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|lake_name = Lake Michigan–Huron |lake_name = Lake Michigan–Huron
| image_lake = Lake-Michigan-Huron.svg | image_lake = Lake-Michigan-Huron.svg
| caption_lake = Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, together making up the hydrologcial system called "Lake Michigan-Huron", lie in the center of the ] | caption_lake = Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, together making up Lake Michigan-Huron, lie in the center of the ]
| image_bathymetry = | image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry =
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}} }}


'''Lake Michigan–Huron''' is a name sometimes given to ] and ] in the ] of ] when they are considered in ] as one. The two distinct ]s of the eastern ] and western ] are connected at the ], through which flow can occur in both directions depending on local weather conditions over each basin and on ] built up in various parts of the system. '''Lake Michigan–Huron''' is a name sometimes given to ] and ] in the ] of ] when they are considered as one hydrologically connected body of water. The two distinct ]s of the eastern ] and western ] are connected at the ], through which flow can occur in both directions depending on local weather conditions over each basin and on ] built up in various parts of the system.


Although ] and ] are geographically distinct entities,<ref name=lakelist1>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Historical Estimates of Limnicity |editor-last=Likens|editor-first=Gene E.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of inland waters|year=2009|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=0120884623|edition=1st}} Table 1: The world's lakes >2000 km<sup>2</sup> in area, arranged in decreasing order of lake area. See also </ref><ref name=lakelist2>{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=William M.|coauthors=Martin M. Kaufman |title=Physical geography : great systems and global environments|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0521764289|pages=399 |others=Table 16.2: Great lakes of the world by lake type}}</ref><ref name=lakelist3>{{cite book|editor-last=van der Leeden |editor-first=Frits |editor2-first=Fred L. |editor2-last=Troise |editor3-first=David Keith |editor3-last=Todd|title=The water encyclopedia|year=1991|publisher=Lewis|location=Chelsea, Mich.|isbn=9780873711203|pages=198&ndash;200|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=lakelist4>{{cite web|url=http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0001777.html |title=Large Lakes of the World |work=FactMonster |publisher=Pearson Eduction |accessdate=14 September 2012}}</ref><ref name=lakelist5>{{cite web|url=http://geography.about.com/od/lists/a/largestlakes.htm |title=Largest lakes in the world |author=Matt Rosenberg |work=About.com |publisher=The New York Times Company |accessdate=14 September 2012}}</ref> some sources count Michigan-Huron as a single entity,<ref name=CG /><ref name=GLERL /><ref name=USACE /><ref name=geologydotcom>http://geology.com/records/largest-lake.shtml</ref> making it the largest freshwater lake by area in the world. Very many sources consider ] and ] to be geographically distinct entities when placing them in their global context.<ref name=lakelist1>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Historical Estimates of Limnicity |editor-last=Likens|editor-first=Gene E.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of inland waters|year=2009|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=0120884623|edition=1st}} Table 1: The world's lakes >2000 km<sup>2</sup> in area, arranged in decreasing order of lake area. See also </ref><ref name=lakelist2>{{cite book|last=Marsh|first=William M.|coauthors=Martin M. Kaufman |title=Physical geography : great systems and global environments|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0521764289|pages=399 |others=Table 16.2: Great lakes of the world by lake type}}</ref><ref name=lakelist3>{{cite book|editor-last=van der Leeden |editor-first=Frits |editor2-first=Fred L. |editor2-last=Troise |editor3-first=David Keith |editor3-last=Todd|title=The water encyclopedia|year=1991|publisher=Lewis|location=Chelsea, Mich.|isbn=9780873711203|pages=198&ndash;200|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=lakelist4>{{cite web|url=http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0001777.html |title=Large Lakes of the World |work=FactMonster |publisher=Pearson Eduction |accessdate=14 September 2012}}</ref><ref name=lakelist5>{{cite web|url=http://geography.about.com/od/lists/a/largestlakes.htm |title=Largest lakes in the world |author=Matt Rosenberg |work=About.com |publisher=The New York Times Company |accessdate=14 September 2012}}</ref> However, some sources have counted Michigan-Huron as a single entity,<ref name=CG /> or a single entity with respect to certain areas such as level data and hydrology<ref name=GLERL /><ref name=USACE /><ref name=geologydotcom>http://geology.com/records/largest-lake.shtml</ref> which would make it the largest freshwater lake by area in the world.


== Bathymetry and hydrology == == Bathymetry, hydrology, and history ==


The connection between ] and ] is the ], which are {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} wide<ref name="Grady">{{cite book |last= Grady |first=Wayne |title= The Great Lakes|publisher= Greystone Books and ]| location=Vancouver |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-1-55365-197-0 |pages= 42–43}}</ref> and {{convert|120|ft|m}} deep.<ref>"?" Pearson Education, Inc: Information Please Database, 2007.</ref> This depth compares with maximum depths of {{convert|750|ft|m|0}} in Lake Huron and {{convert|923|ft|m|0}} in Lake Michigan. Although the Straits create a pronounced bottleneck in the planform of the system and a major constriction in the local ], defining two distinct topographic basins, they are still deep enough and wide enough to allow free exchange of water between the basins on either side without requiring a significant excess ] on one lake compared to the other. Thus, because of the link through the Straits, both Lakes Michigan and Huron have a mean water level of {{convert|577|ft|m|0}}.<ref name=nyt>{{cite book|first=John W. (ed.)|last=Wright|coauthors=Editors and reporters of ''The New York Times''|year=2006|title=The New York Times Almanac|edition=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-14-303820-6|page=64}}</ref> The connection between ] and ] is the ], which are {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} wide<ref name="Grady">{{cite book |last= Grady |first=Wayne |title= The Great Lakes|publisher= Greystone Books and ]| location=Vancouver |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-1-55365-197-0 |pages= 42–43}}</ref> and {{convert|120|ft|m}} deep.<ref>"?" Pearson Education, Inc: Information Please Database, 2007.</ref> This depth compares with to maximum depths of {{convert|750|ft|m|0}} in Lake Huron and {{convert|923|ft|m|0}} in Lake Michigan. Although the Straits create a pronounced bottleneck in the planform of the system and a major constriction in the local ], defining two distinct topographic basins, they are still deep enough and wide enough to allow free exchange of water between the basins on either side without requiring a significant excess ] on one lake compared to the other. Thus, because of the link through the Straits, both Lakes Michigan and Huron have a mean water level of {{convert|577|ft|m|0}}.<ref name=nyt>{{cite book|first=John W. (ed.)|last=Wright|coauthors=Editors and reporters of ''The New York Times''|year=2006|title=The New York Times Almanac|edition=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-14-303820-6|page=64}}</ref>


The combined effects of ]s (resonant standing waves)<ref name=SaylorSloss>James H. Saylor & Peter W. Sloss, 1976, Water Volume Transport and Oscillatory Current Flow through the Straits of Mackinac, Journal of Physical Oceanography, v. 6, p. 229-237, http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pubs/fulltext/1976/19760003.pdf</ref> and of differing weather conditions (atmospheric pressure, wind)<ref name=Mortimer59>{{harvnb|Mortimer|2000|p=59}}</ref> over each basin act to drive flow both ways through the Straits on a variety of characteristic timescales, with discharges sometimes exceeding 75000 m<sup>3</sup>/s for several hours in both directions.<ref name=SaylorSloss /> However, long term average flow through the Straits is eastwards at around 1500-2000 m<sup>3</sup>/s,<ref name=SaylorSloss /> in keeping with the main inflow to the system from ] through ] in the west, and the main outflow through the ] in the east.<ref name=Mortimer59>{{harvnb|Mortimer|2000|p=59}}</ref> The combined effects of ]s (resonant standing waves)<ref name=SaylorSloss>James H. Saylor & Peter W. Sloss, 1976, Water Volume Transport and Oscillatory Current Flow through the Straits of Mackinac, Journal of Physical Oceanography, v. 6, p. 229-237, http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pubs/fulltext/1976/19760003.pdf</ref> and of differing weather conditions (atmospheric pressure, wind)<ref name=Mortimer59>{{harvnb|Mortimer|2000|p=59}}</ref> over each basin act to drive flow both ways through the Straits on a variety of characteristic timescales, with discharges sometimes exceeding 75000 m<sup>3</sup>/s for several hours in both directions.<ref name=SaylorSloss /> However, long term average flow through the Straits is eastwards at around 1500-2000 m<sup>3</sup>/s,<ref name=SaylorSloss /> in keeping with the main inflow to the system from ] through ] in the west, and the main outflow through the ] in the east.<ref name=Mortimer59>{{harvnb|Mortimer|2000|p=59}}</ref>

==History==



During the last ], the sizes and connectivity of the two basins varied dramatically through time. Sequential advances and retreats of the ] repeatedly opened and dammed various possible outlets from the area, as well as providing dramatically varying amounts of meltwater to the system. At various times what is now Michigan–Huron was clearly separated into two lakes, and at other times was part of a single, deeper lake. At its peak, around 11,000 years ago and dammed by the ice sheet to the northeast, what is known to geologists as ] incorporated both modern lakes Huron and Michigan, as well as much of modern lake Superior.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243396/Great-Lakes/39974/Physiography | title=Great Lakes: Physiography | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. | work=Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=September 17, 2012}}</ref> Before that ] occupied the southern tip of the Lake Michigan basin, at the southern extent of the glaciers. Around 9,500 years ago, new pathways draining the system to the east were opened by the retreat of the ice, and what is now Lake Huron (known to geologists as ]) was separate from what is now Lake Michigan (]). After this, ongoing warping of the and surface by ] due to the removal of the ice continued to perturb the drainage structure of the region, allowing re-integration of all three basins (Superior, Michigan and Huron) as the ]. This arrangement was probably stable for more than 1000 years, ending only when lake outlets other than the ] were cut off around 4000 years ago. The current configuration of the lakes represents the last step in a long history of their postglacial evolution.<ref name=farrand>W.R. Farrand, 1998, The Glacial Lakes around Michigan, ftp://ftp.heritageacademies.com/ET/CurriculumCenter/CoreKnowledge/EH%20Glaciers%20and%20Lake%20Michigan%20for%204th%20Grade.pdf</ref> During the last ], the sizes and connectivity of the two basins varied dramatically through time. Sequential advances and retreats of the ] repeatedly opened and dammed various possible outlets from the area, as well as providing dramatically varying amounts of meltwater to the system. At various times what is now Michigan–Huron was clearly separated into two lakes, and at other times was part of a single, deeper lake. At its peak, around 11,000 years ago and dammed by the ice sheet to the northeast, what is known to geologists as ] incorporated both modern lakes Huron and Michigan, as well as much of modern lake Superior.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243396/Great-Lakes/39974/Physiography | title=Great Lakes: Physiography | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. | work=Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=September 17, 2012}}</ref> Before that ] occupied the southern tip of the Lake Michigan basin, at the southern extent of the glaciers. Around 9,500 years ago, new pathways draining the system to the east were opened by the retreat of the ice, and what is now Lake Huron (known to geologists as ]) was separate from what is now Lake Michigan (]). After this, ongoing warping of the and surface by ] due to the removal of the ice continued to perturb the drainage structure of the region, allowing re-integration of all three basins (Superior, Michigan and Huron) as the ]. This arrangement was probably stable for more than 1000 years, ending only when lake outlets other than the ] were cut off around 4000 years ago. The current configuration of the lakes represents the last step in a long history of their postglacial evolution.<ref name=farrand>W.R. Farrand, 1998, The Glacial Lakes around Michigan, ftp://ftp.heritageacademies.com/ET/CurriculumCenter/CoreKnowledge/EH%20Glaciers%20and%20Lake%20Michigan%20for%204th%20Grade.pdf</ref>
Line 46: Line 43:
== One lake or two? == == One lake or two? ==


Because of the relatively small size in both depth and width of the ] compared to the water bodies on either side, the distinct topographic basins which these occupy, and historical naming convention, ] and ] are considered to be geographically distinct. For instance, these two lakes are typically recorded as separate entries in lists of the largest lakes in the world by ] and ],<ref name=lakelist1 /><ref name=lakelist2 /><ref name=lakelist3 /><ref name=lakelist4 /><ref name=lakelist5 /> and their separate names are found on atlases and maps.<ref name=googlemaps>http://maps.google.com</ref><ref name=worldatlas>http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm</ref><ref name=bingmaps>http://www.bing.com/maps/</ref> In the context of hydrology, however, the two can be considered as one body of water.<ref name=GLERL>"Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake hydraulically because of their connection through the deep Straits of Mackinac." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, part of the ]. "." NOAA, 2006.</ref><ref name=USACE>"Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake, as they rise and fall together due to their union at the Straits of Mackinac." U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Hydrological Components" . August 2007. p.6</ref> Because of the strong hydrologic connectivity through the Straits, some sources have considered the total area and volume of Lake Michigan-Huron when placing this system in a global or regional context.<ref name=CG>David Lees in '']'' writes, "Contrary to popular belief, the largest lake in the world is not Lake Superior but mighty Lake Michigan–Huron, which is a single hydrological unit linked at the Straits of Mackinac."Lees, David. "High and Dry" '']'' (May/June 2004) pp.94-108.</ref> This is significant, because if Lake Michigan-Huron is treated as a single entity, it would be the ] by surface area in the world.<ref name=CG /><ref name=geologydotcom /> Because of the relatively small size in both depth and width of the ] compared to the water bodies on either side, the distinct topographic basins which these occupy, and historical naming convention, very many authorities consider the two Lakes ] and ] to be geographically distinct. For instance, these two lakes are typically recorded as separate entries in lists of the largest lakes in the world by ] and ].<ref name=lakelist1 /><ref name=lakelist2 /><ref name=lakelist3 /><ref name=lakelist4 /><ref name=lakelist5 /> The separate names are found on many atlases and maps.<ref name=googlemaps>http://maps.google.com</ref><ref name=worldatlas>http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm</ref><ref name=bingmaps>http://www.bing.com/maps/</ref> However, because of the strong hydrologic connectivity through the Straits, some sources have considered the total area and volume of Lake Michigan-Huron when placing this system in a global or regional context.<ref name=CG>David Lees in '']'' writes, "Contrary to popular belief, the largest lake in the world is not Lake Superior but mighty Lake Michigan–Huron, which is a single hydrological unit linked at the Straits of Mackinac."Lees, David. "High and Dry" '']'' (May/June 2004) pp.94-108.</ref><ref name=GLERL>"Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake hydraulically because of their connection through the deep Straits of Mackinac." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, part of the ]. "." NOAA, 2006.</ref><ref name=USACE>"Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake, as they rise and fall together due to their union at the Straits of Mackinac." U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Hydrological Components" . August 2007. p.6</ref> This is significant, because when Lake Michigan-Huron is treated as a single entity, it is the ] by surface area in the world.<ref name=CG /><ref name=geologydotcom />


==See also== ==See also==

Revision as of 22:50, 17 September 2012

It has been suggested that this article be merged into Great Lakes. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2012.
Lake Michigan–Huron
LocationUnited States, Canada
GroupGreat Lakes
Coordinates45°48′50″N 84°45′14″W / 45.814°N 84.754°W / 45.814; -84.754
TypeGlacial
Primary inflowsSt. Marys River
Primary outflowsSt. Clair River
Basin countriesUnited States, Canada
Surface area45,410 sq mi (117,600 km)
Max. depth922 ft (281 m)
Water volume2,029 cu mi (8,460 km)
Residence time100 years
Shore length5,463 mi (8,792 km)
Surface elevation577 ft (176 m)
SettlementsMilwaukee, Chicago, Cheboygan, Port Huron
Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

Lake Michigan–Huron is a name sometimes given to Lake Michigan and Lake Huron in the Great Lakes of North America when they are considered as one hydrologically connected body of water. The two distinct basins of the eastern Lake Huron and western Lake Michigan are connected at the Straits of Mackinac, through which flow can occur in both directions depending on local weather conditions over each basin and on resonances built up in various parts of the system.

Very many sources consider Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to be geographically distinct entities when placing them in their global context. However, some sources have counted Michigan-Huron as a single entity, or a single entity with respect to certain areas such as level data and hydrology which would make it the largest freshwater lake by area in the world.

Bathymetry, hydrology, and history

The connection between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron is the Straits of Mackinac, which are 5 miles (8 km) wide and 120 feet (37 m) deep. This depth compares with to maximum depths of 750 feet (229 m) in Lake Huron and 923 feet (281 m) in Lake Michigan. Although the Straits create a pronounced bottleneck in the planform of the system and a major constriction in the local bathymetry, defining two distinct topographic basins, they are still deep enough and wide enough to allow free exchange of water between the basins on either side without requiring a significant excess hydraulic head on one lake compared to the other. Thus, because of the link through the Straits, both Lakes Michigan and Huron have a mean water level of 577 feet (176 m).

The combined effects of seiches (resonant standing waves) and of differing weather conditions (atmospheric pressure, wind) over each basin act to drive flow both ways through the Straits on a variety of characteristic timescales, with discharges sometimes exceeding 75000 m/s for several hours in both directions. However, long term average flow through the Straits is eastwards at around 1500-2000 m/s, in keeping with the main inflow to the system from Lake Superior through St. Mary's River in the west, and the main outflow through the St. Clair River in the east.

During the last ice age, the sizes and connectivity of the two basins varied dramatically through time. Sequential advances and retreats of the Laurentian ice sheet repeatedly opened and dammed various possible outlets from the area, as well as providing dramatically varying amounts of meltwater to the system. At various times what is now Michigan–Huron was clearly separated into two lakes, and at other times was part of a single, deeper lake. At its peak, around 11,000 years ago and dammed by the ice sheet to the northeast, what is known to geologists as Lake Algonquin incorporated both modern lakes Huron and Michigan, as well as much of modern lake Superior. Before that Lake Chicago occupied the southern tip of the Lake Michigan basin, at the southern extent of the glaciers. Around 9,500 years ago, new pathways draining the system to the east were opened by the retreat of the ice, and what is now Lake Huron (known to geologists as Lake Stanley) was separate from what is now Lake Michigan (Lake Chippewa). After this, ongoing warping of the and surface by isostatic uplift due to the removal of the ice continued to perturb the drainage structure of the region, allowing re-integration of all three basins (Superior, Michigan and Huron) as the Nipissing Great Lakes. This arrangement was probably stable for more than 1000 years, ending only when lake outlets other than the St. Clair River were cut off around 4000 years ago. The current configuration of the lakes represents the last step in a long history of their postglacial evolution.

One lake or two?

Because of the relatively small size in both depth and width of the Straits of Mackinac compared to the water bodies on either side, the distinct topographic basins which these occupy, and historical naming convention, very many authorities consider the two Lakes Michigan and Huron to be geographically distinct. For instance, these two lakes are typically recorded as separate entries in lists of the largest lakes in the world by area and volume. The separate names are found on many atlases and maps. However, because of the strong hydrologic connectivity through the Straits, some sources have considered the total area and volume of Lake Michigan-Huron when placing this system in a global or regional context. This is significant, because when Lake Michigan-Huron is treated as a single entity, it is the largest freshwater lake by surface area in the world.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Likens, Gene E., ed. (2009). "Historical Estimates of Limnicity". Encyclopedia of inland waters (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0120884623. Table 1: The world's lakes >2000 km in area, arranged in decreasing order of lake area. See also Lakes (Formation, Diversity, Distribution)
  2. ^ Marsh, William M. Physical geography : great systems and global environments. Table 16.2: Great lakes of the world by lake type. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 399. ISBN 0521764289. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ van der Leeden, Frits; Troise, Fred L.; Todd, David Keith, eds. (1991). The water encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis. pp. 198–200. ISBN 9780873711203.
  4. ^ "Large Lakes of the World". FactMonster. Pearson Eduction. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  5. ^ Matt Rosenberg. "Largest lakes in the world". About.com. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  6. ^ David Lees in Canadian Geographic writes, "Contrary to popular belief, the largest lake in the world is not Lake Superior but mighty Lake Michigan–Huron, which is a single hydrological unit linked at the Straits of Mackinac."Lees, David. "High and Dry" Canadian Geographic (May/June 2004) pp.94-108.
  7. ^ "Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake hydraulically because of their connection through the deep Straits of Mackinac." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models." NOAA, 2006.
  8. ^ "Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake, as they rise and fall together due to their union at the Straits of Mackinac." U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Hydrological Components" Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior. August 2007. p.6
  9. ^ http://geology.com/records/largest-lake.shtml
  10. Grady, Wayne (2007). The Great Lakes. Vancouver: Greystone Books and David Suzuki Foundation. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-1-55365-197-0.
  11. "Michigan and Huron: One Lake or Two?" Pearson Education, Inc: Information Please Database, 2007.
  12. Wright, John W. (ed.) (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-303820-6. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ James H. Saylor & Peter W. Sloss, 1976, Water Volume Transport and Oscillatory Current Flow through the Straits of Mackinac, Journal of Physical Oceanography, v. 6, p. 229-237, http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pubs/fulltext/1976/19760003.pdf
  14. ^ Mortimer 2000, p. 59 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMortimer2000 (help)
  15. "Great Lakes: Physiography". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
  16. W.R. Farrand, 1998, The Glacial Lakes around Michigan, ftp://ftp.heritageacademies.com/ET/CurriculumCenter/CoreKnowledge/EH%20Glaciers%20and%20Lake%20Michigan%20for%204th%20Grade.pdf
  17. http://maps.google.com
  18. http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm
  19. http://www.bing.com/maps/

Further reading

  • Burg, J. P. (1959). "Precipitation and the levels of Lake Michigan-Huron". Journal Geophysical Research. 64: 1591–1595.
  • De Geer, Sten (1928). The American manufacturing belt. Volume 4 of Geografiska annaler. Svenska Sällskapet för Antropologi och Geografi.
  • Mortimer, Clifford H. (2004). Lake Michigan in motion : responses of an inland sea to weather, earth-spin, and human activities. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 59–78, 190–192, 300–309. ISBN 9780299178345. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Schaetzl, Randall J. (2000). "Postglacial Landscape Evolution of Northeastern Lower Michigan, Interpreted from Soils and Sediments". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 90 (3): 443–466. doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00204. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Schaetzl, Randall J. (2002). "Measurement, Correlation, and Mapping of Glacial Lake Algonquin Shorelines in Northern Michigan". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 92 (3): 399–415. doi:10.1111/1467-8306.00296. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Sellinger, Cynthia E. (2008). "Recent water level declines in the Lake Michigan–Huron system". Environ. Sci. Technol (42): 367–373. doi:10.1021/es070664+. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Shelton, William A. (1912). "The Lakes-to-the-Gulf Deep Waterway: I". Journal of Political Economy. 20 (6): 541–573.

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