ricardo Lagos, who had just sworn in on March 11, said the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him.

Representing the Concertación coalition for democracy, Ricardo Lagos had won the election just a few months before, by a very tight score of less than 200,000 votes (51,32%) against Joaquín Lavín (less than 49%), who represented the right-wing Alliance for Chile. None of the six candidates had obtained an absolute majority on the first turn held on December 12, 1999. Lagos was sworn in March 11, 2000, for a 6-year term.

In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea, expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub.

Meanwhile, the trials concerning human rights violations during the dictatorship continued. Pinochet was stripped of his parliamentary immunity in August 2000 by the Supreme Court, and indicted by judge Juan Guzmán Tapia. Guzmán had ordered in 1999 the arrest of five militarists, including General Pedro Espinoza Bravo of the DINA, for their role in the Caravan of Death following the 11 September coup. Arguing that the bodies of the "disappeared" were still missing, he made jurisprudence which had as effect to lift any prescription on the crimes committed by the military. Pinochet's trial continued until his death on December 10, 2006, with an alternation of indictments for specific cases, lifting of immunities by the Supreme Court or to the contrary immunity from prosecution, with his health a main argument for, or against, his prosecution. The Supreme Court affirmed in March 2005 Pinochet's immunity concerning the 1974 assassination of General Carlos Prats in Buenos Aires, which had taken place in the frame of Operation Condor. However, he was deemed fit to stand trial for Operation Colombo, during which 119 political opponents were "disappeared" in Argentina. The Chilean justice also lifted his immunity on the Villa Grimaldi case, a detention and torture center in the outskirts of Santiago. Pinochet, who still benefited from a reputation of righteousness from his supporters, lost legitimacy when he was put under house arrest on tax fraud and passport forgery, following the publication by the US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of a report concerning the Riggs Bank in July 2004. The report was a consequence of investigations on financial funding of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the US. The bank controlled between USD $4 million and $8 million of Pinochet's assets, who lived in Santiago in a modest house, dissimulating his wealth. According to the report, Riggs participated in money laundering for Pinochet, setting up offshore shell corporations (referring to Pinochet as only "a former public official"), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. Related to Pinochet's and his family secret bank accounts in United States and in Caraïbs islands, this tax fraud filing for an amount of 27 million dollars shocked the conservative sectors who still supported him. Ninety percent of these funds would have been raised between 1990 and 1998, when Pinochet was chief of the Chilean armies, and would essentially have come from weapons traffic (when purchasing Belgian 'Mirage' air-fighters in 1994, Dutch 'Léopard' tanks, Swiss 'Mowag' tanks or by illegal sales of weapons to Croatia, in the middle of the Balkans war.) His wife, Lucía Hiriart, and his son, Marco Antonio Pinochet, were also sued for complicity. For the fourth time in seven years, Pinochet was indicted by the Chilean justice.

The Chilean authorities took control in August 2005 of the Colonia Dignidad "community", directed by ex-Nazi Paul Schäfer.

The Concertación again won the 2006 presidential election. Michelle Bachelet, first woman president, won against Sebastián Piñera (Alliance for Chile), with more than 53% of the votes.

References

  1. C. Michael Hogan {2008) Pali Aike, Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham
  2. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm
  3. https://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/#6
  4. Chile: 16,000 Secret Documents Declassified
  6. Peter Kornbluh, CIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet’s Repression Report to Congress Reveals U.S. Accountability in Chile, Chile Documentation Project, National Security Archive, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006.
  7. The Kissinger Telcons: Kissinger Telcons on Chile, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted May 26, 2004. This particular dialogue can be found at TELCON: September 16, 1973, 11:50 a.m. Kissinger Talking to Nixon. Accessed online November 26, 2006.
  8. BBC: Finding Chile's disappeared
  11. Authoritarianism Defeated by Its Own Rules, (U.S.) Library of Congress Country Study of Chile (TOC), based on information available as of March 31, 1994.
  12. Chile abolishes coup holiday, BBC News, August 20, 1998
  13. Thousands march against Pinochet, BBC, March 4, 2000
  14. U.S. sends back Pinochet daughter, CNN, January 28, 2006

See also

Articles about Allende/Pinochet coup d'état in Chile

Sources

  • Cronología de Chile in the Spanish-language Misplaced Pages.
  • Paul Drake et al., Chile: A Country Study (Library of Congress, 1994). Brian Lovemen, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 3rd. ed., (Oxford University Press). John L. Rector, The History of Chile, (Palgrave Macmillian, 2005). Simon Collier and William F. Sater, A History of Chile, 1808-1994, (Cambridge University Press).

External links

History of South America
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