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]]]Various forms of systematic and philosophical reflection on ] and ] arose in the classical period - from ]'s attempts to organise the diverse materials of mythology into a unified '']'' to the more properly philosophical analysis reportedly carried out by ].
]]]Various forms of systematic and philosophical reflection on ] and ] arose in the classical period - from ]'s attempts to organise the diverse materials of mythology into a unified '']'' to the more properly philosophical analysis reportedly carried out by ].
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''See main article: ]''
''See main article: ]''
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===Hellenistic theology (4th century BC to 6th century AD)===
===Hellenistic theology ===
]]]Philosophical reflection on the gods, on religion, and on the origins and governance of the Universe, flourished in the ] period amongst both Greek- and Latin-speaking thinkers. Amongst the very diverse movements of Hellenistic philosophy in which theological reflection could be found were ], ], ], ], and ].
]]]Philosophical reflection on the gods, on religion, and on the origins and governance of the Universe, flourished in the ] period amongst both Greek- and Latin-speaking thinkers. Amongst the very diverse movements of Hellenistic philosophy in which theological reflection could be found were ], ], ], ], and ].
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Hellenistic theology, which could be deemed to last until the suppression of the ] ] in ] by ], overlaps with early Jewish and early Christian theology (see below), and several strands of thought important particularly to early Christian thought arise within Hellenistic circles: attempts to explain the apparent caprice of the gods, ], the development of ], the idea of God as ] or ], the ] of spirit and matter in humanity, and ] (the release of the spirit from its material prison to a higher spiritual world) through knowledge.
Hellenistic theology, which could be deemed to last until the suppression of the ] ] in ] by ], overlaps with early Jewish and early Christian theology (see below), and several strands of thought important particularly to early Christian thought arise within Hellenistic circles: attempts to explain the apparent caprice of the gods, ], the development of ], the idea of God as ] or ], the ] of spirit and matter in humanity, and ] (the release of the spirit from its material prison to a higher spiritual world) through knowledge.
===Jewish theology in the 1st and 2nd centuries===
]]]Two strands of ] develop in this period. On the one hand, there are those oral traditions of ] exegesis (]) and legal discussion (] and ]) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD.
]]]Two strands of ] develop in this period. On the one hand, there are those oral traditions of ] exegesis (]) and legal discussion (] and ]) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD.
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On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with ] - a strand of thought of which ] (c.] to ] CE) is the best known proponent. The destruction of the ] in ] and the ] of many Jews from ] had a profound effect on Jewish Theology.
On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with ] - a strand of thought of which ] (c.] to ] CE) is the best known proponent. The destruction of the ] in ] and the ] of many Jews from ] had a profound effect on Jewish Theology.
===Jewish theology in the period of the Talmud (from the 3rd century to the 5th century)===
===In the period of the Talmud ===
]]]In the centuries after its compilation, discussion and commentary upon the ] flourished in Jewish academies in ] and in ]. Collections of opinions from these discussions, known as ] were eventually edited together and placed with the Mishnah itself, in both Israel (around 350 AD – the ]) and Babylon (around 550 AD, with further editing in the two centuries that followed – the Babylonian ]).
]]]In the centuries after its compilation, discussion and commentary upon the ] flourished in Jewish academies in ] and in ]. Collections of opinions from these discussions, known as ] were eventually edited together and placed with the Mishnah itself, in both Israel (around 350 AD – the ]) and Babylon (around 550 AD, with further editing in the two centuries that followed – the Babylonian ]).
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* ] (died c.])
* ] (died c.])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
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==Early Christian theology, from the 1st century to the 5th century)==
The ] contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the ] and ].
{{Christian theology}}The ] contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the ] and ].
===Patristic Theology (from the 2nd century to the 5th century)===
===Patristic theology===
A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the ] literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence of ] (the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between ] Christianity and ] Christianity), the establishment of a ], debates about the doctrine of the ] (most notably between the councils of ] in ] and ] in ]), about ] (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and ] in ]), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the ]), and about ], ] and ] (for instance in the debate between ] and ]).
A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the ] literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence of ] (the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between ] Christianity and ] Christianity), the establishment of a ], debates about the doctrine of the ] (most notably between the councils of ] in ] and ] in ]), about ] (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and ] in ]), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the ]), and about ], ] and ] (for instance in the debate between ] and ]).
Influential texts and writers in the second century include:
Influential texts and writers in the second century include:
* The collection known as the ] (mostly ])
* The collection known as the ] (mostly ])
* ]]]] (c. ]/] – c. ]/])
* ] (c. ]/] – c. ]/])
* ] (died c.])
* ] (died c.])
* ] (c.] - ])
* ] (c.] - ])
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* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the ]. Important theological debates also surrounded the various ] – ] in 325, ] in 381, ] in 431 and ] in 451
Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the ]. Important theological debates also surrounded the various ] – ] in 325, ] in 381, ] in 431 and ] in 451
See also main articles on ] and ].
See also main articles on ] and ].
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==Medieval Jewish Theology, from the 6th century to the 16th century)==
==Medieval Jewish theology==
We may divide medieval Jewish theologians into three categories: those primarily concerned with commentary upon Talmud (who can be further divided into the Genoim and the Rishonim); those whose main interests were more in the area of philosophical theology; and those who were part of the Karaite movement that rejected Talmud.
We may divide medieval Jewish theologians into three categories: those primarily concerned with commentary upon Talmud (who can be further divided into the Genoim and the Rishonim); those whose main interests were more in the area of philosophical theology; and those who were part of the Karaite movement that rejected Talmud.
===The Geonim (c.550-1000)===
===The ''Geonim'' ===
Babylonian rabbis, who taught Talmud and decided on issues on which no ruling had been rendered during the period of the Talmud.
The ''Geonim'' were Babylonian rabbis who taught Talmud and decided on issues on which no ruling had been rendered during the period of the Talmud.
Prominent ] include:
Prominent '']'' include:
* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
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* ] (c.]-c.])
* ] (c.]-c.])
===The Rishonim (c.1250-1550)===
===The ''Rishonim'' ===
The ] were the leading Rabbis between approximately 1250 to 1550, that is in the era before the writing of the ] by Rabbi ], which is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud.
The '']'' were the leading rabbis between approximately 1250 to 1550, that is in the era before the writing of the ] by Rabbi ], which is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud.
==Medieval Christian Theology (from the 6th century to the 16th century)==
===Byzantine Theology (c.500 to 1453)===
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
]]]
]]]
'''Mystical theology'''
====Mystical theology====
* ] (working c. ])
* ] (working c. ])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
'''Christological controversy after Chalcedon'''
====Christological controversy after Chalcedon====
When the ] under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserveed in Italy by men like ] and ] was different from the vigorous ] Christianity documented by ] which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in ] and ] in the ] and ]. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more ] affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
When the ] under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserveed in Italy by men like ] and ] was different from the vigorous ] Christianity documented by ] which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in ] and ] in the ] and ]. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more ] affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
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* ] (]-])
* ] (]-])
'''Theology in the time of ] (to ])'''
====Theology in the time of Charlemagne====
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the ] saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish ], around the views on predestination of ], or around the eucharistic views of ].
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the ] saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish ], around the views on predestination of ], or around the eucharistic views of ].
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at ] in the ] or ] in the ]. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as ], who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to ]. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic ] ], successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around ] in the ]: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century.
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at ] in the ] or ] in the ]. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as ], who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to ]. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic ] ], successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around ] in the ]: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century.
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* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
'''Early Scholasticism and its contemporaries (])'''
====Early Scholasticism and its contemporaries====
] is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the ] on Scripture associated with ], the rise to prominence of ] (middle subject of the medieval ]) in the work of Abelard, and the production by ] of a collection of ] or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
] is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the ] on Scripture associated with ], the rise to prominence of ] (middle subject of the medieval ]) in the work of Abelard, and the production by ] of a collection of ] or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
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* ] (c.]-])
* ] (c.]-])
'''High Scholasticism and its contemporaries (])'''
====High Scholasticism and its contemporaries====
The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the ] and ] and the associated rise of the ] (notably the ] and ]), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as ] (Franciscan) and ] (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic ] (Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing of ], with women such as ] playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' begain once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as ] and ].
The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the ] and ] and the associated rise of the ] (notably the ] and ]), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as ] (Franciscan) and ] (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic ] (Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing of ], with women such as ] playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' begain once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as ] and ].
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the ] or ] theologies of men like ]. The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as ], ] and the ]. Spiritual movements such as the ] also flourished.
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the ] or ] theologies of men like ]. The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as ], ] and the ]. Spiritual movements such as the ] also flourished.
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''See also ]''
''See also ]''
==Islamic theology==
==Islamic Theology from the 7th century to the 12th century==
{{Islam}}
{{Islam}}
===The beginnings of Kalam in the 7th and 8th centuries===
===The beginnings of ''Kalam''===
Islamic theology or '']'', in the sense of ordered, rational reflection upon Allah and his Qur’an, is commonly held to begin at the end of the 7th century – the first century A.H. – with debates about divine and human freedom.
Islamic theology or '']'', in the sense of ordered, rational reflection upon Allah and his Qur’an, is commonly held to begin at the end of the 7th century – the first century A.H. – with debates about divine and human freedom.
The '''Qadariyyah''' were those who defended a fairly strong view of human freedom, and included
The ''Qadariyyah'' were those who defended a fairly strong view of human freedom, and included
* ] (d.])
* ] (d.])
* ] (d.]
* ] (d.]
* ] (]-] or ])
* ] (]-] or ])
'The '''Jabriyyah''' were there opponents, and included
'The ''Jabriyyah'' were there opponents, and included
* ]
* ]
===Mu'tazilah from the 8th century to the 12th century===
===''Mu'tazilah''===
The Qadariyyah evolved into Mu‘tazilah which for some time was the dominant form of kalam, imposed as official orthodoxy under the ] dynasty, until the accession of ] in ], after which it was suppressed. For the five principal doctrines of Mutazilism, see the ]. Prominent Mutazilite theologians include:
The ''Qadariyyah'' evolved into ''Mu‘tazilah'' which for some time was the dominant form of ''kalam'', imposed as official orthodoxy under the ] dynasty, until the accession of ] in ], after which it was suppressed. For the five principal doctrines of Mutazilism, see the ]. Prominent Mutazilite theologians include:
* ] (c.]-])
* ] (c.]-])
* ] (c.]–c.])
* ] (c.]–c.])
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* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
===Ash'aryah from the 10th century to the 12th century===
===''Ash'aryah''===
From the late tenth century onwards, Mutazilite kalam, opposition to which had hitherto been almost indistinguishable from opposition to kalam itself, found a new opponent ''within'' kalam: ] kalam. Asharite kalam rose to become the dominant form of Islamic kalam, and helped distinguish kalam from falasafa - from philosophy (a distinction which is less clear when considering Mutazilite thought).
From the late tenth century onwards, ''Mutazilite kalam'', opposition to which had hitherto been almost indistinguishable from opposition to ''kalam'' itself, found a new opponent ''within'' ''kalam'': ''] kalam''. ''Asharite kalam'' rose to become the dominant form of Islamic ''kalam'', and helped distinguish ''kalam'' from ''falasafa'' - from philosophy (a distinction which is less clear when considering ''Mutazilite'' thought).
Prominent Asharites include:
Prominent Asharites include:
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* ] (died 1209)
* ] (died 1209)
Note should also be taken of the variant of Asharism know as '''Maturidism'''. Prominent ] authors include:
Note should also be taken of the variant of Asharism know as ''Maturidism''. Prominent ] authors include:
* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
* ] (died ])
===Falasafa (Islamic Philosophy) from the 9th century to the 12th century===
===''Falasafa'' (Islamic philosophy) ===
Whilst the boundaries are sometimes rather porous, scholars of Islamic thought often make a distinction between ''Falasafa'' (]) and ''Kalam'' (Islamic theology). Prominent writers normally held to stand on the Falasafa side of the divide include:
Whilst the boundaries are sometimes rather porous, scholars of Islamic thought often make a distinction between ''Falasafa'' (]) and ''Kalam'' (Islamic theology). Prominent writers normally held to stand on the Falasafa side of the divide include:
The ] yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the ], a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of ]. Most important were ], ], ], ], ] and the ]. Their Theology was developed by successors such as ], the English ] and ].
The Roman Catholic ] spearheaded by the ] under ] took their Theology from the decisions of the ]. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
The fall of ] in the East, ], led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of ], the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "]" consequently resulted and influenced ] in the direction of ] and ].
The ] yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated '''the ]''', a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of ]. Most important were ], ], ], ], ] and the ]. Their Theology was developed by successors such as ], the English ] and ].
'''The Roman Catholic ]''' spearheaded by the ] under ] took their Theology from the decisions of the ]. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
After the Reformation ] groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The "]" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the ], the ] and ]. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the ] and ]. these included ] and ]. A major issue for protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as ] versus ], though the labels ] and ] are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the ].
The ] saw the rise of ], new knowledge of ] in other continents and above all ]. This led many church men to espouse a form of ]. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of ] led to what is called "]". Of the Greek church ] is a 20th century theologian for the ]. Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two ] and fell prey to the criticisms of ].
'''The fall of ]''' in the east, ], led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of ], the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "]" consequently resulted and influenced ] in the direction of ] and ].
'''After the Reformation''' ] groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new Theologies. The "]" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the ], the ] and ]. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the ] and ]. these included ] and ]. A major issue for protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as ] versus ], though the labels ] and ] are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the ].
'''The Nineteenth Century''' saw the rise of ], new knowledge of ] in other continents and above all ]. This led many church men to espouse a form of ]. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of ] led to what is called "]". Of the Greek church ] is a 20th century theologian for the ]. Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two ] and fell prey to the criticisms of ].<!-- Unsourced image removed: ] is a well known ] Theologian]] -->
==Postmodern Theology==
==Postmodern theology==
''']''' seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the ] movement, ], ] and ] and most importantly ]. ], ] and ] were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to ].
] seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the ] movement, ], ] and ] and most importantly ]. ], ] and ] were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to ].
The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many '''reactionary movements''' amongst conservative believers. ], Pentecostal or ] and ], often combined with ], all moved from the fringe into the academy. ] stimulated the significant rise of ] which can be interpreted as a rejection of Academic Theology that fails to challenge ] and help the poor.
The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many ] movements amongst conservative believers. ], Pentecostal or ] and ], often combined with ], all moved from the fringe into the academy. ] stimulated the significant rise of ] which can be interpreted as a rejection of Academic Theology that fails to challenge ] and help the poor.
From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the ], the ]s and many so called "]s". Many of these groups use the protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the ], the ]s and many so called "]s". Many of these groups use the protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
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The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. ] represents a liberal interpretation as against ], and moderate or ] continues to be theologically distinct from ], notably its ] and ] Schools.
The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. ] represents a liberal interpretation as against ], and moderate or ] continues to be theologically distinct from ], notably its ] and ] Schools.
As other religions came to be studied in Western post Christian academies the term Theology was applied to them, though, as noted below, this may be a serious misnomer!
Various forms of systematic and philosophical reflection on Ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology arose in the classical period - from Hesiod's attempts to organise the diverse materials of mythology into a unified Theogony to the more properly philosophical analysis reportedly carried out by Socrates.
Philosophical reflection on the gods, on religion, and on the origins and governance of the Universe, flourished in the Hellenistic period amongst both Greek- and Latin-speaking thinkers. Amongst the very diverse movements of Hellenistic philosophy in which theological reflection could be found were Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Middle Platonism, and Neoplatonism.
Hellenistic theology, which could be deemed to last until the suppression of the AthenianAcademy in 529 by Justinian I, overlaps with early Jewish and early Christian theology (see below), and several strands of thought important particularly to early Christian thought arise within Hellenistic circles: attempts to explain the apparent caprice of the gods, Atheism, the development of monotheism, the idea of God as first cause or form of the Good, the dualism of spirit and matter in humanity, and redemption (the release of the spirit from its material prison to a higher spiritual world) through knowledge.
Two strands of Jewish theology develop in this period. On the one hand, there are those oral traditions of Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash) and legal discussion (Mishnah and Tosfeta) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD.
On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with Greek philosophy - a strand of thought of which Philo (c.20 BCE to 40 CE) is the best known proponent. The destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 AD and the dispersion of many Jews from Israel had a profound effect on Jewish Theology.
In the centuries after its compilation, discussion and commentary upon the Mishnah flourished in Jewish academies in Israel and in Babylon. Collections of opinions from these discussions, known as Gemara were eventually edited together and placed with the Mishnah itself, in both Israel (around 350 AD – the Jerusalem Talmud) and Babylon (around 550 AD, with further editing in the two centuries that followed – the Babylonian Talmud).
The New Testament contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the Pauline corpus and Johannine corpus.
Patristic theology
A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the Greek language literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence of orthodoxy (the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between catholic Christianity and Gnostic Christianity), the establishment of a Biblical canon, debates about the doctrine of the Trinity (most notably between the councils of Nicaea in 325 and Constantinople in 381), about Christology (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the Donatists), and about grace, free will and predestination (for instance in the debate between Augustine of Hippo and Pelagius).
Influential texts and writers in the second century include:
We may divide medieval Jewish theologians into three categories: those primarily concerned with commentary upon Talmud (who can be further divided into the Genoim and the Rishonim); those whose main interests were more in the area of philosophical theology; and those who were part of the Karaite movement that rejected Talmud.
The Geonim
The Geonim were Babylonian rabbis who taught Talmud and decided on issues on which no ruling had been rendered during the period of the Talmud.
The Rishonim were the leading rabbis between approximately 1250 to 1550, that is in the era before the writing of the Shulkhan Arukh by Rabbi Yosef Karo, which is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud.
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
When the Western Roman Empire fragmented under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserveed in Italy by men like Boethius and Cassiodorus was different from the vigorous Frankish Christianity documented by Gregory of Tours which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in Ireland and Northumbria in the seventh and eighth centuries. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more monastic affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained.
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the Carolingian Empire saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish Adoptionism, around the views on predestination of Gottschalk, or around the eucharistic views of Ratramnus.
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at Auxerre in the 9th century or Chartres in the 11th. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as Gerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to Otto III. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic OttonianHoly Roman Empire, successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around Berengar of Tours in the 11th Century: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century.
Anselm of Canterbury is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the gloss on Scripture associated with Anselm of Laon, the rise to prominence of dialectic (middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production by Peter Lombard of a collection of Sentences or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.
The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the Cathars and Waldensians and the associated rise of the mendicant orders (notably the Franciscans and Dominicans), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as Alexander of Hales (Franciscan) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic Bonaventure (Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing of mystical theology, with women such as Mechthild of Magdeburg playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' begain once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the nominalist or voluntarist theologies of men like William of Ockham. The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as conciliarism, Lollardy and the Hussites. Spiritual movements such as the Devotio Moderna also flourished.
Islamic theology or Kalam, in the sense of ordered, rational reflection upon Allah and his Qur’an, is commonly held to begin at the end of the 7th century – the first century A.H. – with debates about divine and human freedom.
The Qadariyyah were those who defended a fairly strong view of human freedom, and included
The Qadariyyah evolved into Mu‘tazilah which for some time was the dominant form of kalam, imposed as official orthodoxy under the Abbasid dynasty, until the accession of Al-Mutawakkil in 847, after which it was suppressed. For the five principal doctrines of Mutazilism, see the main article. Prominent Mutazilite theologians include:
From the late tenth century onwards, Mutazilite kalam, opposition to which had hitherto been almost indistinguishable from opposition to kalam itself, found a new opponent withinkalam: Ash'ari kalam. Asharite kalam rose to become the dominant form of Islamic kalam, and helped distinguish kalam from falasafa - from philosophy (a distinction which is less clear when considering Mutazilite thought).
Whilst the boundaries are sometimes rather porous, scholars of Islamic thought often make a distinction between Falasafa (Islamic philosophy) and Kalam (Islamic theology). Prominent writers normally held to stand on the Falasafa side of the divide include:
The Roman Catholic counter-reformation spearheaded by the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola took their Theology from the decisions of the Council of Trent. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.
The fall of Constantinople in the East, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia, the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "Old believers" consequently resulted and influenced Russian Orthodox Theology in the direction of conservatism and Erastianism.
Modern Christian theology
After the Reformation protestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The "Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the Methodists, the Quakers and Baptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the Nicene creed and Chalcedonian creed. these included Unitarians and Universalists. A major issue for protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as synergism versus monergism, though the labels Calvinist and Arminian are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the Synod of Dort.
From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Latter Day Saints and many so called "cults". Many of these groups use the protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.
Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many Christian denominations together. As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the World Council of Churches and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians.
The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. Reform Judaism represents a liberal interpretation as against Orthodox Judaism, and moderate or Liberal Islam continues to be theologically distinct from Islamic Fundamentalism, notably its Wahabi and Deobandi Schools.
