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| {{Short description|Indian |
{{Short description|Indian independence activist (1869–1948)}} | ||
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| {{Infobox person | {{Infobox person | ||
| | honorific_prefix = ] | | honorific_prefix = ] | ||
| | name = Gandhi | | name = Gandhi | ||
| | image = Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg | | image = Mahatma-Gandhi, studio, 1931.jpg | ||
| | caption = Gandhi in |
| caption = Gandhi in 1931 | ||
| | other_names = ''Bāpū'' (father), ''Rāṣṭrapitā'' (the ]) | |||
| | citizenship = {{ubl|] (1869–1947)|] (1947–1948)}} | |||
| | native_name = | |||
| | native_name_lang = | |||
| | birth_name = Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi | | birth_name = Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi | ||
| | birth_date = {{ |
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1869|10|2}} | ||
| | birth_place = ], ], ], ] | | birth_place = ], ], ], ] | ||
| | death_date = {{ |
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1948|1|30|1869|10|2}} | ||
| | death_place = ], ] | | death_place = ], ] | ||
| | death_cause = ] |
| death_cause = ] | ||
| | monuments = {{ |
| monuments = {{plainlist| | ||
| * ], Delhi | |||
| * ], New Delhi}} | |||
| | citizenship = {{ubl|] (until 1947)|] (from 1947)}} | |||
| | other_names = | |||
| |module={{infobox officeholder|embed=yes | | module = {{infobox officeholder|embed=yes | ||
| | office |
| office = ] | ||
| | term |
| term = December 1924 – April 1925 | ||
| | successor |
| successor = ] | ||
| | predecessor |
| predecessor = ]}} | ||
| | known_for = {{ubli|Leadership of the ] from |
| known_for = {{ubli|Leadership of the ]|]}} | ||
| | |
| height_m = | ||
| | |
| party = ] (1920–1934) | ||
| | alma_mater = {{ubl|]{{efn|Did not graduate}}|]{{efn|Informal ] between 1888 and 1891}}}}] | |||
| | party = ] (1920–1934)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://gandhiashramsabarmati.org/en/the-mahatma/life-chronology.html | work=] | title=The Mahatma – Life Chronology}}</ref> | |||
| | movement = ] | |||
| | alma_mater = {{ubli|], ] (1880 – November 1887)|], ] (January 1888 – July 1888)|], London (September 1888–1891)|(Informal ] at ] between 1888 and 1891)}} | |||
| | occupation = {{hlist|Lawyer|anti-colonialist|political ethicist}} | | occupation = {{hlist|Lawyer|anti-colonialist|political ethicist}} | ||
| | years_active = 1893–1948 | | years_active = 1893–1948 | ||
| | era = ] | |||
| | spouse = {{marriage|]|1883|1944|end=died}} | | spouse = {{marriage|]|1883|1944|end=died}} | ||
| | children = {{hlist|]|]|]|]}} | | children = {{hlist|]|]|]|]}} | ||
| | |
| parents = {{ubl|]|]}} | ||
| | |
| relatives = ] | ||
| | relatives = See ]<br>] (father-in-law of Gandhi's son Devdas) | |||
| | awards = ] (1930)<ref>{{cite web | url= https://sjsa.maharashtra.gov.in/en/mahatma-gandhi-biography | work=Social Justice & Special Assistance, Government of Maharashtra | title= Mahatma Gandhi Biography}}</ref> | |||
| | signature = Mohandas K. Gandhi signature.svg | | signature = Mohandas K. Gandhi signature.svg | ||
| | signature_alt = Signature of Gandhi | | signature_alt = Signature of Gandhi | ||
| | module2 = {{listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Gandhi - His Spiritual Message to the World, 17 October 1931.mp3|title=Mahatma Gandhi's voice|type=speech|description=Gandhi's spiritual message to the world<br />Recorded 17 October 1931}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| '''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' |
'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi'''{{efn|Pronounced variously {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɑː|n|d|i|,_|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|d|i}} {{Respell|GA(H)N|dee}};<ref>. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114041417/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gandhi |date=14 January 2015}} '']''.</ref> {{IPA|gu|ˈmoɦəndɑs ˈkəɾəmtʃənd ˈɡɑ̃dʱi}}}} (2{{nbsp}}October 1869{{snd}}30{{nbsp}}January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who employed ] to lead the successful ] from ]. He inspired movements for ] and freedom across the world. The honorific ''']''' (from ], meaning great-souled, or venerable), first applied to him in ] in 1914, is now used throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goswami |first=K.P |url=https://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhichr00kpgo |title=Mahatma Gandhi A Chronology |date=1971 |publisher=Publications Division |isbn=9788123001395 |pages=60}}</ref> | ||
| Born and raised in a ] family in coastal ], Gandhi trained in the law at the ] |
Born and raised in a ] family in coastal ], Gandhi trained in the law at the ] in London and was ] at the age of 22. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, Gandhi moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. Here, Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against discrimination and excessive land tax. | ||
| Assuming leadership of the ] in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending ], and, above all, achieving '']'' or self-rule. Gandhi adopted the short '']'' woven with ] yarn as a mark of identification with India's rural poor. He began to live in a ], to eat simple food, and undertake ] as a means of both introspection and political protest. Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} ] in 1930 and in calling for the British to ] in 1942. He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India. | Assuming leadership of the ] in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending ], and, above all, achieving '']'' or self-rule. Gandhi adopted the short '']'' woven with ] yarn as a mark of identification with India's rural poor. He began to live in a ], to eat simple food, and undertake ] as a means of both introspection and political protest. Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed ] with the {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} ] in 1930 and in calling for the British to ] in 1942. He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India. | ||
| Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on ] was challenged in the early 1940s by a ] which demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within ]. In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was ] into two ]s, a Hindu-majority ] and a Muslim-majority ]. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and ]s made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the ] and ]. Abstaining from the ], Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to alleviate distress. In the months following, he undertook several ]s to stop the religious violence. The last of these was begun in Delhi on 12 January 1948, when Gandhi was 78. The belief that Gandhi had been too resolute in his defence of both Pakistan and ]s spread among some Hindus in India. Among these was ], a militant ] from ], western India, who ] by firing three bullets into his chest at an interfaith prayer meeting in Delhi on 30 January 1948. | |||
| Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on ] was challenged in the early 1940s by a Muslim nationalism which demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within ].<ref name=Khan2007-page1>{{Cite book|last=Khan|first=Yasmin|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/18|access-date=1 September 2013|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-12078-3|page=}} Quote: "the Muslim League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. ... By the late 1940s, the League and the Congress had impressed in the British their own visions of a free future for Indian people. ... one, articulated by the Congress, rested on the idea of a united, plural India as a home for all Indians and the other, spelt out by the League, rested on the foundation of Muslim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslim homeland." (p. 18)</ref> In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire<ref name=Khan2007-page1 /> was ] into two ]s, a Hindu-majority ] and a Muslim-majority ].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{Cite book|last=Khan|first=Yasmin|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan|url-access=registration|access-date=1 September 2013|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-12078-3|page=}} Quote: "South Asians learned that the British Indian Empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority lived in the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... did not hear the news for many weeks afterward. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first they know about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India." (p. 1)</ref> As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and ]s made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the ] and ]. Abstaining from the ], Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to alleviate distress. In the months following, he undertook several ]s to stop the religious violence. The last of these, begun in Delhi on 12 January 1948 when he was 78,<ref name=spear-gandhi-1948-preconditions-fast>{{citation|last=Spear|first=Percival|author-link=Percival Spear|title=History of India, Volume 2: From the sixteenth century to the twentieth century|publisher=Penguin|year=1990|orig-year=1978|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13362/page/n241/mode/2up|isbn=978-0-140-13836-8|page = 239|quote=Gandhi came to Delhi from Bengal in October and now directed his reconciling mission from there. This time it was the Muslims he was championing and he found he was opposed by some elements within the government itself. It was the noblest and most courageous moment of his life. He had quelled the last outbreak of communal rioting in September and in January 1948 the inner voice spoke again. This time the issues were twofold, the payment to Pakistan of her agreed assets which had been withheld owing to the Kashmir dispute and the restoration of peace in the capital. Only when the money had been paid and a peace pact, including the evacuation of the mosques, had been signed, did he give up his fast, on 18th January.}}</ref><ref name=sources-ind-tradition-gandhi-1948>{{cite book|editor1-last=McDermott|editor1-first=Rachel Fell|editor2-last=Gordon|editor2-first=Leonard A. | editor-link2=Leonard A. Gordon|editor3-last=Embree|editor3-first=Ainslie T.|editor-link3=Ainslie T. Embree|editor4-last=Pritchett|editor4-first=Frances W.|editor5-last=Dalton|editor5-first=Dennis|editor-link5=Dennis Dalton|title=Sources of Indian Traditions, Volume 2: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh|edition=3rd |location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13830-7|page = 344|year = 2014|quote= In January 1948 he fasted successfully again in Delhi to stop Hindu attacks on Muslims and to coerce his own Indian government into payment of large sums of money that were due to Pakistan. He prevailed, extracting both government payment and pledges of peace by leaders of all groups. This enabled him to end his fast; but on January 30, as he was en route to his regular evening prayer meeting, he was shot by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist who believed him too lenient toward India’s Muslims and Pakistan. }}</ref><ref name=wolpert-patel-cash-assets>{{cite book|last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Wolpert|title=A New History of India|edition=7th|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year = 2004|isbn=0195166787|page = 358|quote=On January 11, 1948, Gandhi suggested that it would be better “to dissolve” Congress than allow it to continue functioning as it was, full of “decay and decline,” a place of “corruption” and “power politics.” The next day he announced his decision to fast “by way of protest” against the persecution of Muslims in India’s capital, in an effort to restore “heart friendship” among Indians of every religion. “Death for me would be a glorious deliverance rather than that I should be a helpless witness of the destruction of India, Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam,” the Mahatma told his prayer meeting audience that afternoon at Birla House, where he lived. “Let my fast quicken conscience, not deaden it. Just contemplate the rot that has set in in beloved India.” It was the last of his fasts. He ended it in less than a week, following messages of sorrow and prayer, including one from Sardar Patel promising to pay Pakistan forty million pounds sterling in cash assets, hitherto withheld by India. The entire cabinet gathered at the Mahatma’s bedside to confirm that promise. Nehru announced that the loss of Gandhi’s life would be “the loss of India’s soul.” There were others, however, who chanted, “Let Gandhi die!” Fanatical brahman members of the paramilitary Hindu communal Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh (“National Volunteer Association”; hereafter RSS), an offspring of the Hindu Mahasabha, plotted to assassinate the “old man,” who had “outlived his time.” A Poona Chitpavan, Naturam V. Godse, intellectual disciple of Savarkar, fired the fatal shots at Gandhi as he walked to his prayer meeting platform in the garden of Birla House just before sundown on January 30, 1948.}}</ref><ref name="Brown1991-p380">], p. 380: "Despite and indeed because of his sense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what he called his greatest fast. ... His decision was made suddenly, though after considerable thought – he gave no hint of it even to Nehru and Patel who were with him shortly before he announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 January 1948. He said he would fast until communal peace was restored, real peace rather than the calm of a dead city imposed by police and troops. Patel and the government took the fast partly as condemnation of their decision to withhold a considerable cash sum still outstanding to Pakistan as a result of the allocation of undivided India's assets because the hostilities that had broken out in Kashmir; ... But even when the government agreed to pay out the cash, Gandhi would not break his fast: that he would only do after a large number of important politicians and leaders of communal bodies agreed to a joint plan for restoration of normal life in the city."</ref> also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan,<ref name=metcalfandmetcalf-cash-assets-godse>{{cite book|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|author-link1=Barbara D. Metcalf|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of Modern India|edition = 3rd|publisher = Cambridge University Press|series = Cambridge Concise History series|isbn= 978-1-107-02649-0|page=262–263|quote=Just before his death, Gandhi made one last decisive intervention in the Indian political process. By a combination of prayer and fasting, he forced a contrite ministry to hand over to Pakistan its share of the cash assets of undivided India, some 40 million pounds sterling, which had so far been retained in defiance of the partition agreements.}}</ref><ref name=piotr-kashmir-gandhi-assets>{{cite book|title = Kashmir in India and Pakistan Policies|first1=Piotr|last1=Balcerowicz |first2=Agnieszka |last2=Kuszewska|publisher = Routledge | year = 2022|isbn=978-1-138-48012-4|quote=As the partition atrocities continued, on 13 January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi, the widely cherished leader of India's non-violent independence movement, commenced his fast to restore peace between the Hindu, Sikh and Muslim communities and to pressure the reluctant Indian government to transfer to Pakistan a due share of the unified, British Indian military assets and financial reserves.}}</ref><ref name=ceplair-cash-payment>{{cite book|last=Ceplair|first=Larry|title=Revolutionary Pairs: Marx and Engels, Lenin and Trotsky, Gandhi and Nehru, Mao and Zhou, and Castro and Guevara|year = 2020| isbn=9780813179193|location=Lexington|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|page=134|quote=Gandhi undertook his last fast, in January 1948, to protest the Indian government's decision to withhold a large settlement payment due to Pakistan until the Kashmir problem was solved.}}</ref><ref name=rudolphs-lakshmi-gandhi-last-fast>{{cite book|last1=Rudolph|first1= Lloyd I|author-link1=Lloyd I. Rudolph|last2=Rudolph|first2=Susanne Hoeber|author-link2=Susanne Hoeber Rudolph|title=In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State|location=Chicago and London|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|year=1987|isbn = 0-226-73138-3|pages=71–72|quote=Patel was not a committed or convinced secularist. His call for Muslims to pledge their loyalty to India as a condition of citizenship after partition, his one-sided defense of Hindus during the communal rioting and carnage that accompanied partition, and his refusal to honor India's commitment to turn over to Pakistan the assets due it were the occasion of Gandhi's last fast in January 1948. The riots in Delhi abated; Patel, after being told by Gandhi on the verge of death, "you are not the ''Sardar'' I knew," turned over the assets and deferred to Gandhi's call for brotherhood and forgiveness.}}</ref> which the Indian government,<ref name=burton-stein-godse>{{cite book|last1=Stein|first1=Burton|author-link1=Burton Stein|last2=Arnold|first2=David|author-link2=David Arnold (historian)|title = A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|series=Blackwell History of the World Series|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |pages=352–353|quote=He undertook a fast not only to restrain those bent on communal reprisal but also to influence the powerful Home Minister, Sardar Patel, who was refusing to share out the assets of the former imperial treasury with Pakistan, as had been agreed. Gandhi’s insistence on justice for Pakistan now that the partition was a fact, ... had prompted Godse’s fanatical action.}}</ref> had been resisting.<ref name=elkins-pakistan-payment>{{cite book|last=Elkins|first=Caroline|author-link=Caroline Elkins|title=Violence: A History of the British Empire|location=New York, NY|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2022|isbn=9780307272423|lccn=2021018550|quote=A few months later, with war-fueled tensions over Kashmir mounting and India refusing to pay Pakistan 550 million rupees, Pakistan's share of Britain’s outstanding war debt, Gandhi began to fast. “This time my fast is not only against Hindus and Muslims,” the Mahatma said, “but also against the Judases who put on false appearances and betray themselves, myself and society.” The elderly and frail man who was India’s symbolic political and spiritual leader went three days without food before India’s cabinet agreed to pay Pakistan, something Nehru had long promised Jinnah he would do.}}</ref><ref name=blinkenberg-patel-cash-payments>{{cite book|last=Blinkenberg|first=Lars|title=India-Pakistan: The History of Unsolved Conflicts: Volume I|publisher=Lindhardt og Ringhof|year = 2022|isbn=9788726894707|quote= Sardar Patel decided, in the middle of December 1947, that the recent financial agreements with Pakistan should not be followed, unless Pakistan ceased to support the raiders. ... Gandhi was not convinced and he felt—like Mountbatten and Nehru—that the agreed transfer to Pakistan of a cash amount of Rs. 550 million should be implemented despite the Kashmir crisis. Gandhi started a fast unto death, which was officially done to stop communal trouble, especially in Delhi, but "word went round that it was directed against Sardar Patel's decision to withhold the cash balances"... Only because of Gandhi's interference, which was soon to cause his death, Sardar Patel gave in and the money was handed over to Pakistan.}}</ref><ref name=sarkar-modern-india-jan48-1>{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Sumit|author-link=Sumit Sarkar|title=Modern India: 1885–1947|location=Delhi and Chennai|publisher=Pearson Education|year = 2014|page=375|isbn=9789332535749 |quote=This last fast seems to have been directed in part also against Patel’s increasingly communal attitudes (the Home Minister had started thinking in terms of a total transfer of population in the Punjab, and was refusing to honour a prior agreement by which India was obliged to give 55 crores of pre-Partition Government of India financial assets to Pakistan). ‘You are not the Sardar I once knew,’ Gandhi is said to have remarked during the fast.}}</ref><ref name=gandhi-suhrud-patel>{{cite book|last1=Gandhi|first1=Gopalkrishna|last2=Suhrud|first2=Tridip|title=Scorching Love: Letters from Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to his son, Devadas|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2022|quote=The national capital and its surrounding areas are gripped by massacres and the spewing of hate. The two Punjabs on either side of the border are aflame. On 1 January 1948, a Thai visitor comes and compliments him on India’s independence. “Today . . . Indian fears his brother Indian. Is this independence?’, Gandhi asks in response. Gandhi smarts at the Government of India’s new cabinet headed by Jawaharlal Nehru deciding to withhold the transfer of Pakistan’s share (Rs 55 crores) of the ‘sterling balance’ that undivided India has held at independence. The attack on Kashmur is cited as a reason for this. Patel says India cannot give money to Pakistan ‘for making bullets to be shot at us’. Gandhi's intense agitation settles into an inner quiet on 12 January when the clear thought comes to him that he must fast. And indefinitely.}} ‘It will end when and if I am satisfied that there is a reunion of hearts of all communities...’</ref><ref name=gurharpal=-shani-patel>{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Gurharpal|last2=Shani|first2=Georgio|title=Sikh Nationalism: From a Dominant Minority to an Ethno-Religious Diaspora|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-13654-0|lccn=2021017207|year=2022|page=107|quote=For further evidence of Patel’s involvement in the clearing of Muslims in north India, see Pandey (2001, 196). Against the background of the India-Pakistan conflict in Kashmir, the dispute between the two countries over the division of cash balances and Gandhi’s fast in early 1948, Mountbatten noted the following of his interview with Patel: ‘He expressed the view that the only way to re-establish decent relationship between the Muslims and non-Muslim communities was to remove Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan and drive out the Muslims of the East Punjab and the affected neighbouring areas.’ MB1/D76/1. Mountbatten Papers, University of Southampton.}}</ref> Although the Government of India relented,<ref name=talbot-2016-gandhi-assets>{{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia, Politics, States, Diasporas|page=183|year = 2016|isbn= 978-0-300-19694-8|lccn= 2015937886|location = New Haven and London|publisher=Yale University Press|quote=Disputes over Kashmir and the division of assets and water in the aftermath of Partition increased Pakistan’s anxieties regarding its much larger neighbor. Kashmir’s significance for Pakistan far exceeded its strategic value; its “illegal” accession to India challenged the state’s ideological foundations and pointed to a lack of sovereign fulfillment. The “K” in Pakistan’s name stood for Kashmir. Of less symbolic significance was the division of post-Partition assets. Not until December 1947 was an agreement reached on Pakistan’s share of the sterling assets held by the undivided Government of India at the time of independence. The bulk of these (550 million rupees) was held back by New Delhi because of the Kashmir conflict and paid only following Gandhi’s intervention and fasting. India delivered Pakistan’s military equipment even more tardily, and less than a sixth of the 160,000 tons of ordnance allotted to Pakistan by the Joint Defence Council was actually delivered.}}</ref> as did the religious rioters, the belief that Gandhi had been too resolute in his defence of both Pakistan and Indian Muslims, spread among some Hindus in India.<ref name=geva-delhi-jan48>{{cite book|last = Geva | first = Rotem | title = Delhi Reborn: Partition and Nation Building in India's Capital|publisher = Stanford University Press| year = 2022| pages=130–131 |isbn=9781503631199|lccn=2021051794|quote=It was against this background that Gandhi undertook his final fast unto death on January 12, 1948. Gandhi conditioned the termination of his fast on a complete change of heart and restoration of peace, protection of Muslim life and property, and repairing of shrines and mosques, especially the dargah (Sufi shrine) of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Mehrauli. Various Congress and socialist groups initiated peace meetings and processions in the city. After key bureaucrats, Congress leaders, nationalist Muslims, and even RSS leaders signed a pledge to restore peace and protect Muslims, Gandhi agreed to end his fast on January 18. A campaign to vacate mosques followed, along with a peaceful celebration of the Urs at Mehrauli, in which Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs participated. Yet violence continued in the midst of the fast, targeting Muslims and Congress peace processions. The atmosphere in the city was highly polarized. Hindu-right circles resented the Indian government's decision to release Pakistan's share of British India's cash assets while the war in Kashmir raged on, and saw Gandhi's fast as political blackmail to achieve precisely this aim. Hindu Mahasabha leaders criticized the peace pledge and took action against members who signed it. A few days after Gandhi ended his fast, a first attempt on his life was made by Madan Lal. ... On January 30, on his way to a prayer meeting in Birla House, Gandhi was shot dead by Nathuram Godse, who had a long association with the RSS and the Hindu Mahasabha.}}</ref><ref name=talbot-singh-delhi>{{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ&pg=PA118 |year=2009 |pages=118–119|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4|quote=It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival from refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to eventually abandon India's capital.}}</ref><ref name=Brown1991-p380 /> Among these was ],<ref name=ahmed-godse-assets>{{cite book| last = Ahmed|first=Raja Qaiser|title=Pakistan Factor and the Competing Perspectives in India: Party Centric View|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| year = 2022|isbn=978-981-16-7051-0|page=11|quote=Hindu nationalists viewed Pakistan through a communal lens and this embittered context, ingrained in their view of history and culture, plagued India-Pakistan relations. ... Hindu traditionalists in the Indian National Congress (INC) ranks also urged the pursuit of hawkish and chauvinist policies towards Pakistan. Sardar Patel's approach and statements concerning Pakistan were the manifestations of this mindset—many like him wanted to nullify Pakistan's significance. ... The Mahasabha, RSS and other Hindu nationalists were increasingly perturbed over what they saw as INC's meek policy towards Paksitan. ... They hated secular plurialism in India. Nathuram Godse also admitted killing Gandhi on his palpable pro-Pakistan sentiments and his fast unto death to make sure the division of financial assets between India and Pakistan proceeded in a just manner.}}</ref> a militant ] from ], western India,<ref name=sarkar-modern-india-jan48-2>{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Sumit|author-link=Sumit Sarkar|title=Modern India: 1885–1947|location=Delhi and Chennai|publisher=Pearson Education|year = 2014|page=375|isbn=9789332535749 |quote=Three days later the Mahatma was dead, murdered by a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse, as a climax to a conspiracy hatched by a Poona Brahman group originally inspired by V.D. Savarkar—a conspiracy which, despite ample warnings, the police of Bombay and Delhi had done nothing to foil.}}</ref><ref name=bell-savarkar>{{cite book|last=Bell|first=J. Bowyer|author-link=J. Bowyer Bell|title=Assassin: Theory and Practice of Political Violence|location=London|publisher=Routledge|year = 2017 | orig-year=2005|isbn=978-1-4128-0509-4|quote=The key to the conspiracy was Vinnayak Damodar Veer “The Brave” Savarkar, sixty-five, a Hindu ascetic, slender, intense, with steel-rim spectacles and a dedication to the concept of a greater Hindu India. He opposed the British raj, the concept of partition, the idea of Pakistan and, in 1947, the emerging reality of all those things. Trained in the Inns of Court, he had been imprisoned on the Andaman Islands with a double life sentence for the murder of a British bureaucrat, then freed by a postwar amnesty. He had been involved at a distance in previous attempts on the lives of the governors of Punjab and Bombay. His organization, Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (RSSS), had an inner and violent core, Hindu Rashtra Dal, established on May 15, 1942, made up of Chitpawan Brahmans fanatically dedicated to the Greater Hindu State. ... By January 1948, he and his followers had grown increasingly frustrated by the direction of events: India had been partitioned, Pakistan existed, and Moslems and Hindus had indulged in a long orgy of massacre that had finally largely ended because of mutual exhaustion, the flight of the vulnerable, and the last fast of Gandhi. On January 18, 1948, after fasting for 121 hours and 30 minutes, Gandhi had forced the government to agree to a series of accommodations and concessions—including turning over 550 million rupees to Pakistan as promised. For the RSSS this was treason, a betrayal of Hindu India, not simply a maneuver to end mass murder but an open recognition of Pakistan by India’s most renowned figure—the moral blessing of treachery.}}</ref> who ] by firing three bullets into his chest at an interfaith prayer meeting in Delhi on 30 January 1948.<ref name=babb-godse-assets>{{cite book|last=Babb|first=Lawrence A. |title=Religion in India: Past and Present|publisher=Dunedin Academic Press|location=Edinburgh|year=2020|isbn=9781780466231|quote=But like a recessive gene, Hindu nationalism had been there all along, and now it had sprung back into high visibility. At the time of the assassination, Godse was no longer a formal member of the RSS, but he was strongly anti-Muslim and considered Gandhi a Muslim appeaser, a view shared by many others, especially among Hindu nationalists. With the first Kashmir war in progress, the Congress had decided not to pay money owed to Pakistan as its share of India's assets prior to partition. Gandhi opposed this position and went on a 'fast-unto-death' to get it reversed, which in fact was done in early January 1948. The assassination soon followed. Godse was caught, tried and hanged.}}</ref><ref name=lelyveld-godse-assets>{{cite book|last=Lelyveld|first = Joseph|author-link=Joseph Lelyveld|title = Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf| year = 2012|orig-year=2011| isbn = 978-0-307-38995-4|quote=By his assassin's own testimony, it was Gandhi's announcement of his fast on the twelfth that had lit the fuse on the plot he and his main accomplice hatched starting that night; and it was the declaration three days later that the cabinet had reversed itself and decided to transfer the blocked reserves to Pakistan, explaining that it was moved by a desire "to help in every way open to them in the object which Gandhiji has in heart, " that had clinched the secret verdict of the conspirators condemning him to death. ... Of the unfreezing of the assets, the assassin would say: "This decision of the people's government was reversed to suit the tune of Gandhiji's fast. It was evident to my mind that the force of public opinion was nothing but a trifle when compared with the leanings of Gandhiji favorable to Pakistan." The victim's sterling virtues were an inherent part of the problem, of the obstacle he represented. "A most severe austerity of life, ceaseless work and lofty character made Gandhiji formidable and irresistible," the assassin said in his ex post facto justification of his deed. Something had to be done if India was ever to pursue its own interests the way other nations pursued theirs. Therefore, said Godse, he "decided to remove Gandhiji from the political stage."}}</ref><ref name="CushRobinson2008">{{Cite book|last1=Cush|first1=Denise|last2=Robinson|first2=Catherine|last3=York|first3=Michael|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC&pg=PA544|access-date=31 August 2013|year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|page=544|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012221104/http://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC&pg=PA544|archive-date=12 October 2013}} Quote: "The apotheosis of this contrast is the assassination of Gandhi in 1948 by a militant Nathuram Godse, on the basis of his 'weak' accommodationist approach towards the new state of Pakistan." (p. 544)</ref><ref name=copland=-godse>{{cite book|last= Copland|first= Ian| title= India 1885-1947: The Unmaking of an Empire|location= London and New York|publisher= Routledge |page = 77 |series = Seminar Studies in History series|isbn= 978-0-582-38173-5|year =2001 |quote=Gandhi was adamant that the debt to Pakistan had to be paid, and in March 1948 he announced that he planned to embark on another indefinite fast to ensure that the Indian government fulfilled its legal and moral obligations. The Mahasabha and the RSS denounced this plan as tantamount to treason. In the early evening of 30 March, as he addressed a prayer meeting at Birla House, New Delhi, India’s prince of peace was shot and killed by a member of an RSS splinter-group, Nathuram Godse.}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as ], a ], and worldwide as the ]. Gandhi is considered to be the ] in post-colonial India. During India's nationalist movement and in several decades immediately after, he was also commonly called ''Bapu'', an endearment roughly meaning "father".<!--Do NOT add citations to the lead, except for material likely to be challenged, per ] (]. Move unneeded citations to the body.--> | |||
| Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as ], a ], and worldwide as the ]. Gandhi is considered the ] in India<ref name="archive.indianexpress.com">{{cite news |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gandhi-not-formally-conferred-father-of-the-nation-title-govt/973101/ |title=Gandhi not formally conferred 'Father of the Nation' title: Govt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906121950/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gandhi-not-formally-conferred-father-of-the-nation-title-govt/973101 |archive-date=6 September 2014 |work=] |date=11 July 2012 }}</ref><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms |title=Constitution doesn't permit 'Father of the Nation' title: Government |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107223546/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms |archive-date=7 January 2017 |work=The Times of India |date=26 October 2012 }}</ref> and was commonly called '''Bapu'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nehru |first1=Jawaharlal |title=An Autobiography |publisher=Bodley Head }}</ref> (]: endearment for ''father'',<ref name="McAllister1982" /> ''papa''<ref name="McAllister1982">{{Cite book|last=McAllister|first=Pam|title=Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence|url=https://archive.org/details/reweavingwebofli00mcal|url-access=registration|access-date=31 August 2013|year=1982|publisher=New Society Publishers|isbn=978-0-86571-017-7|page=}} Quote: "With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with the term of endearment used by your close friends, the term you used with all the movement leaders, roughly meaning 'Papa'." Another letter written in 1940 shows similar tenderness and caring.</ref><ref name="Eck2003">{{Cite book|last=Eck|first=Diana L.|author-link=Diana Eck|title=Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpR0AmKLeY4C&pg=PA210|access-date=31 August 2013|year=2003|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8070-7301-8|page=210|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012220529/http://books.google.com/books?id=XpR0AmKLeY4C&pg=PA210|archive-date=12 October 2013}} Quote: "... his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi 'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the familiar, 'daddy'." (p. 210)</ref>). | |||
| {{TOC limit|limit=3}} | {{TOC limit|limit=3}} | ||
| == Early life and background == | |||
| == Biography == | |||
| === Early life and background === | |||
| Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi<ref name="Gandhi name">{{cite book |last=Todd |first=Anne M. |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC&pg=PA8 |title=Mohandas Gandhi |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-0662-5 |page=8 |quote=The name Gandhi means "grocer", although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers. }}</ref> was born on 2 October 1869<ref name="Gandhi DOB">{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC|title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire|date=2008-03-10|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25570-8|language=en}}</ref> into a ] ] ] ] family<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS7UAAAAQBAJ&q=%22the+subcaste+the+Gandhis+belonged+to+was+known+as+Modh+Bania,+the+prefix%22&pg=PP42|title=Gandhi before India|date=15 October 2014|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-5118-322-8|pages=42|language=en|quote=The subcaste the Gandhis belonged to was known as Modh Bania, the prefix apparently referring to the town of Modhera, in Southern Gujarat}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Responses to One Hundred and One Questions on Hinduism By John Renard|year=1999|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/responsesto101qu0000rena_e0p7/page/139|isbn=978-0-8091-3845-6|author=Renard, John|access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref> in ] (also known as ''Sudamapuri''), a coastal town on the ] Peninsula and then part of the small ] of ] in the ] of the ]. His father, ] (1822–1885), served as the '']'' (chief minister) of Porbandar state.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=in3_3H1szHYC&pg=PA21 |first=Mohandas K. |last=Gandhi |title=An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth |year= 2009 |page=21|isbn=978-1-77541-405-6 }}</ref><ref name="GangulyDocker20082"/> His family originated from the then village of ] in what was then ].<ref name="Gandhi before India">{{cite book|title=Gandhi before India|date=16 March 2015|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3|pages=19–21}}</ref> | |||
| === Parents === | |||
| Although he only had an elementary education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration, Karamchand proved a capable chief minister.<ref name=GuhaPP19to21>Guha 2015 pp. 19–21</ref> During his tenure, he married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, he sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh,<ref name=GuhaPP19to21 /> and was from a ] ] family.<ref>{{cite book|author=Misra, Amalendu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLgB8pZg0qsC&pg=PA67|title=Identity and Religion: Foundations of anti-Islamism in India|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7619-3227-7|page=67}} | |||
| Gandhi's father, ] (1822–1885), served as the '']'' (chief minister) of Porbandar state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas K. |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=in3_3H1szHYC&pg=PA21 |title=An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth |publisher=The Floating Press |isbn=978-1-77541-405-6 |page=21 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130538/https://books.google.com/books?id=in3_3H1szHYC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="GangulyDocker20082">{{cite book |title=Rethinking Gandhi and Nonviolent Relationality: Global Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cId9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |pages=4– |year=2008 |editor-last=Ganguly |editor-first=Debjani |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-134-07431-0 |editor-last2=Docker |editor-first2=John |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721085146/https://books.google.com/books?id=cId9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |url-status=live |quote=... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti-colonial nationalist politics in the twentieth-century in ways that neither indigenous nor westernized Indian nationalists could.}}</ref> His family originated from the then village of ] in what was then ].{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=19–21}} Although Karamchand only had been a clerk in the state administration and had an elementary education, he proved a capable chief minister.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=19–21}} | |||
| During his tenure, Karamchand married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, Karamchand sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh,{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=19–21}} and was from a ] ] family.<ref>{{cite book |author=Misra, Amalendu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLgB8pZg0qsC&pg=PA67 |title=Identity and Religion: Foundations of anti-Islamism in India |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7619-3227-7 |page=67}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gandhi|2007a|p=}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Malhotra, S.L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRq21fNfydIC&pg=PA5 |title=Lawyer to Mahatma: Life, Work and Transformation of M. K. Gandhi |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-7629-293-1 |page=5 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130509/https://books.google.com/books?id=fRq21fNfydIC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}}</ref> Karamchand and Putlibai had four children: a son, Laxmidas ({{circa|1860}}–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); a second son, Karsandas ({{circa|1866}}–1913).{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=21}}{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=512}} and a third son, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi<ref>{{cite book |last=Todd |first=Anne M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC&pg=PA8 |title=Mohandas Gandhi |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4381-0662-5 |page=8 |quote=The name Gandhi means "grocer", although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers. |access-date=29 March 2024 |url-status=live |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130649/https://books.google.com/books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> who was born on 2 October 1869 in ] (also known as ''Sudamapuri''), a coastal town on the ] Peninsula and then part of the small ] of ] in the ] of the ].{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|pp=1–3}} | |||
| {{cite book|author=Gandhi, Rajmohan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEyXCoc76AEC&pg=PA5|title=Mohandas: A True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire By Gandhi|year=2006|isbn=978-0-14-310411-7|page=5}} | |||
| In 1874, Gandhi's father, Karamchand, left Porbandar for the smaller state of ], where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's ''diwan'' a measure of security.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=24–25}} In 1876, Karamchand became ''diwan'' of Rajkot and was succeeded as ''diwan'' of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. Karamchand's family then rejoined him in Rajkot.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=24–25}} They moved to their family home ] in 1881.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Kateshiya |first=Gopal B |date=14 July 2024 |title=Know Your City: Gandhi's family house which witnessed his transformation from 'Mohan to Mahatma' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gandhis-family-house-which-sowed-seeds-of-his-transformation-9452843/ |work=The Indian Express |access-date=15 July 2024 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224423/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/gandhis-family-house-which-sowed-seeds-of-his-transformation-9452843/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| {{cite book|author=Malhotra, S.L|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRq21fNfydIC&pg=PA5|title=Lawyer to Mahatma: Life, Work and Transformation of M. K. Gandhi|year=2001|isbn=978-81-7629-293-1|page=5}}</ref> Karamchand and Putlibai had three children over the ensuing decade: a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); and another son, Karsandas (c. 1866–1913).<ref>Guha 2015, p. 21</ref><ref>Guha 2015, p. 512</ref> | |||
| === Childhood === | |||
| On 2 October 1869, Putlibai gave birth to her last child, Mohandas, in a dark, windowless ground-floor room of the Gandhi family residence in Porbandar city. As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as "restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears."<ref>Guha 2015, p. 22</ref> The Indian classics, especially the stories of ] and king ], had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, he states that they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.<ref name="Sorokin2002" /><ref name="RudolphRudolph1983">{{cite book|author1=Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber|url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Gandhi/Fi6GDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=That+the+story+of+Harishchandra,+a+well-known+classic+tale+acted+by+a+passing+traveling+troupe&pg=PA48&printsec=frontcover|title=Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma|author2=Rudolph, Lloyd I.|publisher=]|year=1983|isbn=978-0-226-73136-0|page=48|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> | |||
| As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as "restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears."{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=22}} The Indian classics, especially the stories of ] and king ], had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, Gandhi states that they left an indelible impression on his mind. Gandhi writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.<ref name="Sorokin2002" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Susanne Hoeber |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi6GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma |publisher=] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-226-73136-0 |page=48 |last2=Rudolph |first2=Lloyd I. |name-list-style=amp |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224423/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi6GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| The family's religious background was eclectic. Gandhi's father Karamchand was |
The family's religious background was eclectic. Mohandas was born into a ] ] ] ] family.<ref>{{harvp|Guha|2014a|p=}}. "The subcaste the Gandhis belonged to was known as Modh Bania, the prefix apparently referring to the town of Modhera, in Southern Gujarat."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Renard, John |year=1999 |title=Responses to 101 Questions on Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/responsesto101qu0000rena_e0p7/page/139 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-3845-6 |page= |access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref> Gandhi's father, Karamchand, was Hindu and his mother Putlibai was from a Pranami ] Hindu family.{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|pp=2, 8, 269}}<ref name="sharma11">{{cite book |last=Arvind Sharma |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhispiritualb0000shar |title=Gandhi: A Spiritual Biography |publisher=] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-300-18738-0 |pages=–14 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Gandhi's father was of Modh Baniya caste in the ] of ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Susanne Hoeber |title=Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma |last2=Rudolph, Lloyd I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi6GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-226-73136-0 |page=17 |name-list-style=amp |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224429/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi6GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> His mother came from the medieval ] bhakti-based ] tradition, whose religious texts include the ], the '']'', and a collection of 14 texts with teachings that the tradition believes to include the essence of the ], the ] and the ].<ref name="sharma11" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Gerard Toffin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuuICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT249 |title=Public Hinduisms |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-321-1696-7 |editor-last=John Zavos |pages=249–57 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother, an extremely pious lady who "would not think of taking her meals without her daily prayers... she would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her."{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=23}} | ||
| ] | |||
| In 1874, Gandhi's father Karamchand left Porbandar for the smaller state of ], where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's ''diwan'' a measure of security.<ref>Guha 2015, pp. 24–25</ref> In 1876, Karamchand became ''diwan'' of Rajkot and was succeeded as ''diwan'' of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. His family then rejoined him in Rajkot.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|title=Gandhi before India|year= 2015|author=Rajmohan Gandhi |publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3|pages=24–25}}</ref> | |||
| At the age of nine, Gandhi entered the local school in ], near his home. There, he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=24–25}} At the age of 11, Gandhi joined the High School in Rajkot, ].{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=25–26}} He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue-tied student, with no interest in games; Gandhi's only companions were books and school lessons.{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=}} | |||
| ] | |||
| === Marriage === | |||
| At age 9, Gandhi entered the local school in ], near his home. There, he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> At the age of 11, he joined the High School in Rajkot, ].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|title=Gandhi before India|year= 2015|author=Rajmohan Gandhi | publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3|pages=25–26}}</ref> He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue tied student, with no interest in games; his only companions were books and school lessons.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sankar Ghose|title=Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA4|year=1991|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6|page=4}}</ref> | |||
| In May 1883, the 13-year-old Gandhi was married to 14-year-old ] (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an ], according to the custom of the region at that time.<ref name="Mohanty2011" /> In the process, he lost a year at school but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies.<ref name="Childhood">{{cite web |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas K. |year=1940 |title=At the High School |url=http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/At_the_High_School |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=] |publisher=Wikilivres |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307155915/http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/At_the_High_School |url-status=live}}</ref> Gandhi's wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married. Recalling the day of their marriage, Gandhi once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." As was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.<ref name="Husband">{{cite web |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas K. |year=1940 |title=Playing the Husband |url=http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/Playing_the_Husband |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=] |publisher=Wikilivres |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307155915/http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/Playing_the_Husband |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Writing many years later, Gandhi described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride: "Even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me." Gandhi later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when Kasturba would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=28–29}} | |||
| In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old ] (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an ], according to the custom of the region at that time.<ref name="Mohanty2011" /> In the process, he lost a year at school but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies.<ref name="Childhood">{{Cite web|title=The Story of My Experiments with Truth/Part I/At the High School - wikilivres|url=http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/At_the_High_School|access-date=2023-02-20|website=wikilivres.org}}</ref> His wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married. Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." As was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.<ref name="Husband">{{Cite web|title=The Story of My Experiments with Truth/Part I/Playing the Husband - wikilivres|url=http://wikilivres.org/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/Playing_the_Husband|access-date=2023-02-20|website=wikilivres.org}}</ref> | |||
| In late 1885, Gandhi's father, Karamchand, died.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=29}} Gandhi had left his father's bedside to be with his wife mere minutes before his passing. Many decades later, Gandhi wrote "if animal passion had not blinded me, I should have been spared the torture of separation from my father during his last moments."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gandhi |first=M. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=in3_3H1szHYC |title=An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth |date=1 January 2009 |publisher=The Floating Press |isbn=978-1-77541-405-6 |pages=61–62 |language=en |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224424/https://books.google.com/books?id=in3_3H1szHYC |url-status=live }}</ref> Later, Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife, age 17, had their first child, who survived only a few days. The two deaths anguished Gandhi.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=29}} The Gandhis had four more children, all sons: ], born in 1888; ], born in 1892; ], born in 1897; and ], born in 1900.<ref name="Mohanty2011" /> | |||
| Writing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride: "even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me." He later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when she would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramachandra Guha |title=Gandhi before India |year= 2015| publisher= Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3|pages=28–29}}</ref> | |||
| In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in ].{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=30}} In January 1888, he enrolled at ] in ], then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. However, Gandhi dropped out and returned to his family in Porbandar.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=32}} | |||
| In late 1885, Gandhi's father Karamchand died.<ref name="ReferenceC">Guha 2015, p. 29</ref> Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife of age 17 had their first baby, who survived only a few days. The two deaths anguished Gandhi.<ref name="ReferenceC" /> The Gandhi couple had four more children, all sons: ], born in 1888; ], born in 1892; ], born in 1897; and ], born in 1900.<ref name="Mohanty2011" /> | |||
| Outside school, Gandhi's education was enriched by exposure to Gujarati literature, especially reformers like ] and ], whose works alerted the Gujaratis to their own faults and weaknesses such as belief in religious dogmatism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arDvngEACAAJ |title=Gandhi Before India |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-385-53229-7 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
| In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in ].<ref>Guha 2015, p. 30</ref> In January 1888, he enrolled at ] in ], then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. However, he dropped out, and returned to his family in Porbandar.<ref name="autogenerated32">Guha 2015, p. 32</ref> | |||
| == Three years in London == | |||
| === Student of law === | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| Gandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay.<ref name="Turban">{{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas K. |year=1940 |chapter-url=http://wikilivres.ca/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/Preparation_for_England |chapter=Preparation for England |title=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702043412/http://wikilivres.ca/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/Part_I/Preparation_for_England |archive-date=2 July 2012}}</ref> Mavji Dave Joshiji, a ] priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=32}}<ref name="B. R. Nanda">{{cite encyclopedia |last=B. R. Nanda |article=Mahatma Gandhi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |article-url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi |year=2019 |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-date=13 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513015455/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi |url-status=live | quote=Mahatma Gandhi, byname of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, (born October 2, 1869, Porbandar, India – died January 30, 1948, Delhi), Indian lawyer, politician, ...}}</ref> In July 1888, Gandhi's wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving child, Harilal.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=33–34}} Gandhi's mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew, but Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol, and women. Gandhi's brother, Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.{{sfnp|Guha|2015|p=32}}{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|pp=}} | |||
| On 10 August 1888, Gandhi, aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. A local newspaper covering the farewell function by his old high school in Rajkot noted that Gandhi was the first Bania from Kathiawar to proceed to England for his Barrister Examination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arDvngEACAAJ |title=Gandhi Before India |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-385-53229-7 |language=en}}</ref> As Mohandas Gandhi waited for a berth on a ship to London he found that he had attracted the ire of the Modh Banias of Bombay.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arDvngEACAAJ |title=Gandhi Before India |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-385-53229-7 |language=en}}</ref> Upon arrival in Bombay, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned Gandhi that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, Gandhi was excommunicated from his caste. Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off.<ref name="Turban" />{{sfnp|Guha|2015|pp=33–34}} Gandhi attended ], where he took classes in English literature with ] in 1888–1889.<ref>{{cite news |last=Swapnajit Mitra |date=12 October 2014 |title=My Experiment with Truth |work=] |url=https://indiacurrents.com/my-experiment-with-truth/ |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116214150/https://indiacurrents.com/my-experiment-with-truth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay.<ref name="Turban">{{Cite web|title=Wikilivres|url=https://www.wikilivres.ca/|access-date=2023-02-20|language=en}}</ref> Mavji Dave Joshiji, a ] priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gandhi before India|year=2015|author=Rajmohan Gandhi| publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{citation |author=B. R. Nanda |title=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2019}} Quote: "Mahatma Gandhi, byname of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, (born October 2, 1869, Porbandar, India – died January 30, 1948, Delhi), Indian lawyer, politician, ..."</ref> In July 1888, his wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving son, Harilal.<ref name="autogenerated33">Guha 2015, pp. 33–34</ref> His mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family, and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew. Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol and women. Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.<ref name="autogenerated32" /><ref name="Gandhi2006a">{{cite book |last=Rajmohan |first=Gandhi |author-link=Rajmohan Gandhi |year=2006 |title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC&pg=PA20 |pages=20–21 |isbn=978-0-520-25570-8 }}</ref> | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| Gandhi also enrolled at the ] in ] with the intention of becoming a ].<ref name="B. R. Nanda"/> His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens. Gandhi retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas Weber |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe |title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-139-45657-9 |pages=–25 |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
| On 10 August 1888, Gandhi aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. Upon arrival, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned him that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, he was excommunicated from his caste. Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off.<ref name="autogenerated33" /><ref name="Turban"/> Gandhi attended ], where he took classes in English literature with ] in 1888–1889.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indiacurrents.com/my-experiment-with-truth/|title=My Experiment with Truth|author=Swapnajit Mitra|date=12 October 2014|work=]}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi demonstrated a keen interest in the welfare of London's impoverished dockland communities. In 1889, a ] broke out in London, with dockers striking for better pay and conditions, and seamen, shipbuilders, factory girls and other joining the strike in solidarity. The strikers were successful, in part due to the mediation of ], leading Gandhi and an Indian friend to make a point of visiting the cardinal and thanking him for his work.<ref>{{cite web |title=Narayan Hemchandra | Gandhi Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap22.htm |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=www.mkgandhi.org |archive-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515111533/https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap22.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| He also enrolled at ] with the intention of becoming a ]. His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens. He retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Weber|title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9|pages=–25}}</ref> | |||
| === Vegetarianism and committee work === | |||
| He demonstrated a keen interest in the welfare of London's impoverished dockland communities. In 1889, a ] broke out in London, with dockers striking for better pay and conditions, and seamen, shipbuilders, factory girls and other joining the strike in solidarity. The strikers were successful, in part due to the mediation of ], leading Gandhi and an Indian friend to make a point of visiting the cardinal and thanking him for his work.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Narayan Hemchandra | Gandhi Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap22.htm|access-date=2023-02-20|website=www.mkgandhi.org}}</ref> | |||
| His vow to his mother influenced Gandhi's time in London. Gandhi tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tendulkar |first=Dinanath Gopal |title=Mahatma: 1920-1929 |date=2 September 2008 |publisher=Vithalbhai K. Javeri & D.G. Tendulkar, 1951 |location=the University of Michigan |pages=463}}</ref> However, he didn't appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by ] writing, Gandhi joined the ] (LVS) and was elected to its executive committee under the aegis of its president and benefactor ].{{sfnp|Brown|1991|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} An achievement while on the committee was the establishment of a ] chapter.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /> Some of the vegetarians Gandhi met were members of the ], which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of ] and ] literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the ] both in translation as well as in the original.{{sfnp|Brown|1991|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} | |||
| Gandhi had a friendly and productive relationship with Hills, but the two men took a different view on the continued LVS membership of fellow committee member ]. Their disagreement is the first known example of Gandhi challenging authority, despite his shyness and temperamental disinclination towards confrontation.{{Cn|date=September 2024}} | |||
| ==== Vegetarianism and committee work ==== | |||
| Gandhi's time in London was influenced by the vow he had made to his mother. He tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons. However, he did not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by ] writing, he joined the ], and was elected to its executive committee<ref name="Brown1991">].</ref> under the aegis of its president and benefactor ]. An achievement while on the committee was the establishment of a ] chapter.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /> Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the ], which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of ] and ] literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the '']'' both in translation as well as in the original.<ref name="Brown1991" /> | |||
| Allinson had been promoting ], but Hills disapproved of these, believing they undermined public morality. He believed ] and that Allinson should therefore no longer remain a member of the LVS. Gandhi shared Hills' views on the dangers of birth control, but defended Allinson's right to differ.<ref name="shyness">{{Cite web |date=1927 |title=Shyness my shield |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap18.htm |website=Autobiography |access-date=11 August 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608201409/https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap18.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It would have been hard for Gandhi to challenge Hills; Hills was 12 years his senior and unlike Gandhi, highly eloquent. Hills bankrolled the LVS and was a ] with his ] company employing more than 6,000 people in the ]. Hills was also a highly accomplished sportsman who later founded the football club ]. In his 1927 ''An Autobiography, Vol. I'', Gandhi wrote: | |||
| Gandhi had a friendly and productive relationship with Hills, but the two men took a different view on the continued LVS membership of fellow committee member ]. Their disagreement is the first known example of Gandhi challenging authority, despite his shyness and temperamental disinclination towards confrontation. | |||
| {{blockquote| The question deeply interested me...I had a high regard for Mr. Hills and his generosity. But I thought it was quite improper to exclude a man from a vegetarian society simply because he refused to regard puritan morals as one of the objects of the society<ref name="shyness" />}} | |||
| Allinson had been promoting ], but Hills disapproved of these, believing they undermined public morality. He believed ] and that Allinson should therefore no longer remain a member of the LVS. Gandhi shared Hills' views on the dangers of birth control, but defended Allinson's right to differ.<ref name=shyness>{{cite web |title=Shyness my shield |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap18.htm |work=Autobiography |date=1927 }}</ref> It would have been hard for Gandhi to challenge Hills; Hills was 12 years his senior and unlike Gandhi, highly eloquent. He bankrolled the LVS and was a ] with his ] company employing more than 6,000 people in the ]. He was also a highly accomplished sportsman who later founded the football club ]. In his 1927 ''An Autobiography, Vol. I'', Gandhi wrote: | |||
| A motion to remove Allinson was raised, and was debated and voted on by the committee. Gandhi's shyness was an obstacle to his defence of Allinson at the committee meeting. Gandhi wrote his views down on paper, but shyness prevented Gandhi from reading out his arguments, so Hills, the President, asked another committee member to read them out for him. Although some other members of the committee agreed with Gandhi, the vote was lost and Allinson was excluded. There were no hard feelings, with Hills proposing the toast at the LVS farewell dinner in honour of Gandhi's return to India.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Vegetarian Union – Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) |url=https://ivu.org/history/gandhi/1891-11.html |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=ivu.org |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205030437/http://www.ivu.org/history/gandhi/1891-11.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| {{blockquote| The question deeply interested me...I had a high regard for Mr. Hills and his generosity. But I thought it was quite improper to exclude a man from a vegetarian society simply because he refused to regard puritan morals as one of the objects of the society<ref name=shyness />}} | |||
| === Called to the bar === | |||
| A motion to remove Allinson was raised, and was debated and voted on by the committee. Gandhi's shyness was an obstacle to his defence of Allinson at the committee meeting. He wrote his views down on paper but shyness prevented him from reading out his arguments, so Hills, the President, asked another committee member to read them out for him. Although some other members of the committee agreed with Gandhi, the vote was lost and Allinson excluded. There were no hard feelings, with Hills proposing the toast at the LVS farewell dinner in honour of Gandhi's return to India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ivu.org/history/gandhi/1891-11.html|title=International Vegetarian Union – Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948)|website=ivu.org|access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi, at age 22, was ] in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from Gandhi.{{sfnp|Brown|1991|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} His attempts at establishing a law practice in ] failed because Gandhi was psychologically unable to ] witnesses. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but Gandhi was forced to stop after running afoul of British officer Sam Sunny.{{sfnp|Brown|1991|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}}<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /> | |||
| In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi. Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa. His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage. Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work. They offered a total salary of £105 (~$4,143 in 2023 money) plus travel expenses. He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least a one-year commitment in the ], South Africa, also a part of the British Empire.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" />{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=82–83}} | |||
| ==== Called to the bar ==== | |||
| Gandhi, at age 22, was ] in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him.<ref name="Brown1991" /> His attempts at establishing a law practice in ] failed because he was psychologically unable to ] witnesses. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but he was forced to stop when he ran afoul of a British officer Sam Sunny.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /><ref name="Brown1991" /> | |||
| == Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914) == | |||
| In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi. Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa. His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage. Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work. They offered a total salary of £105 (~$17,200 in 2019 money) plus travel expenses. He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least a one-year commitment in the ], South Africa, also a part of the British Empire.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /><ref name="Herman 2008 pp. 82">], pp. 82–83</ref> | |||
| === Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914) === | |||
| ], unveiled by Archbishop ] on Church Street, Pietermaritzburg, in June 1993]] | ], unveiled by Archbishop ] on Church Street, Pietermaritzburg, in June 1993]] | ||
| In April 1893, Gandhi, aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=82–83}}<ref name="NHOA-193">{{cite book |last1=Giliomee |first1=Hermann |author1-link=Hermann Giliomee |last2=Mbenga |first2=Bernard |author2-link=Bernard Mbenga |title=New History of South Africa |publisher=Tafelberg |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-624-04359-1 |editor-last=Roxanne Reid |edition=1st |page=193 |chapter=3 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa where he developed his political views, ethics, and politics.<ref name="Gandhi">{{cite journal |last=Power, Paul F. |year=1969 |title=Gandhi in South Africa |journal=] |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=441–55 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00018590 |issn=0022-278X |jstor=159062 |s2cid=154872727 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Keshavjee 2015 p.">{{cite book |last=Keshavjee |first=M.M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2KmmwEACAAJ |title=Into that Heaven of Freedom: The Impact of Apartheid on an Indian Family's Diasporic History |publisher=Mawenzi House Publishers Limited |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-927494-27-1 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317164705/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2KmmwEACAAJ |archive-date=17 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> During this time Gandhi briefly returned to India in 1902 to mobilise support for the welfare of Indians in South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=High Commission of India, Pretoria, South Africa : Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa |url=https://www.hcipretoria.gov.in/eoi.php?id=Africa |access-date=17 September 2024 |website=www.hcipretoria.gov.in |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909090657/https://www.hcipretoria.gov.in/eoi.php?id=Africa |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination due to his skin colour and heritage.<ref name="Parekh2001" /> Gandhi was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and was told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere, Gandhi was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at ] after refusing to leave the first-class.<ref name="Turban" />{{sfnp|Dhiman|2016|pp=25–27}} Gandhi sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights.{{sfnp|Dhiman|2016|pp=25–27}} Gandhi chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day.{{sfnp|Gandhi|2002|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} In another incident, the magistrate of a ] court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.<ref name="Turban" /> Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa. Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.<ref name="Turban" /> | |||
| In April 1893, Gandhi aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin.<ref name="Herman 2008 pp. 82" /><ref name="NHOA-193">{{cite book|author1=Giliomee, Hermann |author2-link=Mbenga, Bernard |author2=Mbenga, Bernard |name-list-style=amp |title=New History of South Africa|editor=Roxanne Reid|publisher= Tafelberg|year=2007|edition=1st|page=193|chapter=3|isbn=978-0-624-04359-1|author1-link=Giliomee, Hermann }}</ref> He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and politics.<ref name="Gandhi">{{cite journal|title=Gandhi in South Africa|journal= ]|year= 1969|jstor=159062|author=Power, Paul F. |volume=7|issue=3|pages=441–55|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00018590|s2cid= 154872727}}</ref><ref name="Keshavjee 2015 p. ">{{cite book | last=Keshavjee | first=M.M. | title=Into that Heaven of Freedom: The Impact of Apartheid on an Indian Family's Diasporic History | publisher=Mawenzi House Publishers Limited | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-927494-27-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2KmmwEACAAJ}}</ref> | |||
| When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Arthur Herman, he thought of himself as "a Briton first, and an Indian second."{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=87–88}} However, the prejudice against Gandhi and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him. Gandhi found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices.{{sfnp|Dhiman|2016|pp=25–27}} Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the ].<ref name="Allen2011">{{cite book |last=Allen |first=Jeremiah |year=2011 |title=Sleeping with Strangers: A Vagabond's Journey Tramping the Globe |page=273 |publisher=Other Places Publishing |isbn=978-1-935850-01-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyl8f54UToQC&pg=PT273 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130651/https://books.google.com/books?id=vyl8f54UToQC&pg=PT273 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination because of his skin colour and heritage, like all people of colour.<ref name="Parekh2001" /> He was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere he was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at ] after refusing to leave the first-class.<ref name="Turban"/><ref name=dhiman25>{{cite book|author=S. Dhiman|title=Gandhi and Leadership: New Horizons in Exemplary Leadership|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y2kCgAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-49235-7 |pages=25–27}}</ref> He sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights.<ref name=dhiman25 /> He chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day.<ref name="(Mahatma)Fischer2002">]</ref> In another incident, the magistrate of a ] court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.<ref name="Turban"/> Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa. Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.<ref name="Turban"/> | |||
| The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=88–89}} The farewell party was turned into a working committee to plan the resistance to a new Natal government discriminatory proposal. This led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa. Gandhi planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to ], a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right. He asked ], the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.<ref name="Gandhi" /> Though unable to halt the bill's passage, Gandhi's campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the ] in 1894,<ref name="Tendulkar1951" />{{sfnp|Gandhi|2002|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} and through this organisation, Gandhi moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him,<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |chapter=March 1897 Memorial |wslink=The_Collected_Works_of_Mahatma_Gandhi/Volume_II}}: correspondence and newspaper accounts of the incident.</ref> and Gandhi escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent.{{Cn|date=July 2024}} However, Gandhi refused to press charges against any member of the mob.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /> | |||
| When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Herman, he thought of himself as "a Briton first, and an Indian second".<ref>], pp. 87–88</ref> However, the prejudice against him and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him. He found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices.<ref name=dhiman25 /> Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the ].<ref name="Allen2011">{{cite book|last=Allen|first=Jeremiah|title=Sleeping with Strangers: A Vagabond's Journey Tramping the Globe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyl8f54UToQC&pg=PT273|year=2011|publisher=Other Places Publishing|isbn=978-1-935850-01-4|page=273}}</ref> | |||
| ] during the ]]] | |||
| The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India.<ref name="Herman 2008 pp. 88">], pp. 88–89</ref> However, a new Natal government discriminatory proposal led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa. He planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to ], a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right. He asked ], the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.<ref name="Gandhi" /> Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the ] in 1894,<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /><ref name="(Mahatma)Fischer2002" /> and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |chapter=March 1897 Memorial |wslink=The_Collected_Works_of_Mahatma_Gandhi/Volume_II}}: correspondence and newspaper accounts of the incident.</ref> and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. However, he refused to press charges against any member of the mob.<ref name="Tendulkar1951" /> | |||
| During the ], Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the ]. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the British colonial stereotype that Hindus were not fit for "manly" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim "]s."{{sfnp|Herman|2008|p=125}} Gandhi raised 1,100 Indian volunteers to support British combat troops against the Boers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries at the ] to a White volunteer ambulance corps. At the ], Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital since the terrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi and 37 other Indians received the ].{{sfnp|Herman|2008|loc=chapter 6}}<ref name="medals_south_african">{{cite web |date=5 March 1949 |title=South African Medals that Mahatma Returned Put on View at Gandhi Mandap Exhibition |website=Press Information Bureau of India – Archive |url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1949-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1949-02-24_076.pdf |access-date=18 July 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928203725/http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1949-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1949-02-24_076.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| ] during the ]]] | |||
| During the ], Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the ]. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the British colonial stereotype that Hindus were not fit for "manly" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim "]s".<ref>], page 125</ref> Gandhi raised eleven hundred Indian volunteers, to support British combat troops against the Boers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries at the ] to a White volunteer ambulance corps. At the ] Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received the ].<ref>] chapter 6.</ref><ref name="medals_south_african">{{cite web|title=South African Medals that Mahatma Returned Put on View at Gandhi Mandap Exhibition |url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1949-JAN-DEC-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1949-02-24_076.pdf|website=Press Information Bureau of India – Archive|date=5 March 1949|access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref> | |||
| ] (1902)]] | ] (1902)]] | ||
| In 1906, the ] government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of '']'' (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time.<ref name="Rai2000">{{cite book|last=Rai|first=Ajay Shanker |
In 1906, the ] government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of '']'' (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time.<ref name="Rai2000">{{cite book |last=Rai |first=Ajay Shanker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9ZSLa6cy-8C&pg=PA35 |title=Gandhian Satyagraha: An Analytical And Critical Approach |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2000 |isbn=978-81-7022-799-1 |page=35 |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224938/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9ZSLa6cy-8C&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Anthony Parel, Gandhi was also influenced by the ] moral text '']'' after ] mentioned it in their correspondence that began with "]".<ref name="LetterToAHindu">{{Cite web |last=Tolstoy |first=Leo |date=14 December 1908 |title=A Letter to A Hindu: The Subjection of India-Its Cause and Cure |url=http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733/ |access-date=12 February 2012 |website=The Literature Network |quote=The Hindu Kural |archive-date=10 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110204732/http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="gandhi">{{cite book |last=Parel |first=Anthony J. |title=Meditations on Gandhi : a Ravindra Varma festschrift |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcpDOVk5Gp8C&pg=PA96 |pages=96–112 |year=2002 |editor-last=M. P. Mathai |access-date=8 September 2012 |contribution=Gandhi and Tolstoy |place=New Delhi |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-961-2 |author-link=Anthony Parel |editor2-last=M. S. John |editor3-last=Siby K. Joseph}}</ref> Gandhi urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. His ideas of protests, persuasion skills, and public relations had emerged. Gandhi took these back to India in 1915.{{sfnp|Guha|2013a|loc=Ch. 22}}<ref>{{Cite book |first=Charles R. |last=DiSalvo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XGtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 |title=M.K. Gandhi, Attorney at Law: The Man before the Mahatma |publisher=Univ of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-95662-9 |pages=14–15 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007225044/https://books.google.com/books?id=9XGtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR14#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| === Europeans, Indians and Africans === | |||
| Gandhi focused his attention on Indians and Africans while he was in South Africa. |
Gandhi focused his attention on Indians and Africans while he was in South Africa. Initially, Gandhi was not interested in politics, but this changed after he was discriminated against and bullied, such as by being thrown out of a train coach due to his skin colour by a white train official. After several such incidents with ], Gandhi's thinking and focus changed, and he felt he must resist this and fight for rights. Gandhi entered politics by forming the Natal Indian Congress.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |last2=Ryan |first2=James |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA158 |publisher=Facts On File |location=New York |year=2007 |pages=158–159 |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |access-date=5 July 2024 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007224940/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, Gandhi's views on racism are contentious in some cases. He suffered persecution from the beginning in South Africa. Like with other coloured people, white officials denied Gandhi his rights, and the press and those in the streets bullied and called Gandhi a "parasite", "semi-barbarous", "canker", "squalid coolie", "yellow man", and other epithets. People would even spit on him as an expression of racial hate.<ref name="Desai2015p26"/> | ||
| ]'', a newspaper founded by Gandhi ]] | |||
| While in South Africa, Gandhi focused on the racial persecution of Indians before he started to focus on racism against Africans. In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, his behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation.<ref name="Desai2015p26" /> During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were "degrading the Indian to the level of a raw ]".<ref>{{cite book | author=Charles R. DiSalvo| title=M.K. Gandhi, Attorney at Law: The Man Before the Mahatma | publisher=University of California Press | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-520-28015-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plYlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 | page=153}}</ref> Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently.<ref name="Desai2015p26" /> As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at age 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians. Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that "Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples", and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.<ref name="Herman 2008 pp. 88" /> | |||
| ]'', a newspaper founded by Gandhi]] | |||
| Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism. The Nobel Peace Prize winner ] is among admirers of Gandhi's efforts to fight against racism in Africa.<ref>{{cite web | title=Some of Gandhi's Early Views on Africans Were Racist. But That Was Before He Became Mahatma |first=E.S. |last=Reddy| website=The Wire |date=18 October 2016| url=https://thewire.in/history/gandhi-and-africans }}</ref> The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as if he was always a saint when in reality his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths and was one that changed over time.<ref name="Desai2015p26">{{cite book|author1= Ashwin Desai|author2= Goolem Vahed|title=The South African Gandhi: Stretcher-Bearer of Empire|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lZZ1CgAAQBAJ |year= 2015|publisher= Stanford University Press|isbn= 978-0-8047-9717-7 |pages= 22–26, 33–38}}</ref> Scholars have also pointed the evidence to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Edward Ramsamy|author2=Michael Mbanaso|author3=Chima Korieh|title=Minorities and the State in Africa|year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-J-EZLTRVRwC |publisher=]|isbn=978-1-62196-874-0|pages=71–73}}</ref> | |||
| While in South Africa, Gandhi focused on the racial persecution of Indians before he started to focus on racism against Africans. In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, Gandhi's behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation.<ref name="Desai2015p26"/> During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were "degrading the Indian to the level of a raw ]."<ref>{{cite book |last=DiSalvo |first=Charles R. |title=M.K. Gandhi, Attorney at Law: The Man Before the Mahatma |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-28015-1 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plYlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317164248/https://books.google.com/books?id=plYlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA153 |url-status=live}}</ref> Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently.<ref name="Desai2015p26"/> As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at the age of 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians. Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that "Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples" and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=88–89}} | |||
| In 1906, when the ] broke out in the ], then 36-year-old Gandhi, despite sympathising with the Zulu rebels encouraged Indian South Africans to form a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit.<ref name="Herman2010" /> Writing in the '']'', Gandhi argued that military service would be beneficial to the Indian community and claimed it would give them "health and happiness."<ref name="Herman2010p281">], pp. 154–57, 280–81</ref> Gandhi eventually led a volunteer mixed unit of Indian and African stretcher-bearers to treat wounded combatants during the suppression of the rebellion.<ref name="Herman2010" /> | |||
| Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism. The Nobel Peace Prize winner ] is among admirers of Gandhi's efforts to fight against racism in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |last=Reddy |first=E.S. |date=18 October 2016 |title=Some of Gandhi's Early Views on Africans Were Racist. But That Was Before He Became Mahatma |url=https://thewire.in/history/gandhi-and-africans |website=The Wire |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225184538/https://thewire.in/history/gandhi-and-africans |url-status=live }}</ref> The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as though Gandhi was always a saint, when in reality, his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths, and was one that changed over time.<ref name="Desai2015p26"/> Scholars have also pointed the evidence to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramsamy |first1=Edward |last2=Mbanaso |first2=Michael |last3=Korieh |first3=Chima |year=2010 |title=Minorities and the State in Africa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-J-EZLTRVRwC |publisher=] |pages=71–73 |isbn=978-1-62196-874-0}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1903, Gandhi started the ''Indian Opinion'', a journal that carried news of Indians in South Africa, Indians in India with articles on all subjects -social, moral and intellectual. Each issue was multi-lingual and carried material in English, Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil. It carried ads, depended heavily on Gandhi's contributions (often printed without a byline) and was an 'advocate' for the Indian cause.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arDvngEACAAJ |title=Gandhi Before India |date=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-385-53229-7 |language=en |access-date=7 September 2024 |archive-date=7 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907114829/https://books.google.hu/books/about/Gandhi_Before_India.html?id=arDvngEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| The medical unit commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months before being disbanded.<ref name="Herman2010">], pp. 136–37.</ref> After the suppression of the rebellion, the colonial establishment showed no interest in extending to the Indian community the civil rights granted to ]. This led Gandhi to becoming disillusioned with the Empire and aroused a spiritual awakening with him; historian ] wrote that his African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming him into an "uncompromising non-cooperator".<ref name="Herman2010p281" /> | |||
| In 1906, when the ] broke out in the ], the then 36-year-old Gandhi, despite sympathising with the Zulu rebels, encouraged Indian South Africans to form a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=136–137}} Writing in the '']'', Gandhi argued that military service would be beneficial to the Indian community and claimed it would give them "health and happiness."{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=154–157, 280–281}} Gandhi eventually led a volunteer mixed unit of Indian and African stretcher-bearers to treat wounded combatants during the suppression of the rebellion.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=136–137}} | |||
| By 1910, Gandhi's newspaper, ''Indian Opinion'', was covering reports on discrimination against Africans by the colonial regime. Gandhi remarked that the Africans are "alone are the original inhabitants of the land. … The whites, on the other hand, have occupied the land forcibly and appropriated it to themselves."<ref>{{cite web | title=Setting the Record Straight on Gandhi and Race | website=The Wire | date=23 December 2018 |first=Ramachandra |last=Guha| url=https://thewire.in/history/setting-the-record-straight-on-gandhi-and-race | access-date=25 December 2022}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend ], an idealistic community they named ] near Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-03-31|title=For Gandhi, Kallenbach was a friend and guide|first=Ashish |last=Vashi |work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/For-Gandhi-Kallenbach-was-a-friend-and-guide/articleshow/7829668.cms?referral=PM|access-date=2023-02-20|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Gandhi's Decisive South African 1913 Campaign: A Personal Perspective from the Letters of Betty Molteno|journal= ]|year= 2014|author1=Corder, Catherine|author2= Plaut, Martin |s2cid= 162635102|volume=66|issue=1|pages=22–54|doi=10.1080/02582473.2013.862565}}</ref> | |||
| The medical unit commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months before being disbanded.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=136–137}} After the suppression of the rebellion, the colonial establishment showed no interest in extending to the Indian community the civil rights granted to ]. This led Gandhi to becoming disillusioned with the Empire and aroused a spiritual awakening within him; historian ] wrote that Gandhi's African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming Gandhi into an "uncompromising non-cooperator".{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=154–157, 280–281}} | |||
| By 1910, Gandhi's newspaper, ''Indian Opinion'', was covering reports on discrimination against Africans by the colonial regime. Gandhi remarked that the Africans "alone are the original inhabitants of the land. … The whites, on the other hand, have occupied the land forcibly and appropriated it for themselves."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |date=23 December 2018 |title=Setting the Record Straight on Gandhi and Race |url=https://thewire.in/history/setting-the-record-straight-on-gandhi-and-race |access-date=25 December 2022 |website=The Wire |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225175747/https://thewire.in/history/setting-the-record-straight-on-gandhi-and-race |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend ], an idealistic community they named ] near Johannesburg.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vashi |first=Ashish |date=31 March 2011 |title=For Gandhi, Kallenbach was a friend and guide |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/For-Gandhi-Kallenbach-was-a-friend-and-guide/articleshow/7829668.cms?referral=PM |access-date=20 February 2023 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415150305/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/For-Gandhi-Kallenbach-was-a-friend-and-guide/articleshow/7829668.cms?referral=PM |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Bartley |first=Grant |year=2014 |title=Satuagraha § A Medium for Truth |url=http://philosophynow.org/issues/101/Satyagraha |magazine=Philosophy Now |issue=101 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324184714/http://philosophynow.org/issues/101/Satyagraha |archive-date=24 March 2014}}</ref> There, Gandhi nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Corder, Catherine |last2=Plaut, Martin |year=2014 |title=Gandhi's Decisive South African 1913 Campaign: A Personal Perspective from the Letters of Betty Molteno |journal=] |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=22–54 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2013.862565 |s2cid=162635102}}</ref> | |||
| In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.<ref name="Mbeki2006" /> | In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.<ref name="Mbeki2006" /> | ||
| == Struggle for Indian independence (1915–1947) == | |||
| {{See also|Indian independence movement}} | {{See also|Indian independence movement}} | ||
| At the request of ], conveyed to him by ], Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser. | |||
| At the request of ], conveyed to Gandhi by ], Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser. | |||
| Gandhi joined the ] and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by ]. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.<ref name="Whiggism" /> | |||
| Gandhi joined the ] and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British ] traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.<ref name="Whiggism" /> | |||
| Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognise the declaration but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.<ref>{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=367–86|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognise the declaration, but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942, and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947, the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.{{sfnp|Markovits|2002|pp=367–386}} | |||
| ==== Role in World War I ==== | |||
| === Role in World War I === | |||
| {{See also|Indian Army during World War I|label 1=The role of India in World War I}} | {{See also|Indian Army during World War I|label 1=The role of India in World War I}} | ||
| In April 1918, during the latter part of ], the ] invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.<ref>] in WikiSource based on the ]. Based on public domain volumes.</ref> Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort.<ref name="wikilivres.ca" /><ref name="Turban"/> In contrast to the ] of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them... If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army."<ref name="CollectedWorks17b">Gandhi (1965), ''Collected Works'', {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015235028/http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL017.PDF |date=15 October 2009 }} Chapter "67. Appeal for enlistment", Nadiad, 22 June 1918.</ref> He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the ] that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."<ref name="CollectedWorks17c">Gandhi (1965), ''Collected Works'', {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015235028/http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL017.PDF |date=15 October 2009 }} "Chapter 8. Letter to J. L. Maffey", Nadiad, 30 April 1918.</ref> | |||
| In April 1918, during the latter part of ], the ] invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.<ref>] in WikiSource based on the ]. Based on public domain volumes.</ref> Gandhi agreed to support the war effort.<ref name="Turban" /><ref name="wikilivres.ca" /> In contrast to the ] of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote: "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them... If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army."<ref name="CollectedWorks17b">Gandhi (1965), ''Collected Works'', {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015235028/http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL017.PDF |date=15 October 2009}} Chapter "67. Appeal for enlistment", Nadiad, 22 June 1918.</ref> However, Gandhi stipulated in a letter to the ] that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."<ref name="CollectedWorks17c">Gandhi (1965), ''Collected Works'', {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015235028/http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL017.PDF |date=15 October 2009}} "Chapter 8. Letter to J. L. Maffey", Nadiad, 30 April 1918.</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence. ] noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of ']' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."<ref name="wikilivres.ca" /> | |||
| Gandhi's support for the war campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence. ] noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of ']' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."<ref name="wikilivres.ca" /> According to political and educational scientist Christian Bartolf, Gandhi's support for the war stemmed from his belief that true ahimsa could not exist simultaneously with cowardice. Therefore, Gandhi felt that Indians needed to be willing and capable of using arms before they voluntarily chose non-violence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bartolf |first=Christian |date=22 August 2013 |title=Gandhi and War: The Mahatma Gandhi / Bart de Ligt Correspondence |url=https://www.satyagrahafoundation.org/gandhi-and-war-the-mahatma-gandhi-bart-de-ligt-correspondence |website=Satyagraha Foundation |access-date=5 February 2024 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205071823/https://www.satyagrahafoundation.org/gandhi-and-war-the-mahatma-gandhi-bart-de-ligt-correspondence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| In July 1918, Gandhi said that he could not persuade even one individual to enlist for the world war. "So far I have not a single recruit to my credit apart," Gandhi wrote. He added: "They object because they fear to die."<ref name="Jarboe">{{cite book |author=Andrew T. Jarboe |title=Indian Soldiers in World War I: Race and Representation in an Imperial War |publisher=University of Nebraska |year=2021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GvYrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |page=238 |isbn=9781496206787 |access-date=16 October 2023 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021061242/https://books.google.com/books?id=GvYrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| === Champaran agitations === | |||
| {{Main|Champaran Satyagraha}} | {{Main|Champaran Satyagraha}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| Gandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the ] agitation in ]. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against largely Anglo-Indian plantation owners who were backed by the local administration. The peasants were forced to grow indigo ('']'' sp.), a cash crop for ] whose demand had been declining over two decades |
Gandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the ] agitation in ]. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against largely Anglo-Indian plantation owners who were backed by the local administration. The peasants were forced to grow indigo ('']'' sp.), a cash crop for ] whose demand had been declining over two decades and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ] in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.<ref name="Hardiman2001" /> | ||
| === Kheda agitations === | |||
| {{ |
{{main|Kheda Satyagraha}} | ||
| In 1918, ] was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to ],<ref name="Laboratory">{{cite web |year=2004 |title=Satyagraha Laboratories of Mahatma Gandhi |url=http://www.aicc.org.in/satyagraha_laboratories_of_mahatma_gandhi.htm |access-date=25 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206050856/http://www.aicc.org.in/satyagraha_laboratories_of_mahatma_gandhi.htm |archive-date=6 December 2006 |website=] website |publisher=]}}</ref> organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being ].{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|pp=}} Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of ''mamlatdars'' and ''talatdars'' (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused, but by the end of May 1918, the government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.<ref name="Brown1974" /> | |||
| === Khilafat movement === | |||
| In 1918, ] was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to ],<ref name="Laboratory">{{cite web |url=http://www.aicc.org.in/satyagraha_laboratories_of_mahatma_gandhi.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206050856/http://www.aicc.org.in/satyagraha_laboratories_of_mahatma_gandhi.htm |archive-date=6 December 2006 |title=Satyagraha Laboratories of Mahatma Gandhi|year=2004 |work=] website |publisher=] |access-date=25 February 2012}}</ref> organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being ].<ref name="Gandhi Patel">{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC&pg=196|title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire|date=2008-03-10|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25570-8|language=en}}</ref> Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of ''mamlatdars'' and ''talatdars'' (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused, but by the end of May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.<ref name="Brown1974" /> | |||
| {{main|Khilafat Movement}} | |||
| In 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the ] that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already vocally supported the British crown in the first world war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nojeim |first=M. |title=Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-275-96574-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9a5AAAAIAAJ |page=75 |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=3 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203075416/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9a5AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> This decision of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with ''swaraj'' (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.<ref name="robbins133">{{cite book |last=Keith Robbins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnTq4w-Ny3oC |title=The First World War |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-280318-4 |pages=133–137}}</ref> The British government had offered, instead of self-government, minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi.<ref name="green89">{{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Michael J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xHnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=A Global History of the Twentieth Century: Legacies and Lessons from Six National Perspectives |last2=Nicholas Szechenyi |publisher=] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4422-7972-8 |pages=89–90}}</ref> He announced his ''satyagraha'' (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the ], to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial."{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–109}} | |||
| Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the ], wherein ] Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish ] as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community ('']''). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of ] in World War I.{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=4–8}}<ref name="paine20">{{cite book |last=Sarah C.M. Paine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJ9sBgAAQBAJ |title=Nation Building, State Building, and Economic Development: Case Studies and Comparisons |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-46409-9 |pages=20–21}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=161–164}} Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.{{efn|{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–109}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Roderick Matthews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r9A4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 |title=Jinnah vs. Gandhi |publisher=Hachette |year=2012 |isbn=978-93-5009-078-7 |page=31 |quote=Rabindranath Tagore heavily criticized Gandhi at the time in private letters (...). They reveal Tagore's belief that Gandhi had committed the Indian political nation to a cause that was mistakenly anti-Western and fundamentally negative.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kham |first=Aqeeluzzafar |year=1990 |title=The All-India Muslim Conference and the Origin of the Khilafat Movement in India |journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=155–162}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1923">{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=W.H. |year=1923 |title=A Review of the Gandhi Movement in India |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=227–48 |doi=10.2307/2142634 |jstor=2142634}}</ref>}} | |||
| ==== Khilafat movement ==== | |||
| {{Main|Khilafat Movement}} | |||
| In 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the ] that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already supported the British crown with resources and by recruiting Indian soldiers to fight the war in Europe on the British side. This effort of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with ''swaraj'' (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.<ref name=robbins133 /> The British government, instead of self government, had offered minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi.<ref name="green89" /> Gandhi announced his ''satyagraha'' (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the ], to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial".<ref name=minault68 /> | |||
| The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt ''satyagraha'' demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bose, Sugata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMJIuHL9ksAC&pg=PA112 |title=Modern South History, Culture, Political Economy |last2=Jalal, Ayesha |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-203-71253-5 |pages=112–14 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>{{sfnp|Brown|1991|pp=140–147}} His support for the Khilafat movement also helped Gandhi sideline ], who had announced his opposition to the ''satyagraha'' non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan. Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this. Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=113–116}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Akbar S. Ahmed |url=https://archive.org/details/jinnahpakistanis00ahme/page/57 |title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-14966-2 |pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gandhi and Islam |url=https://www.islamicity.org/3910/gandhi-and-islam/ |access-date=18 April 2020 |website=www.islamicity.org |date=17 August 2010 |archive-date=7 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907012817/https://www.islamicity.org/3910/gandhi-and-islam/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the ], wherein ] Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish ] as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community ('']''). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of ] in World War I.<ref>Minault, Gail (1982) ''The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India'', ], {{ISBN|0-231-05072-0}}, pp. 4–8</ref><ref name=paine20 /><ref name=ghosep161 /> Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.{{efn|<ref name=minault68>Minault, Gail (1982) ''The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India'', ], {{ISBN|0-231-05072-0}}, pp. 68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–09</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Roderick Matthews|title=Jinnah vs. Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r9A4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 |year=2012|publisher=Hachette|isbn=978-93-5009-078-7|page=31 |quote=Rabindranath Tagore heavily criticized Gandhi at the time in private letters (...). They reveal Tagore's belief that Gandhi had committed the Indian political nation to a cause that was mistakenly anti-Western and fundamentally negative.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kham | first1 = Aqeeluzzafar | year = 1990 | title = The All-India Muslim Conference and the Origin of the Khilafat Movement in India | journal = Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 155–62 }}</ref><ref name=Roberts1923>{{cite journal | last1 = Roberts | first1 = W. H. | year = 1923 | title = A Review of the Gandhi Movement in India | journal = Political Science Quarterly | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 227–48 | jstor=2142634 | doi = 10.2307/2142634}}</ref>}} | |||
| In 1922, the Khilafat movement gradually collapsed following the end of the ] with the arrest of Gandhi.<ref name="Bandyopādhyāẏa">{{cite book |last=Bandyopādhyāẏa |first=Ś. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oVra0ulQ3QC&pg=PA304 |title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-250-2596-2 |page=304 |quote=He was arrested on 10 March 1922 and was sentenced to prison for six years. Gradually the Khilafat movement too died. |access-date=25 August 2023 |archive-date=10 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710131254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0oVra0ulQ3QC&pg=PA304 |url-status=live }}</ref> A number of Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and Congress.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown, Judith Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |title=Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-873112-2 |page=228 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121919/https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited, and deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in ] alone.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar, Sumit |url=https://archive.org/details/modernindia1885100sark |title=Modern India: 1885–1947 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-333-90425-1 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{sfnp|Markovits|2002|p=372}} | |||
| The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt ''satyagraha'' demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Bose, Sugata |author2=Jalal, Ayesha |name-list-style=amp |title=Modern South History, Culture, Political Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMJIuHL9ksAC&pg=PA112|year=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|pages=112–14|isbn=978-0-203-71253-5}}</ref><ref>] pp. 140–47.</ref> His support for the Khilafat movement also helped him sideline ], who had announced his opposition to the ''satyagraha'' non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan. Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this. Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.<ref>Minault, Gail (1982) ''The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India'', ], {{ISBN|0-231-05072-0}}, pp. 113–16</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Akbar S. Ahmed|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|url=https://archive.org/details/jinnahpakistanis00ahme/page/57|year=1997|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-14966-2|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gandhi and Islam |url=https://www.islamicity.org/3910/gandhi-and-islam/ |website=www.islamicity.org |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> | |||
| === Non-co-operation === | |||
| By the end of 1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.<ref>{{cite book|author=von Pochhammer, Wilhelm |title=India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&pg=PA437|year=2005|publisher=Allied Publishers| page=440| isbn=978-81-7764-715-0}}</ref> Turkey's Atatürk had ], Khilafat movement ended, and Muslim support for Gandhi largely evaporated.<ref name=paine20 /><ref name=ghosep161 /> Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and his Congress.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brown, Judith Margaret |title=Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Oxford U. Press|page=228|isbn=978-0-19-873112-2}}</ref> Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited. Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in ] alone.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sarkar, Sumit|title=Modern India: 1885–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/modernindia1885100sark|url-access=registration|year=1983|publisher=Macmillan|page=|isbn=978-0-333-90425-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Markovits, Claude |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA372|year= 2004|publisher=Anthem Press|page=372 |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> | |||
| {{main|Non-co-operation movement}} | |||
| With his book '']'' (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and '']'' (Indian independence) would come.<ref name="GangulyDocker20082" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baldwin |first1=Lewis V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xdNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA168%257CYEAR=2013%257CPUBLISHER=WIPF |title=In an Inescapable Network of Mutuality: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Globalization of an Ethical Ideal |last2=Dekar |first2=Paul R. |date=30 August 2013 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-61097-434-9 |access-date=6 August 2023 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005092125/https://books.google.com/books?id=6xdNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA168%7CYEAR=2013%7CPUBLISHER=WIPF |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ] en route to a meeting in ] in September 1921. Earlier, in ], on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the ] for the first time as a symbol of his identification with India's poor.]] | |||
| ==== Non-co-operation ==== | |||
| {{Main|Non-co-operation movement}} | |||
| With his book '']'' (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and '']'' (Indian independence) would come.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Baldwin|first1=Lewis V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xdNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA168%257Cyear=2013%257Cpublisher=Wipf|title=In an Inescapable Network of Mutuality: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Globalization of an Ethical Ideal|last2=Dekar|first2=Paul R.|date=2013-08-30|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-61097-434-9|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the ], he would appeal to Indians to start civil disobedience.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=99–103}} The British government ignored him and passed the law, stating it would not yield to threats. The ''satyagraha'' civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act. On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in ''satyagraha'' in Delhi.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=99–103}} | |||
| ] en route to a meeting in ] in September 1921. Earlier, in ], on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the ] for the first time as a symbol of his identification with India's poor.]] | |||
| People rioted in retaliation. On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, Gandhi asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but to express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they owned. He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side used violence. Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest. Government warned him not to enter Delhi, but Gandhi defied the order and was arrested on 9 April.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=99–103}} | |||
| In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the ], he would appeal to Indians to start civil disobedience.<ref name="Wolpert2002p99">{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-515634-8|pages=99–103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219190635/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|archive-date=19 February 2017}}</ref> The British government ignored him and passed the law, stating it would not yield to threats. The ''satyagraha'' civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act. On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in ''satyagraha'' in Delhi.<ref name="Wolpert2002p99" /> | |||
| On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and ] officer ] surrounded them and ordered troops under his command to fire on them. The resulting ] (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent but was supported by some Britons and parts of the British media as a necessary response. Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using 'love' to deal with the 'hate' of the British government.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=99–103}} Gandhi demanded that the Indian people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandas Karamchand |title=An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth |title-link=The Story of My Experiments with Truth |publisher=Navajivan Publishing House |year=1940 |isbn=0-8070-5909-9 |edition=2nd |location=Ahmedabad |page=}} Also available at ].</ref> | |||
| People rioted in retaliation. On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, he asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but to express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they owned. He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side used violence. Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest. Government warned him to not enter Delhi. Gandhi defied the order. On 9 April, Gandhi was arrested.<ref name="Wolpert2002p99" /> | |||
| The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder. Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=99–103}} The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to ''swaraj'' and political independence for India.<ref name="Chakrabarty2008">{{Cite book |last=Chakrabarty |first=Bidyut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzQHZ178C24C&pg=PA154 |title=Indian Politics and Society since Independence: events, processes and ideology |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-40868-4 |page=154 |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007230049/https://books.google.com/books?id=QzQHZ178C24C&pg=PA154 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress.{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=161–164}} He reorganised the Congress. With Congress now behind Gandhi, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey,{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=161–164}} Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the ].<ref name="Roberts1923" />{{sfnp|Minault|1982|pp=68–72, 78–82, 96–102, 108–109}}<ref name="paine20" /> | |||
| People rioted. On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and ] officer ] surrounded them and ordered troops under his command to fire on them. The resulting ] (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent, but was supported by some Britons and parts of the British media as a necessary response. Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using 'love' to deal with the 'hate' of the British government.<ref name="Wolpert2002p99" /> Gandhi demanded that the Indian people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.<ref>{{cite book|last = Gandhi|first = Mohandas Karamchand|title = An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth|publisher = Navajivan Publishing House|location = Ahmedabad|edition = 2|page = |year = 1940|isbn = 0-8070-5909-9|title-link = The Story of My Experiments with Truth}} Also available at ].</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder. Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott.<ref name="Wolpert2002p99" /> The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to ''swaraj'' and political independence for India.<ref name="Chakrabarty2008">{{cite book|last=Chakrabarty|first=Bidyut|title=Indian Politics and Society since Independence: events, processes and ideology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzQHZ178C24C&pg=PA154|access-date=4 April 2012|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-40868-4|page=154}}</ref> In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress.<ref name=ghosep161 /> He reorganised the Congress. With Congress now behind him, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey,<ref name=ghosep161 /> Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the ].<ref name=Roberts1923 /><ref name=minault68 /><ref name=paine20 /> | |||
| Gandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the ] – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that '']'' (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning ''khadi'' in support of the independence movement.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990a|p=89}} In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake ]. Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.{{sfnp|Shashi|1996|p=9}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The appeal of "Non-cooperation" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by ] and ] favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by ] and ], opposing this move.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990a|p=131}} Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Atatürk in Turkey. Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations. The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions. He was released in February 1924 for an ] operation, having served only two years.<ref>"Gandhi Freed on Government Order; Aged Indian Leader is Ill and Must Go to Coast to Convalesce", ''Montreal Gazette'', 5 February 1924, p. 1</ref><ref name="Datta2006">{{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Amaresh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1345 |title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti) |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-260-1194-0 |page=1345 |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007230102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1345#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the ] – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that '']'' (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning ''khadi'' in support of the independence movement.<ref>], p. 89.</ref> In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake ]. Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.<ref name="Shashi1996">], p. 9.</ref> | |||
| === Salt Satyagraha (Salt March/Civil Disobedience Movement) === | |||
| The appeal of "Non-cooperation" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by ] and ] favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by ] and ], opposing this move.<ref>], p. 131.</ref> Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Atatürk in Turkey. Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations. The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions. Gandhi was released in February 1924 for an ] operation, having served only two years.<ref>"Gandhi Freed on Government Order; Aged Indian Leader is Ill and Must Go to Coast to Convalesce", ''Montreal Gazette'', 5 February 1924, p. 1</ref><ref name="Datta2006">{{cite book|last=Datta|first=Amaresh|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1345|access-date=4 April 2012|year= 2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0|page=1345}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) ==== | |||
| {{Main|Salt Satyagraha}} | {{Main|Salt Satyagraha}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| After his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, |
After his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, Gandhi continued to pursue ''swaraj'' over the second half of the 1920s. He pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India ] status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990|p=172}} After Gandhi's support for World War I with Indian combat troops, and the failure of Khilafat movement in preserving the rule of Caliph in Turkey, followed by a collapse in Muslim support for his leadership, some such as ] and ] questioned his values and non-violent approach.<ref name="paine20" />{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=199–204}} While many Hindu leaders championed a demand for immediate independence, Gandhi revised his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990|p=172}} | ||
| The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal. British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and ] announced opposition to "the appeasers of Gandhi" in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands. |
The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal. British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and ] announced opposition to "the appeasers of Gandhi" in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=419–420}} On 31 December 1929, an Indian flag was unfurled in ]. Gandhi led Congress in a celebration on 26 January 1930 of ] in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the British salt tax in March 1930. He sent an ultimatum in the form of a letter personally addressed to Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, on 2 March. Gandhi condemned British rule in the letter, describing it as "a curse" that "has impoverished the dumb millions by a system of progressive exploitation and by a ruinously expensive military and civil administration... It has reduced us politically to serfdom." Gandhi also mentioned in the letter that the viceroy received a salary "over five thousand times India's average income." In the letter, Gandhi also stressed his continued adherence to non-violent forms of protest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bakshi, S. R. |title=Gandhi and Gandhi and the Mass Movement |publisher=New Delhi |year=1988 |pages=133–34}}</ref> | ||
| This was highlighted by the Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, |
This was highlighted by the Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, Gandhi marched {{convert|388|km|mi}} from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself, with the declared intention of breaking the salt laws. The march took 25 days to cover 240 miles with Gandhi speaking to often huge crowds along the way. Thousands of Indians joined him in Dandi. | ||
| According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.<ref name="Sarma1994" /> However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because Gandhi feared he would be accused of using women as a political shield.<ref name="french219" /> When women insisted on joining the movement and participating in public demonstrations, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him.<ref name="suruchi77">{{Cite book |last=Suruchi Thapar-Bjorkert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OyILUFU1NQC&pg=PA77 |title=Women in the Indian National Movement: Unseen Faces and Unheard Voices, 1930–42 |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7619-3407-3 |pages=77–79}}</ref> Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining. On 5 May, Gandhi was interned under a regulation dating from 1827 in anticipation of a protest that he had planned. The protest at Dharasana salt works on 21 May went ahead without Gandhi. A horrified American journalist, ], described the British response thus: | |||
| {{blockquote|In complete silence the Gandhi men drew up and halted a hundred yards from the stockade. A picked column advanced from the crowd, waded the ditches and approached the barbed wire stockade... at a word of command, scores of native policemen rushed upon the advancing marchers and rained blows on their heads with their steel-shot lathis . Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off blows. They went down like ninepins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whack of the clubs on unprotected skulls... Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing with fractured skulls or broken shoulders.<ref>{{cite book|author=L. Fischer|title=Gandhi and the Mass Movement|year=1950|pages=298–99}}</ref>}} | |||
| {{blockquote|In complete silence the Gandhi men drew up and halted a hundred yards from the stockade. A picked column advanced from the crowd, waded the ditches and approached the barbed wire stockade... at a word of command, scores of native policemen rushed upon the advancing marchers and rained blows on their heads with their steel-shot lathis . Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off blows. They went down like ninepins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whack of the clubs on unprotected skulls... Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing with fractured skulls or broken shoulders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fischer, L. |title=Gandhi and the Mass Movement |year=1950 |pages=298–99}}</ref>}} | |||
| This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed. At no time did they offer any resistance. | |||
| This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed. At no time did they offer any resistance. After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in the manner Gandhi inspired.<ref name="french219">{{Cite book |last=Marilyn French |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hyr9pwbqeqoC |title=From Eve to Dawn, A History of Women in the World, Volume IV: Revolutions and Struggles for Justice in the 20th Century |publisher=City University of New York Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55861-628-8 |pages=219–20}}</ref> | |||
| This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.<ref name="Hatt2002">{{Cite book|last=Hatt|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC&pg=PA33|title=Mahatma Gandhi|date=2002|publisher=Evans Brothers|isbn=978-0-237-52308-4|language=en}}</ref> Congress estimates, however, put the figure at 90,000. Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, ]. | |||
| This campaign was one of Gandhi's most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.<ref name="Hatt2002">{{Cite book |last=Hatt |first=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC&pg=PA33 |title=Mahatma Gandhi |date=2002 |publisher=Evans Brothers |isbn=978-0-237-52308-4 |page=33 |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007230102/https://books.google.com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Congress estimates put the figure at 90,000. Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, ]. | |||
| According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.<ref name="Sarma1994" /> However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because he feared he would be accused of using women as a political shield.<ref name=french219 /> When women insisted on joining the movement and participating in public demonstrations, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him.<ref name=suruchi77>{{cite book|author=Suruchi Thapar-Bjorkert|title=Women in the Indian National Movement: Unseen Faces and Unheard Voices, 1930–42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OyILUFU1NQC&pg=PA77|year=2006|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-3407-3|pages=77–79}}</ref> Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining. After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in the manner Gandhi inspired.<ref name=french219>{{cite book|author=Marilyn French|title=From Eve to Dawn, A History of Women in the World, Volume IV: Revolutions and Struggles for Justice in the 20th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hyr9pwbqeqoC |year=2008|publisher=City University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-55861-628-8|pages=219–20}}</ref> | |||
| === Gandhi as folk hero === | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to ] peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a ], a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints. The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.<ref name="Murali1985" /> | Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to ] peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a ], a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints. The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.<ref name="Murali1985" /> | ||
| According to Dennis Dalton, it was Gandhi's ideas that were responsible for his wide following. Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by "brute force and immorality", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by "soul force and morality |
According to Dennis Dalton, it was Gandhi's ideas that were responsible for his wide following. Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by "brute force and immorality", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by "soul force and morality."{{sfnp|Dalton|2012|pp=8–14, 20–23, 30–35}} Gandhi captured the imagination of the people of his heritage with his ideas about winning "hate with love." These ideas are evidenced in his pamphlets from the 1890s, in South Africa, where too Gandhi was popular among the Indian ]. After he returned to India, people flocked to Gandhi because he reflected their values.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012|pp=8–14, 20–23, 30–35}} | ||
| ] in 1921, a general meeting held at the riverbed of Kathajodi]] | ] in 1921, a general meeting held at the riverbed of Kathajodi]] | ||
| Gandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another. He used terminology and phrases such as '']-rajya'' from '']'', ] as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of ''swaraj'' and ''satyagraha''. |
Gandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another. He used terminology and phrases such as '']-rajya'' from '']'', ] as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of ''swaraj'' and ''satyagraha''.{{sfnp|Dhiman|2016|pp=46–49}} During Gandhi's lifetime, these ideas sounded strange outside India, but they readily and deeply resonated with the culture and historic values of his people.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012|pp=8–14, 20–23, 30–35}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=John M Levine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wrQ5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |title=Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations |last2=Michael A. Hogg |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4129-4208-9 |page=73}}</ref> | ||
| === Negotiations === | |||
| The government, represented by ], decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The ] was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all ]s, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists. Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, ], took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers. |
The government, represented by ], decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The ] was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all ]s, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists. Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, ], took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=}} | ||
| In Britain, ], a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech: | In Britain, ], a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech: | ||
| {{blockquote|It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor. |
{{blockquote|It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|p=359}}}} | ||
| Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s. He called Gandhi as the one who was "seditious in aim" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire. Churchill called him a dictator, a "Hindu ]", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with ] cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain. |
Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s. He called Gandhi as the one who was "seditious in aim" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire. Churchill called him a dictator, a "Hindu ]", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with ] cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=378–381}} Churchill attempted to isolate Gandhi, and his criticism of Gandhi was widely covered by European and American press. It gained Churchill sympathetic support, but it also increased support for Gandhi among Europeans. The developments heightened Churchill's anxiety that the "British themselves would give up out of pacifism and misplaced conscience."{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=378–381}} | ||
| === Round Table Conferences === | |||
| ] at Birla House, 1939]] | ] at Birla House, 1939]] | ||
| During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the ], Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians.{{sfnp|Muldoon|2016|pp=92–99}} The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India.{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|pp=332–333}} They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as ] as the representative leader of the untouchables.{{sfnp|Muldoon|2016|pp=92–99}} Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status, and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.{{sfnp|Muldoon|2016|p=97}}{{sfnp|Brown|1991|pp=}} | |||
| The Second Round Table conference was the only time Gandhi left India between 1914 and his death in 1948. Gandhi declined the government's offer of accommodation in an expensive ] hotel, preferring to stay in the ], to live among working-class people, as he did in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi | Philosopher & Teacher | Blue Plaques |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/mahatma-gandhi-kingsley-hall/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=English Heritage |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928214656/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/mahatma-gandhi-kingsley-hall/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Gandhi based himself in a small ] at ] for the ] and was enthusiastically received by East Enders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandhi visits the poor people of England in 1931 – Gandhi Video Footage |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLYIEajnqnI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002115124/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLYIEajnqnI&gl=US&hl=en |archive-date=2 October 2012 |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=]}}</ref> During this time, Gandhi renewed his links with the ]. | |||
| During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the ], Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians.<ref name="Muldoon92" /> The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Rajmohan Gandhi |first=Rajmohan |last=Gandhi |title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC|year=2006|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-25570-8|pages=332–33|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222104043/https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref> They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as ] as the representative leader of the untouchables.<ref name="Muldoon92">{{cite book|author=Andrew Muldoon|title=Empire, Politics and the Creation of the 1935 India Act: Last Act of the Raj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1gfDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-14431-1|pages=92–99}}</ref> Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status, and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew Muldoon|title=Empire, Politics and the Creation of the 1935 India Act: Last Act of the Raj|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=D1gfDAAAQBAJ |year= 2016|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-14431-1|page= 97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Judith Margaret Brown|title=Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhi00judi/page/252|year=1991|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-05125-4|pages=}}</ref> | |||
| The Second Round Table conference was the only time he left India between 1914 and his death in 1948. He declined the government's offer of accommodation in an expensive ] hotel, preferring to stay in the ], to live among working-class people, as he did in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/mahatma-gandhi-kingsley-hall/|title=Mahatma Gandhi | Philosopher & Teacher | Blue Plaques|website=English Heritage|access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref> He based himself in a small ] at ] for the ] and was enthusiastically received by East Enders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLYIEajnqnI| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002115124/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLYIEajnqnI&gl=US&hl=en| archive-date=2 October 2012 | url-status=dead|title=Gandhi visits the poor people of England in 1931 - Gandhi Video Footage|website=]|access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref> During this time he renewed his links with the ]. | |||
| ] crowd gathers to witness the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi, 1931]] | ] crowd gathers to witness the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi, 1931]] | ||
| After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new ''satyagraha''. |
After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new ''satyagraha''. Gandhi was arrested and imprisoned at the ], Pune. While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate. It came to be known as the ].{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=382–390}} In protest, Gandhi started a fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison.<ref name="Dirks2011p267">{{Cite book |last=Nicholas B. Dirks |title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4008-4094-6 |pages=267–74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UP7vmkFSJhIC&pg=PA268 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721085014/https://books.google.com/books?id=UP7vmkFSJhIC&pg=PA268 |url-status=live }}</ref> The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise ].<ref name="yer">{{Cite book |last=Kamath, M. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bRZgojbsPsC&pg=PA24 |title=Gandhi's Coolie: Life & Times of Ramkrishna Bajaj |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1995 |isbn=81-7023-487-5 |page=24 |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007230103/https://books.google.com/books?id=7bRZgojbsPsC&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|McDermott |Gordon |Embree |Pritchett |2014 |pp=369–370}} | ||
| === Congress politics === | |||
| In 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position but felt that if he resigned, |
In 1934, Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position, but felt that if he resigned, Gandhi's popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990|p=246}} | ||
| Gandhi returned to active politics again |
In 1936, Gandhi returned to active politics again with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonviolence as a means of protest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghose |first=Sankar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzRuAAAAMAAJ |title=Jawaharlal Nehru, A Biography |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=8170233690 |page=137 |access-date=27 May 2023 |archive-date=27 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527171235/https://books.google.com/books?id=mzRuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, ]. Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dash |first=Siddhartha |date=January 2005 |title=Gandhi and Subhas Chandra Bose |url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/jan2005/englishPdf/Gandhi_subhas.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224061752/http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/jan2005/englishPdf/Gandhi_subhas.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012 |access-date=12 April 2012 |website=Orissa Review}}</ref> Bose later left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990|pp=277–281}}<ref name="Sarkar2006" /> | ||
| === World War II and '' Quit India movement'' === | |||
| {{ |
{{main|Quit India Movement}} | ||
| ], his designated political heir, during the drafting of the Quit India Resolution in Bombay, August 1942]] | ], his designated political heir, during the drafting of the Quit India Resolution in Bombay, August 1942]] | ||
| Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in ].{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=467–470}} The British government responded with the arrests of Gandhi and many other Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Marques |first=J. |year=2020 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCrXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT403 |title=The Routledge Companion to Inclusive Leadership |series=Routledge Companions in Business, Management and Marketing |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-03965-8 |page=403 |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307161050/https://books.google.com/books?id=vCrXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT403 |url-status=live}}</ref> A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government.<ref name="Anderson" /> While Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of a number of Indian leaders, and over 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the ], the movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and it ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=467–470}}<ref name="Anderson">{{cite book |last1=Anderson|first1=D.|last2=Killingray|first2=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rni7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 |title=Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism, and the Police, 1917-65 |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7190-3033-8 |series=Studies in imperialism |page=51 |quote=Britain's hold over India weakened and an early resumption of Congress rule appeared inevitable |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307161050/https://books.google.com/books?id=rni7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's opposition to the Indian participation in World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bipan Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q7xH06NrFkC&pg=PT543 |title=India's Struggle for Independence |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-81-8475-183-3 |page=543}}</ref> Gandhi also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to ''Quit India'' in a 1942 speech in Mumbai.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=74–75}} This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990|p=309}} The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gurcharan Das |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgbeMDKvkU0C&pg=PA49 |title=A Fine Family |publisher=] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-14-012258-9 |pages=49–50}}</ref> His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=205–211}} | |||
| Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in ].<ref name=herman467 /> The British government responded with the arrests of Gandhi and many other Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement.<ref name="auto">{{cite book | last=Marques | first=J. | title=The Routledge Companion to Inclusive Leadership | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Companions in Business, Management and Marketing | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-000-03965-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCrXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT403| page=403}}</ref> A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government.<ref name="Anderson"/> While Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of a number of Indian leaders, and over 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the ], the movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and it ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.<ref name="Anderson">{{cite book | last1=Anderson | first1=D. | last2=Killingray | first2=D. | title=Policing and Decolonisation: Politics, Nationalism, and the Police, 1917-65 | publisher=Manchester University Press | series=Studies in imperialism | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-7190-3033-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rni7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 | quote=Britain's hold over India weakened and an early resumption of Congress rule appeared inevitable| page=51}}</ref><ref name="herman467">{{cite book|author=Arthur Herman|title=Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-553-90504-5|pages=467–70|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913065817/http://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|archive-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> | |||
| In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government. In this effort, Gandhi urged that they neither kill nor injure British people but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=74–75}} He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the ''"ordered anarchy"'' of ''"the present system of administration"'' was ''"worse than real anarchy."''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRduAAAAMAAJ |title=The Mahatma and mother India: essays on Gandhiʼs nonviolence and nationalism |publisher=] |year=1983 |page=34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Limaye |first=Madhu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVIwAQAAIAAJ |title=Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru: a historic partnership |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation |year=1990 |isbn=81-7018-547-5 |page=11 |author-link=Madhu Limaye |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133300/https://books.google.com/books?id=WVIwAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Gandhi urged Indians to ''karo ya maro'' ("do or die") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=74–75}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Pochhammer, Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&pg=PA469 |title=India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=81-7764-715-6 |page=469 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133128/https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&pg=PA469#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's opposition to the Indian participation in World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bipan Chandra|title=India's Struggle for Independence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q7xH06NrFkC&pg=PT543|year=2000|publisher=]|isbn=978-81-8475-183-3|page=543}}</ref> He also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to ''Quit India'' in a 1942 speech in Mumbai.<ref name="Wolpertp74">{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-515634-8|pages=74–75|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219190635/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|archive-date=19 February 2017}}</ref> This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.{{sfn|Gandhi|1990|p=309}} The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gurcharan Das|title=A Fine Family|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgbeMDKvkU0C&pg=PA49 |year=1990 |publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-14-012258-9|pages=49–50}}</ref> His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.<ref name="Wolpertp205" /> | |||
| In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government. In this effort, he urged that they neither kill nor injure British people, but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials.<ref name="Wolpertp74" /> He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the ''"ordered anarchy"'' of ''"the present system of administration"'' was ''"worse than real anarchy."''<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mahatma and mother India: essays on Gandhiʼs nonviolence and nationalism |last=Brock |first=Peter |year=1983 |publisher=] |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRduAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru: a historic partnership |last=Limaye |first=Madhu |author-link1=Madhu Limaye |isbn=81-7018-547-5 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation |year=1990 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVIwAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> He urged Indians to ''Karo ya maro'' ("Do or die") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.<ref name="Wolpertp74" /><ref>{{cite book|author=von Pochhammer, Wilhelm |title=India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&pg=PA469 |year=2005 |publisher=Allied Publishers|page= 469|isbn= 81-7764-715-6}}</ref> | |||
| ]]] | ]]] | ||
| Gandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the ] in ]. During this period, |
Gandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the ] in ]. During this period, Gandhi's longtime secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack, his wife Kasturba died after 18 months' imprisonment on 22 February 1944, and Gandhi suffered a severe ] attack.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=205–211}} While in jail, he agreed to an interview with Stuart Gelder, a British journalist. Gelder then composed and released an interview summary, cabled it to the mainstream press, that announced sudden concessions Gandhi was willing to make, comments that shocked his countrymen, the Congress workers and even Gandhi. The latter two claimed that it distorted what Gandhi actually said on a range of topics and falsely repudiated the Quit India movement.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002a|pp=205–211}} | ||
| Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. |
Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. Gandhi came out of detention to an altered political scene – the ] for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage"<ref name="Lapping1989" /> and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi and Jinnah had extensive correspondence and the two men met several times over a period of two weeks in September 1944 at ] in Bombay, where Gandhi insisted on a united religiously plural and independent India which included Muslims and non-Muslims of the Indian subcontinent coexisting. Jinnah rejected this proposal and insisted instead for partitioning the subcontinent on religious lines to create a separate Muslim homeland (later Pakistan).<ref name="Khan2007-page1">{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |year=2007 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/18 |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 |page= |access-date=1 September 2013 | quote=the Muslim League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. ... By the late 1940s, the League and the Congress had impressed in the British their own visions of a free future for Indian people. ... one, articulated by the Congress, rested on the idea of a united, plural India as a home for all Indians and the other, spelt out by the League, rested on the foundation of Muslim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslim homeland. | quote-page=18}}</ref> These discussions continued through 1947.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 May 1947 |title=Gandhi, Jinnah Meet First Time Since '44; Disagree on Pakistan, but Will Push Peace |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1947/05/07/archives/gandhi-jinnah-meet-first-time-since-44-disagree-on-pakistan-but.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430103734/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30A1EFA3F58147B93C5A9178ED85F438485F9 |archive-date=30 April 2013 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> | ||
| While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organisational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events.<ref name="BhattacharyaStudies2001">{{cite book| |
While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organisational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events.<ref name="BhattacharyaStudies2001">{{cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Sanjoy |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2GI26jditsC&pg=PA33 |title=Propaganda and information in Eastern India, 1939–45: a necessary weapon of war |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7007-1406-3 |page=33 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133630/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2GI26jditsC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point, Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.{{sfnp|Shashi|1996|p=13}} | ||
| === Partition and independence === | |||
| {{ |
{{see also|Indian independence movement|Partition of India}} | ||
| ] in September 1944]] | ] in September 1944]] | ||
| ] (far right) during ] in October 1946]] | |||
| Gandhi ] along religious lines.<ref name="Khan2007-page1" />{{sfnp|Gandhi|2002|pp=106–108}}<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 |page= |access-date=1 September 2013 |url-access=registration | quote=South Asians learned that the British Indian Empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority lived in the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... did not hear the news for many weeks afterward. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first they know about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India. | quote-page=1}}</ref> The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the ] to ]. However, the ] demanded "Divide and Quit India."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hermann Kulke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC |title=A History of India |last2=Dietmar Rothermund |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |pages=311–12, context: 308–16 |access-date=6 June 2017 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223185128/https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Penderel Moon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpViCTc-YAgC |title=Divide and Quit |publisher=University of California Press |year=1962 |pages=11–28 |author-link=Penderel Moon}}</ref> Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.{{sfnp|Jack|1994|p=418}} | |||
| Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for ], on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state. ], the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now ] and ] (excluding ]), gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2009|pp=118–121}} The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2001a}} The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2009|pp=118–121}} The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India. Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2009|pp=118–127}} Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.{{sfnp|Wolpert|2001a}} | |||
| Gandhi ] along religious lines.<ref>Reprinted in ], pp. 106–08.</ref><ref name="Khan2007-page1" /><ref name="autogenerated3"/> The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the ] to ]. However, the ] demanded "Divide and Quit India".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC |year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|pages=311–12, context: 308–16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Penderel Moon| author-link = Penderel Moon | title=Divide and Quit|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WpViCTc-YAgC |year= 1962|publisher= ]|pages= 11–28 }}</ref> Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.<ref name="(Mahatma)Jack1994">], p. 418.</ref> | |||
| Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for ], on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state. ], the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now ] and ], gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day.<ref name="Wolpert118">{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC|year=2009|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-539394-1|pages=118–21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001210558/http://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC|archive-date=1 October 2013}}</ref> The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict.<ref name="Chapter 1">{{Cite web|title=Gandhi's Passion|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/wolpert-gandhi.html|access-date=2023-02-20|website=archive.nytimes.com}}</ref> The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence.<ref name="Wolpert118" /> The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India. Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC|year=2009|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-539394-1|pages=118–27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001210558/http://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC|archive-date=1 October 2013}}</ref> Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.<ref name="Chapter 1" /> | |||
| ], Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife ]]] | ], Britain's last Viceroy of India, and his wife ]]] | ||
| ], the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle. Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas. Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single |
], the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle. Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas. Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single-minded idea to "overthrow British rule and influence and to establish a Hindu raj", and called Gandhi a "malignant, malevolent, exceedingly shrewd" politician.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012a|pp=64–66}} Wavell feared a civil war on the Indian subcontinent, and doubted Gandhi would be able to stop it.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012a|pp=64–66}} | ||
| The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India. Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but ] states the "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi". |
The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India. Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but ] states the "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi".{{sfnp|Wolpert|2002|p=7}} | ||
| The partition was controversial and violently disputed. More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006">{{ |
The partition was controversial and violently disputed. More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2006">{{Cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara Daly |title=A concise history of modern India |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas R. |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |pages=221–22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702122602/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule, but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947. The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses.<ref name=gs /> Gandhi's fasting and protests are credited for stopping the religious riots and communal violence.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012a|pp=64–66}}<ref name="Brown1991-p380">{{harvp|Brown|1991|p=380}}: "Despite and indeed because of his sense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what he called his greatest fast. ... His decision was made suddenly, though after considerable thought – he gave no hint of it even to Nehru and Patel who were with him shortly before he announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 January 1948. He said he would fast until communal peace was restored, real peace rather than the calm of a dead city imposed by police and troops. Patel and the government took the fast partly as condemnation of their decision to withhold a considerable cash sum still outstanding to Pakistan as a result of the allocation of undivided India's assets because the hostilities that had broken out in Kashmir; ... But even when the government agreed to pay out the cash, Gandhi would not break his fast: that he would only do after a large number of important politicians and leaders of communal bodies agreed to a joint plan for restoration of normal life in the city."</ref><ref name="talbot-2016-gandhi-assets">{{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Ian |title=A History of Modern South Asia, Politics, States, Diasporas |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-300-19694-8 |location=New Haven and London |page=183 |lccn=2015937886 |quote=Disputes over Kashmir and the division of assets and water in the aftermath of Partition increased Pakistan’s anxieties regarding its much larger neighbor. Kashmir’s significance for Pakistan far exceeded its strategic value; its "illegal" accession to India challenged the state’s ideological foundations and pointed to a lack of sovereign fulfillment. The "K" in Pakistan’s name stood for Kashmir. Of less symbolic significance was the division of post-Partition assets. Not until December 1947 was an agreement reached on Pakistan’s share of the sterling assets held by the undivided Government of India at the time of independence. The bulk of these (550 million rupees) was held back by New Delhi because of the Kashmir conflict and paid only following Gandhi’s intervention and fasting. India delivered Pakistan’s military equipment even more tardily, and less than a sixth of the 160,000 tons of ordnance allotted to Pakistan by the Joint Defence Council was actually delivered.}}</ref><ref name="elkins-pakistan-payment">{{Cite book |last=Elkins |first=Caroline |title=Violence: A History of the British Empire |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2022 |isbn=9780307272423 |location=New York, NY |lccn=2021018550 |quote=A few months later, with war-fueled tensions over Kashmir mounting and India refusing to pay Pakistan 550 million rupees, Pakistan's share of Britain’s outstanding war debt, Gandhi began to fast. "This time my fast is not only against Hindus and Muslims," the Mahatma said, "but also against the Judases who put on false appearances and betray themselves, myself and society." The elderly and frail man who was India’s symbolic political and spiritual leader went three days without food before India’s cabinet agreed to pay Pakistan, something Nehru had long promised Jinnah he would do. |author-link=Caroline Elkins}}</ref><ref name="blinkenberg-patel-cash-payments">{{Cite book |last=Blinkenberg |first=Lars |title=India-Pakistan: The History of Unsolved Conflicts: Volume I |publisher=Lindhardt og Ringhof |year=2022 |isbn=9788726894707 |quote=Sardar Patel decided, in the middle of December 1947, that the recent financial agreements with Pakistan should not be followed, unless Pakistan ceased to support the raiders. ... Gandhi was not convinced and he felt—like Mountbatten and Nehru—that the agreed transfer to Pakistan of a cash amount of Rs. 550 million should be implemented despite the Kashmir crisis. Gandhi started a fast unto death, which was officially done to stop communal trouble, especially in Delhi, but "word went round that it was directed against Sardar Patel's decision to withhold the cash balances"... Only because of Gandhi's interference, which was soon to cause his death, Sardar Patel gave in and the money was handed over to Pakistan.}}</ref><ref name="sarkar-modern-india-jan48-1">{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sumit |title=Modern India: 1885–1947 |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2014 |isbn=9789332535749 |location=Delhi and Chennai |page=375 |quote=This last fast seems to have been directed in part also against Patel’s increasingly communal attitudes (the Home Minister had started thinking in terms of a total transfer of population in the Punjab, and was refusing to honour a prior agreement by which India was obliged to give 55 crores of pre-Partition Government of India financial assets to Pakistan). ‘You are not the Sardar I once knew,’ Gandhi is said to have remarked during the fast. |author-link=Sumit Sarkar}}</ref><ref name="gandhi-suhrud-patel">{{Cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Gopalkrishna |title=Scorching Love: Letters from Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to his son, Devadas |last2=Suhrud |first2=Tridip |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |location=Oxford, UK |quote=The national capital and its surrounding areas are gripped by massacres and the spewing of hate. The two Punjabs on either side of the border are aflame. On 1 January 1948, a Thai visitor comes and compliments him on India’s independence. "Today ... Indian fears his brother Indian. Is this independence?’, Gandhi asks in response. Gandhi smarts at the Government of India’s new cabinet headed by Jawaharlal Nehru deciding to withhold the transfer of Pakistan’s share (Rs 55 crores) of the ‘sterling balance’ that undivided India has held at independence. The attack on Kashmur is cited as a reason for this. Patel says India cannot give money to Pakistan ‘for making bullets to be shot at us’. Gandhi's intense agitation settles into an inner quiet on 12 January when the clear thought comes to him that he must fast. And indefinitely.}} ‘It will end when and if I am satisfied that there is a reunion of hearts of all communities...’</ref><ref name="gurharpal=-shani-patel">{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Gurharpal |title=Sikh Nationalism: From a Dominant Minority to an Ethno-Religious Diaspora |last2=Shani |first2=Georgio |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-107-13654-0 |page=107 |lccn=2021017207 |quote=For further evidence of Patel’s involvement in the clearing of Muslims in north India, see Pandey (2001, 196). Against the background of the India-Pakistan conflict in Kashmir, the dispute between the two countries over the division of cash balances and Gandhi’s fast in early 1948, Mountbatten noted the following of his interview with Patel: 'He expressed the view that the only way to re-establish decent relationship between the Muslims and non-Muslim communities was to remove Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan and drive out the Muslims of the East Punjab and the affected neighbouring areas.' MB1/D76/1. Mountbatten Papers, University of Southampton.}}</ref><ref name="burton-stein-godse">{{Cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |title=A History of India |last2=Arnold |first2=David |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell History of the World Series |pages=352–353 |quote=He undertook a fast not only to restrain those bent on communal reprisal but also to influence the powerful Home Minister, Sardar Patel, who was refusing to share out the assets of the former imperial treasury with Pakistan, as had been agreed. Gandhi's insistence on justice for Pakistan now that the partition was a fact ... had prompted Godse's fanatical action. |author-link=Burton Stein |author-link2=David Arnold (historian)}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947. The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses.<ref name=gs /> Some writers credit Gandhi's fasting and protests for stopping the religious riots and communal violence.<ref name="Dalton2012p65" /><ref name="Brown1991-p380"/> | |||
| == Death == | |||
| {{Main|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}} | {{Main|Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi}} | ||
| At 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of ] (now ]), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when ], a Hindu nationalist, fired three bullets into his chest from a pistol at close range.<ref name="CushRobinson2008"/> According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mahatma Gandhi|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USxWAAAAYAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-0154-8|page=130}}</ref><ref name="Gandhi2007">{{Cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Tushar A.|title="Let's Kill Gandhi !": A Chronicle of His Last Days, the Conspiracy, Murder, Investigation, and Trial|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-dsbNz7syQC&pg=PT12|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-81-291-1094-7|page=12|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071616/https://books.google.com/books?id=x-dsbNz7syQC&pg=PT12|archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom. There he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Henry Pronko|title=Empirical Foundations of Psychology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VOBAAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-32701-8|pages=342–43}}</ref> | |||
| At 5:17 p.m. on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of ] (now ]), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when ], a Hindu nationalist, fired three bullets into Gandhi's chest from a pistol at close range.<ref name="ahmed-godse-assets">{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Raja Qaiser |title=Pakistan Factor and the Competing Perspectives in India: Party Centric View |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2022 |isbn=978-981-16-7051-0 |page=11}}</ref><ref name="CushRobinson2008">{{Cite book |last1=Cush |first1=Denise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC&pg=PA544 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Robinson |first2=Catherine |last3=York |first3=Michael |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |page=544 |access-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012221104/http://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC&pg=PA544 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USxWAAAAYAAJ |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |year=2000 |isbn=978-81-230-0154-8 |page=130}}</ref><ref name="Gandhi2007">{{Cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Tushar A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-dsbNz7syQC&pg=PT12 |title="Let's Kill Gandhi !": A Chronicle of His Last Days, the Conspiracy, Murder, Investigation, and Trial |publisher=] |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-291-1094-7 |page=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071616/https://books.google.com/books?id=x-dsbNz7syQC&pg=PT12 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom. There, he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholas Henry Pronko |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VOBAAAAQBAJ |title=Empirical Foundations of Psychology |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-32701-8 |pages=342–43}}</ref><ref name="spear-gandhi-1948-preconditions-fast">{{cite book |last=Spear |first=Percival |title=History of India, Volume 2: From the sixteenth century to the twentieth century |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13362/page/n241/mode/2up |page=239 |year=1990 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-140-13836-8 |author-link=Percival Spear |orig-year=1978}}</ref>{{sfnp|McDermott |Gordon |Embree |Pritchett |2014 |p=344}}{{sfnp|Wolpert|2004|p=358}}<ref name="Brown1991-p380" /> | |||
| Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the ] saying:<ref name="Ghose1991">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA367 |title=Mahatma Gandhi|author=Sankar Ghose|year= 1991|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6|page=386}}</ref> | |||
| Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the ] saying:{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p=}} | |||
| <blockquote>Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.<ref name="Jai1996">{{Cite book|last=Jai|first=Janak Raj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC&pg=PA45|title=Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers|date=July 2002|publisher=Regency Publications|isbn=978-81-86030-25-7|language=en}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote>Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.<ref name="Jai1996">{{Cite book |last=Jai |first=Janak Raj |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC&pg=PA45 |title=Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers |date=July 2002 |publisher=Regency Publications |isbn=978-81-86030-25-7 |pages=45–47}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Godse, a Hindu nationalist with links to the ] and the ],<ref>{{cite book|author=Hardiman, David |title=Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XwStR-MUwPQC |year= 2003|publisher= ]|pages=174–76|isbn=978-0-231-13114-8}}</ref> made no attempt to escape; several other conspirators were soon arrested as well. The accused were ] (Pune, Maharashtra; a former member of ], editor, journalist),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|p= 14}} Narayan Apte (Pune, Maharashtra; formerly: British military service, teacher, newspaper manager),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|pp= 15, 24}} ] (Mumbai, Maharashtra; author, lawyer, former member of ], former president of ]), Shankar Kistayya (Pune, Maharashtra; ] puller, domestic worker employed by Digambar Badge),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|pp=15, 25–27}} Dattatraya Parchure (Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh; medical service, care giver),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|pp= 15, 25}} Vishnu Karkare (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra; orphan; odd jobs in hotels, musician in a traveling troupe, volunteer in relief efforts to religious riots (Noakhali), later restaurant owner),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|pp= 15, 24–25}} Madanlal Pahwa (Ahmednagar refugee camp, Maharashtra; former British Indian army soldier, unemployed, Punjabi refugee who had migrated to India from Pakistan during the Partition.),{{sfn|Khosla|1965|pp= 15, 25}} ] (Pune, Maharashtra; brother of Nathuram Godse; storekeeper, merchant){{sfn|Khosla|1965|p= 15}}<ref name="Jain76">{{cite book|author=Jagdish Chandra Jain|title=Gandhi, the Forgotten Mahatma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NurqxSttqjoC&pg=PA76|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-037-6|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jay Robert Nash|title=Almanac of World Crime|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aQlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|year=1981|publisher=New York: Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4617-4768-0|page=69}}</ref><ref>G.D. Khosla (1965), {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921232029/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/the-murder-of-the-mahatma.pdf |date=21 September 2015 }}, Chief Justice of Punjab, Jaico Publishers, p. 38</ref><ref name="talbot-singh-delhi"/><ref name="Brown1991-p380" /> | |||
| Godse, a Hindu nationalist,<ref name="babb-godse-assets">{{Cite book |last=Babb |first=Lawrence A. |title=Religion in India: Past and Present |publisher=Dunedin Academic Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781780466231 |location=Edinburgh}}</ref><ref name="CushRobinson2008" /><ref name="sarkar-modern-india-jan48-2">{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sumit |title=Modern India: 1885–1947 |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2014 |isbn=9789332535749 |location=Delhi and Chennai |page=375 |quote=Three days later the Mahatma was dead, murdered by a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse, as a climax to a conspiracy hatched by a Poona Brahman group originally inspired by V.D. Savarkar—a conspiracy which, despite ample warnings, the police of Bombay and Delhi had done nothing to foil. |author-link=Sumit Sarkar}}</ref> with links to the ] and the ],{{sfnp|Hardiman|2003a|pp=174–176}}<ref name="bell-savarkar">{{cite book |last=Bell |first=J. Bowyer |author-link=J. Bowyer Bell |title=Assassin: Theory and Practice of Political Violence |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4128-0509-4 |location=London |orig-year=2005}}</ref><ref name="geva-delhi-jan48">{{Cite book |last=Geva |first=Rotem |title=Delhi Reborn: Partition and Nation Building in India's Capital |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9781503631199 |pages=130–131 |lccn=2021051794}}</ref><ref name="talbot-singh-delhi">{{cite book |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ&pg=PA118 |pages=118–119 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |quote=It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival from refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to eventually abandon India's capital. |access-date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154810/https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ&pg=PA118 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Brown1991-p380" /> made no attempt to escape; several other conspirators were soon arrested as well. The accused were ], ], ], Shankar Kistayya, Dattatraya Parchure, Vishnu Karkare, Madanlal Pahwa, and ].<ref name="Brown1991-p380" /><ref name="talbot-singh-delhi" />{{sfnp|Khosla|1965|p=15}}<ref name="Jain76">{{cite book |last=Jagdish Chandra Jain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NurqxSttqjoC&pg=PA76 |title=Gandhi, the Forgotten Mahatma |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7099-037-6 |pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jay Robert Nash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aQlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |title=Almanac of World Crime |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-1-4617-4768-0 |page=69}}</ref>{{sfnp|Khosla|1965|p=38}} | |||
| The trial began on 27{{nbsp}}May 1948 and ran for eight months before Justice Atma Charan passed his final order on 10{{nbsp}}February 1949. The prosecution called 149 witnesses, the defense none.{{sfn|Khosla|1965|p=15–29}} The court found all of the defendants except one guilty as charged. Eight men were convicted for the murder conspiracy, and others convicted for violation of the Explosive Substances Act. Savarkar was acquitted and set free. Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte were sentenced to death by ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/yakub-memon-first-to-be-hanged-in-maharashtra-after-ajmal-kasab/?SocialMedia |title=Yakub Memon first to be hanged in Maharashtra after Ajmal Kasab|date=30 July 2015|access-date=30 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031701/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/yakub-memon-first-to-be-hanged-in-maharashtra-after-ajmal-kasab/?SocialMedia|archive-date=28 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and the remaining six (including Godse's brother, Gopal) were sentenced to ].<ref>{{cite news |last1 = Menon |first1 = Vinod Kumar |title = Revealed: The secret room where Godse was kept after killing Gandh |url = http://www.mid-day.com/articles/revealed-the-secret-room-where-godse-was-kept-after-killing-gandhi/15058009 |access-date = 18 June 2014 |publisher = Mid-Day |date = 30 January 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140703144825/http://www.mid-day.com/articles/revealed-the-secret-room-where-godse-was-kept-after-killing-gandhi/15058009 |archive-date = 3 July 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref> | |||
| The trial began on 27{{nbsp}}May 1948 and ran for eight months before Justice Atma Charan passed his final order on 10{{nbsp}}February 1949. The prosecution called 149 witnesses, the defence none.{{sfnp|Khosla|1965|p=15–29}} The court found all of the defendants except one guilty as charged. Eight men were convicted for the murder conspiracy, and others were convicted for violation of the Explosive Substances Act. Savarkar was acquitted and set free. Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte were sentenced to death by ]<ref>{{cite web |date=30 July 2015 |title=Yakub Memon first to be hanged in Maharashtra after Ajmal Kasab |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/yakub-memon-first-to-be-hanged-in-maharashtra-after-ajmal-kasab/?SocialMedia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928031701/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/yakub-memon-first-to-be-hanged-in-maharashtra-after-ajmal-kasab/?SocialMedia |archive-date=28 September 2015 |access-date=30 July 2015}}</ref> while the remaining six (including Godse's brother, Gopal) were sentenced to ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Menon |first=Vinod Kumar |date=30 January 2014 |title=Revealed: The secret room where Godse was kept after killing Gandh |publisher=Mid-Day |url=http://www.mid-day.com/articles/revealed-the-secret-room-where-godse-was-kept-after-killing-gandhi/15058009 |url-status=live |access-date=18 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703144825/http://www.mid-day.com/articles/revealed-the-secret-room-where-godse-was-kept-after-killing-gandhi/15058009 |archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> | |||
| }}</ref>]] | |||
| === Funeral and memorials === | |||
| Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over a million people joined the five-mile-long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated, and another million watched the procession pass by.<ref name=Gandhi94 /> Gandhi's body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead four drag-ropes held by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.<ref name=ie48 /> All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at ] in London.<ref name=ie48pg5 /> | |||
| }}</ref>]] | |||
| Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide.<ref name="spear-gandhi-1948-preconditions-fast" />{{sfnp|McDermott |Gordon |Embree |Pritchett |2014 |p=344}}{{sfnp|Wolpert|2004|p=358}}<ref name="Brown1991-p380" /> Over a million people joined the five-mile-long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where Gandhi was assassinated, and another million watched the procession pass by.<ref name="Gandhi94" /> His body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of Gandhi's body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead, four drag-ropes held by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.<ref name=ie48 /> All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at ] in London.<ref name=ie48pg5 /> | |||
| Gandhi's assassination dramatically changed the political landscape. Nehru became his political heir. According to Markovits, while Gandhi was alive, Pakistan's declaration that it was a "Muslim state" had led Indian groups to demand that it be declared a "Hindu state".<ref name="Markovits2004p57">{{cite book|author=Claude Markovits|title=The UnGandhian Gandhi: The Life and Afterlife of the Mahatma|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SpDvZO8xNNgC&pg=PA57 |year= 2004|publisher= Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-127-0|pages=57–59}}</ref> Nehru used Gandhi's martyrdom as a political weapon to silence all advocates of Hindu nationalism as well as his political challengers. He linked Gandhi's assassination to politics of hatred and ill-will.<ref name="Markovits2004p57" /> | |||
| ], 31 January 1948. It was attended by ], ] and ], ], ], ] and other national leaders. His son ] lit the pyre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michaels |first=James |date=31 January 1948 |title=Cremation of Gandhi's body |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1948/01/31/Cremation-of-Gandhis-body/1311719724408/ |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=United Press International |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004072556/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1948/01/31/Cremation-of-Gandhis-body/1311719724408/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] | |||
| According to Guha, Nehru and his Congress colleagues called on Indians to honour Gandhi's memory and even more his ideals.<ref>Guha, Ramachandra (2007), '']'', ], {{ISBN|978-0-330-50554-3}}, pp. 37–40.</ref><ref>Gopal, Sarvepalli (1979), ''Jawaharlal Nehru'', Jonathan Cape, London, {{ISBN|0-224-01621-0}}, pp. 16–17.</ref> Nehru used the assassination to consolidate the authority of the new Indian state. Gandhi's death helped marshal support for the new government and legitimise the Congress Party's control, leveraged by the massive outpouring of Hindu expressions of grief for a man who had inspired them for decades. The government suppressed the ], the Muslim National Guards, and the ], with some 200,000 arrests.<ref name="Khan2011" /> | |||
| Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. His ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LEEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76 |title=Life |date=15 March 1948 |page=76 |issn=0024-3019 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133744/https://books.google.com/books?id=LEEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Most of the ashes were immersed at the ] on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, ] immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.<ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes" /><ref name="Kumar2006" /> Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the ] near ], and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at ]. Another urn is at the ] of the ] in ] (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944<ref>{{cite book |last=Desai |first=Ian |title=Books Behind Bars: Mahatma Gandhi's Community of Captive Readers |date=2011 |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230316782_12 |work=The History of Reading, Volume 1: International Perspectives, c.1500–1990 |pages=178–191 |editor-last=Towheed |editor-first=Shafquat |access-date=29 June 2021 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1057/9780230316782_12 |isbn=978-0-230-31678-2 |editor2-last=Owens |editor2-first=W.R. |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133746/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230316782_12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bakshi |first=S. R. |date=1982 |title=Gandhi and Bhagat Singh |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=43 |pages=679–686 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44141310}}</ref>) and another in the ] in Los Angeles.<ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes" /><ref name="GWPM" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mahatma – Life Chronology |website=] |url=https://gandhiashramsabarmati.org/en/the-mahatma/life-chronology.html |access-date=29 March 2024 |url-status=live |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223063304/https://gandhiashramsabarmati.org/en/the-mahatma/life-chronology.html}}</ref> | |||
| For years after the assassination, states Markovits, "Gandhi's shadow loomed large over the political life of the new Indian Republic". The government quelled any opposition to its economic and social policies, despite these being contrary to Gandhi's ideas, by reconstructing Gandhi's image and ideals.<ref>{{cite book|author=Claude Markovits|title=The UnGandhian Gandhi: The Life and Afterlife of the Mahatma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpDvZO8xNNgC&pg=PA57 |year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-127-0|pages=58–62}}</ref> | |||
| The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti. The place near Yamuna River where he was cremated is the ] memorial in New Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Margot Bigg |title=Delhi |publisher=Avalon |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61238-490-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/moonhandbookstaj0000bigg |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph "Hē Rāma" (]: ''हे ! राम'' or, ''Hey ]''). These are said to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot.<ref name="Misra">{{cite book |last=Misra |first=R.P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6x7zDLhfMC |title=Rediscovering Gandhi |publisher=Concept Publishing Company in collaboration with Gandhi Smriti & Darshan Samiti |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-8069-375-5 |series=Gandhian studies and peace research series |page=102 |language=mt |access-date=6 August 2023 |issue=v. 1 |archive-date=6 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806123136/https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6x7zDLhfMC |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Funeral and memorials ==== | |||
| ], 31 January 1948. It was attended by ], ] and ], ], ], ] and other national leaders. His son ] lit the pyre.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cremation of Gandhi's body - UPI Archives|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1948/01/31/Cremation-of-Gandhis-body/1311719724408/|access-date=2023-02-20|website=UPI|language=en}}</ref>]] | |||
| Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. Gandhi's ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services.<ref>{{cite book|title=Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LEEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76|date=15 March 1948 |page=76|issn=0024-3019}}</ref> Most of the ashes were immersed at the ] on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, ] immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.<ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes" /><ref name="Kumar2006" /> Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the ] near ], and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at ]. Another urn is at the ] of the ] in ] (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944<ref>{{Citation|last=Desai|first=Ian|title=Books Behind Bars: Mahatma Gandhi's Community of Captive Readers|date=2011|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230316782_12|work=The History of Reading, Volume 1: International Perspectives, c.1500–1990|pages=178–191|editor-last=Towheed|editor-first=Shafquat|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|doi=10.1057/9780230316782_12|isbn=978-0-230-31678-2|access-date=29 June 2021|editor2-last=Owens|editor2-first=W. R.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bakshi|first=S. R.|title=Gandhi and Bhagat Singh|date=1982|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141310|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=679–686|jstor=44141310|issn=2249-1937}}</ref>) and another in the ] in Los Angeles.<ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes" /><ref name="GWPM" /> | |||
| The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti. The place near Yamuna river where he was cremated is the ] memorial in New Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Margot Bigg|title=Delhi|url=https://archive.org/details/moonhandbookstaj0000bigg|url-access=registration|year=2012|publisher=Avalon|isbn=978-1-61238-490-0|page=}}</ref> A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph "Hē Rāma" (]: ''हे ! राम'' or, ''Hey ]''). These are widely believed to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot, though the veracity of this statement has been questioned.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lal, Vinay|date=January 2001|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Gandhi/HeRam_gandhi.html|title='Hey Ram': The Politics of Gandhi's Last Words|journal=Humanscape|volume=8|issue=1|pages=34–38|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040604013327/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Gandhi/HeRam_gandhi.html|archive-date=4 June 2004}}</ref> | |||
| == Principles, practices, and beliefs == | == Principles, practices, and beliefs == | ||
| {{main|Practices and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi}} | |||
| {{See also|Gandhism}} | |||
| {{see also|Gandhism}} | |||
| Gandhi's statements, letters and life have attracted much political and scholarly analysis of his principles, practices and beliefs, including what influenced him. Some writers present him as a paragon of ethical living and pacifism, while others present him as a more complex, contradictory and evolving character influenced by his culture and circumstances.<ref>{{cite book|author=William Borman|title=Gandhi and Non-Violence|url= https://archive.org/details/gandhinonviolenc0000borm |url-access=registration|year= 1986|publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-88706-331-2|pages=–95, 208–29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Dennis Dalton|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxUp1igCL_0C |year=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-15959-3|pages=30–35}}, Quote: "Yet he must bear some of the responsibility for losing his followers along the way. The sheer vagueness and contradictions recurrent throughout his writing made it easier to accept him as a saint than to fathom the challenge posed by his demanding beliefs. Gandhi saw no harm in self-contradictions: life was a series of experiments, and any principle might change if Truth so dictated".</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's spirituality was greatly based on his embracement of the five great vows of Jainism and Hindu Yoga philosophy, viz. ''Satya'' (truth), ''ahimsa'' (nonviolence), ''brahmacharya'' (celibacy), ''asteya'' (non-stealing), and ''aparigraha'' (non-attachment).<ref name="Marbaniang">{{cite book |last1=Marbaniang |first1=Domenic |chapter=Gandhian Pluralist Spirituality and the Anticorruption Mission of the Aam Aadmi Party in Delhi |title=Asian Spiritualities and Social Transformation |date=2023 |pages=247–261 |doi=10.1007/978-981-99-2641-1_14 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-2641-1_14 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-99-2641-1 |language=en |access-date=10 August 2024 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810010402/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-2641-1_14 |url-status=live }}</ref> He stated that "Unless you impose on yourselves the five vows you may not embark on the experiment at all."<ref name="Marbaniang"/> Gandhi's statements, letters and life have attracted much political and scholarly analysis of his principles, practices and beliefs, including what influenced him. Some writers present Gandhi as a paragon of ethical living and pacifism, while others present him as a more complex, contradictory and evolving character influenced by his culture and circumstances.{{sfnp|Borman|1986|pp=–195, 208–229}}<ref>{{harvp|Dalton|2012|pp=30–35}}. "Yet he must bear some of the responsibility for losing his followers along the way. The sheer vagueness and contradictions recurrent throughout his writing made it easier to accept him as a saint than to fathom the challenge posed by his demanding beliefs. Gandhi saw no harm in self-contradictions: life was a series of experiments, and any principle might change if Truth so dictated."</ref> | |||
| === Influences === | |||
| ], 1940]] | |||
| === Truth and Satyagraha === | |||
| Gandhi grew up in a ] and ] religious atmosphere in his native Gujarat, which were his primary influences, but he was also influenced by his personal reflections and literature of Hindu Bhakti saints, ], ], ], ], and thinkers such as ], ] and ].<ref name=brown93>{{cite book|author1=Brown, Judith M. |author2=Parel, Anthony |name-list-style=amp |title=The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KLM8kMZZu-IC&pg=PA93|year=2011|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-13345-6|page=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Indira Carr|editor=Stuart Brown|display-editors=etal|title=Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZQqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-92796-8|pages=263–64}}, Quote: "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand. Indian. born: 2 October 1869, Gujarat; (...) Influences: ], ] and ]."</ref> At age 57 he declared himself to be ] in his religious persuasion, but added that he supported ] viewpoints and religious pluralism.<ref>{{cite book|author=J. Jordens|title=Gandhi's Religion: A Homespun Shawl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELODDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37389-1|page=116|quote=I am an advaitist, and yet I can support Dvaitism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffrey D. Long|editor=Rita Sherma and Arvind Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194 |year=2008|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=194}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Gandhi, Mahatma|title=Hinduism According to Gandhi: Thoughts, Writings and Critical Interpretation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYsxh5qiUc0C&pg=PA85|year=2013|publisher=Orient Paperbacks|isbn=978-81-222-0558-9|page=85}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi was influenced by his devout Vaishnava Hindu mother, the regional Hindu temples and ] which co-existed with Jain tradition in Gujarat.<ref name=brown93 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Anil Mishra|title=Reading Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xa8cD95Mt4YC&pg=PA2 |year=2012|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-9964-2|page=2}}</ref> Historian R.B. Cribb states that Gandhi's thought evolved over time, with his early ideas becoming the core or scaffolding for his mature philosophy. He committed himself early to truthfulness, ], ], and vegetarianism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cribb |first1=R. B. |year=1985 |title=The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869–1893 |journal=Asian Profile |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=353–60}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's London lifestyle incorporated the values he had grown up with. When he returned to India in 1891, his outlook was parochial and he could not make a living as a lawyer. This challenged his belief that practicality and morality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to South Africa he found a solution to this problem and developed the central concepts of his mature philosophy.<ref name="Crib1985">Crib (1985).</ref> | |||
| According to Bhikhu Parekh, three books that influenced Gandhi most in South Africa were ] ''Ethical Religion'' (1889); ]'s '']'' (1849); and ]'s '']'' (1894). The art critic and critic of political economy ] inspired his decision to live an austere life on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal and then on the Tolstoy Farm just outside Johannesburg, South Africa.<ref name="Parekh2001" /> The most profound influence on Gandhi were those from Hinduism, Christianity and Jainism, states Parekh, with his thoughts "in harmony with the classical Indian traditions, specially the Advaita or monistic tradition".<ref>{{cite book|author=Bhikhu C. Parekh|title=Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qwyjly4tTUUC |year=2001|publisher=Sterling Publishing|isbn=978-1-4027-6887-3|pages=43, 71}}</ref> | |||
| According to Indira Carr and others, Gandhi was influenced by Vaishnavism, Jainism and Advaita Vedanta.<ref>{{cite book|author=Indira Carr|editor=Stuart Brown|display-editors=etal|title=Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZQqBgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-92796-8|page=263}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Glyn Richards|title=Studies in Religion: A Comparative Approach to Theological and Philosophical Themes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQ2_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-24147-7|pages=64–78}}</ref> Balkrishna Gokhale states that Gandhi was influenced by Hinduism and Jainism, and his studies of Sermon on the Mount of Christianity, ] and Tolstoy.<ref name="BGB">{{cite journal |last1=Gokhale |first1=Balkrishna Govind |year=1972 |title=Gandhi and History |journal=History and Theory |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=214–25 |doi=10.2307/2504587 |jstor=2504587 }}</ref> | |||
| Additional theories of possible influences on Gandhi have been proposed. For example, in 1935, N. A. Toothi stated that Gandhi was influenced by the reforms and teachings of the ] tradition of ]. According to Raymond Williams, Toothi may have overlooked the influence of the Jain community, and adds close parallels do exist in programs of social reform in the Swaminarayan tradition and those of Gandhi, based on "nonviolence, truth-telling, cleanliness, temperance and upliftment of the masses."<ref name=rbw01>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond Brady|title=An introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=0-521-65422-X|page=}}</ref><ref name=mhe94>{{cite book|last=Meller|first=Helen Elizabeth|title=Patrick Geddes: social evolutionist and city planner|year=1994|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-10393-2|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/patrickgeddessoc0000mell/page/159}}</ref> Historian Howard states the culture of Gujarat influenced Gandhi and his methods.<ref name=Spodek>{{cite journal|last=Spodek|first=Howard|title=On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology: The Heritage of Kathiawad and Gujarat|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|year= 1971| volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=361–72 |jstor=2942919 |doi=10.2307/2942919|s2cid=155257004 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Leo Tolstoy ==== | |||
| ], South Africa, 1910]] | |||
| Along with the book mentioned above, in 1908 ] wrote ''],'' which said that only by using love as a weapon through ] could the Indian people overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi wrote to Tolstoy seeking advice and permission to republish ''A Letter to a Hindu'' in Gujarati. Tolstoy responded and the two continued a correspondence until Tolstoy's death in 1910 (Tolstoy's last letter was to Gandhi).<ref>{{cite book|title=Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy: Letters |editor=B. Srinivasa Murthy|year= 1987|isbn= 0-941910-03-2}}</ref> The letters concern practical and theological applications of nonviolence.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy: Letters|editor=Murthy, B. Srinivasa|year=1987|isbn=0-941910-03-2|url=http://bsmurthy.com/download/Mahatma_Gandhi_Leostoy_Letters_by_BSM.pdf|publisher=Long Beach Publications|location=Long Beach, California|access-date=14 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917094806/http://bsmurthy.com/download/Mahatma_Gandhi_Leostoy_Letters_by_BSM.pdf|archive-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tolstoy, for they agreed regarding opposition to state authority and colonialism; both hated violence and preached ]. However, they differed sharply on political strategy. Gandhi called for political involvement; he was a nationalist and was prepared to use nonviolent force. He was also willing to compromise.<ref name="Green1986">{{cite book|author=Green, Martin Burgess |title=The origins of nonviolence: Tolstoy and Gandhi in their historical settings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0luAAAAMAAJ|access-date=17 January 2012|year=1986|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-271-00414-3}}</ref> It was at ] where Gandhi and ] systematically trained their disciples in the philosophy of nonviolence.<ref name="Bhana">{{cite journal |last1=Bhana |first1=Surendra |year=1979 |title=Tolstoy Farm, A Satyagrahi's Battle Ground |journal=Journal of Indian History |volume=57 |issue=2/3 |pages=431–40}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Shrimad Rajchandra ==== | |||
| Gandhi credited ], a poet and Jain philosopher, as his influential counsellor. In ''Modern Review'', June 1930, Gandhi wrote about their first encounter in 1891 at Dr. P.J. Mehta's residence in Bombay. He was introduced to Shrimad by Dr. Pranjivan Mehta.<ref>{{cite web |title=Raychandbhai |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap26.htm |website=MK Gandhi |publisher=Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation |access-date=2 July 2020}}</ref> Gandhi exchanged letters with Rajchandra when he was in South Africa, referring to him as ''Kavi'' (literally, "poet"). In 1930, Gandhi wrote, "Such was the man who captivated my heart in religious matters as no other man ever has till now."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gandhi|first1=Mahatma|title=Gandhi: An Autobiography|isbn=0-8070-5909-9|pages=|edition=]|url=https://archive.org/details/autobiographyst00gand/page/63|year=1993}}</ref> "I have said elsewhere that in moulding my inner life Tolstoy and Ruskin vied with Kavi. But Kavi's influence was undoubtedly deeper if only because I had come in closest personal touch with him."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Webber|first1= Thomas|title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor|year=2011|publisher=]|isbn =978-0-521-17448-0|pages=33–36 |edition= 3}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi, in his autobiography, called Rajchandra his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of spiritual crisis". He had advised Gandhi to be patient and to study Hinduism deeply.<ref name="Gandhi1957" /><ref name="Weber2004">{{cite book|author=Thomas Weber|title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration|year= 2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9|pages=–36}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Religious texts ==== | |||
| During his stay in South Africa, along with scriptures and philosophical texts of Hinduism and other Indian religions, Gandhi read translated texts of Christianity such as the Bible, and Islam such as the ].<ref name=britgandhirel /> A Quaker mission in South Africa attempted to convert him to Christianity. Gandhi joined them in their prayers and debated Christian theology with them, but refused conversion stating he did not accept the theology therein or that Christ was the only son of God.<ref name=britgandhirel /><ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Burgess Green|title=Gandhi: voice of a new age revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhivoiceofnew00gree/page/123|year=1993|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-0620-0|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Fischer Louis|title=The life of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmahatmagan00fisc_0/page/43|year=1950|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-06-091038-9|pages=}}</ref> | |||
| His comparative studies of religions and interaction with scholars, led him to respect all religions as well as become concerned about imperfections in all of them and frequent misinterpretations.<ref name=britgandhirel /> Gandhi grew fond of Hinduism, and referred to the '']'' as his spiritual dictionary and greatest single influence on his life.<ref name=britgandhirel>{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Mahatma Gandhi – The religious quest {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts| url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi/Resistance-and-results#toc22635| encyclopedia=]| year=2015| access-date=3 June 2017| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513020112/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi/Resistance-and-results#toc22635| archive-date=13 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ghose, Sankar |title=Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C |year=1991|publisher= Allied Publishers|pages= 377–78|isbn= 978-81-7023-205-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard H. Davis|title=The "Bhagavad Gita": A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ| year= 2014|publisher= ]|isbn= 978-1-4008-5197-3|pages=137–45}}</ref> Later, Gandhi translated the ''Gita'' into Gujarati in 1930.<ref>{{cite journal | title= The Story of Antaryami |last=Suhrud |first=Tridip |author-link=Tridip Suhrud |journal=] |volume=46|issue=11–12|date=November–December 2018 |page=45 |jstor=26599997}}</ref> | |||
| ===== Sufism ===== | |||
| Gandhi was acquainted with ]'s ] during his stay in South Africa. He attended ] gatherings there at Riverside. According to Margaret Chatterjee, Gandhi as a Vaishnava Hindu shared values such as humility, devotion and brotherhood for the poor that is also found in ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chatterjee|first=Margaret|title=Gandhi and the Challenge of Religious Diversity: Religious Pluralism Revisited|date=2005|publisher=Bibliophile South Asia|isbn=978-81-85002-46-0|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_06rcmT0b7UC&pg=PA119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fiala|first=Andrew|title=The Routledge Handbook of Pacifism and Nonviolence|date=2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-317-27197-0|page=94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y35KDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT94}}, Fiala quotes Ambitabh Pal, "Gandhi himself followed a strand of Hinduism that with its emphasis on service and on poetry and songs bore similarities to Sufi Islam".</ref> ] also compared Gandhi to a Sufi ].<ref name="Herman" /> | |||
| === On wars and nonviolence === | |||
| ==== Wars ==== | |||
| Gandhi participated in forming the ] in the South African war against the Boers, on the British side in 1899.<ref name=ghose275 /> Both the Dutch settlers called Boers and the imperial British at that time discriminated against the coloured races they considered as inferior, and Gandhi later wrote about his conflicted beliefs during the Boer war. He stated that "when the war was declared, my personal sympathies were all with the Boers, but my loyalty to the British rule drove me to participation with the British in that war. I felt that, if I demanded rights as a British citizen, it was also my duty, as such to participate in the defence of the British Empire, so I collected together as many comrades as possible, and with very great difficulty got their services accepted as an ambulance corps."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/short/ev6.htm |title=Returning his Medals |access-date=16 May 2021 |publisher=Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation |quote=When the war was declared, my personal sympathies were all with the Boers, but my loyalty to the British rule drove me to participation with the British in that war. I felt that, if I demanded rights as a British citizen, it was also my duty, as such to participate in the defence of the British Empire. so I collected together as many comrades as possible, and with very great difficulty got their services accepted as an ambulance corps.}}</ref> | |||
| During World War I (1914–1918), nearing the age of 50, Gandhi supported the British and its allied forces by recruiting Indians to join the British army, expanding the Indian contingent from about 100,000 to over 1.1 million.<ref name="green89">{{cite book|author1=Michael J. Green|author2=Nicholas Szechenyi|title=A Global History of the Twentieth Century: Legacies and Lessons from Six National Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xHnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |year=2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-7972-8|pages=89–90}}</ref><ref name=ghose275 /> He encouraged Indian people to fight on one side of the war in Europe and Africa at the cost of their lives.<ref name=ghose275>{{cite book|author=Ghose, Sankar |title=Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA275 |year=1991 |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=275|isbn= 978-81-7023-205-6}}</ref> Pacifists criticised and questioned Gandhi, who defended these practices by stating, according to Sankar Ghose, "it would be madness for me to sever my connection with the society to which I belong".<ref name=ghose275 /> According to Keith Robbins, the recruitment effort was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with ''swaraj'' (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I.<ref name=robbins133>{{cite book|author=Keith Robbins|title=The First World War|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qnTq4w-Ny3oC |year=2002|publisher= ]|isbn= 978-0-19-280318-4|pages=133–37}}</ref> After the war, the British government offered minor reforms instead, which disappointed Gandhi.<ref name="green89" /> He launched his ''satyagraha'' movement in 1919. In parallel, Gandhi's fellowmen became sceptical of his pacifist ideas and were inspired by the ideas of nationalism and anti-imperialism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rahul Sagar|editor=David M. Malone|display-editors=etal|title=The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=McwfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |year=2015 |publisher= ]|isbn= 978-0-19-106118-9|pages=71–73}}</ref> | |||
| In a 1920 essay, after the World War I, Gandhi wrote, "where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." Rahul Sagar interprets Gandhi's efforts to recruit for the British military during the War, as Gandhi's belief that, at that time, it would demonstrate that Indians were willing to fight. Further, it would also show the British that his fellow Indians were "their subjects by choice rather than out of cowardice." In 1922, Gandhi wrote that abstinence from violence is effective and true forgiveness only when one has the power to punish, not when one decides not to do anything because one is helpless.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rahul Sagar|editor=David M. Malone|display-editors=etal|title=The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=McwfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 |year=2015 |publisher= ]|isbn= 978-0-19-106118-9|page=70}}</ref> | |||
| After World War II engulfed Britain, Gandhi actively campaigned to oppose any help to the British war effort and any Indian participation in the war by launching ]. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi believed that his campaign would strike a blow to imperialism.<ref name=herman467 /> The British government responded with mass arrests including that of Gandhi and Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement.<ref name="auto"/> A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government.<ref name="Anderson"/> While 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined on the British side and fought as a part of the Allied forces in Europe, North Africa and various fronts of the World War II,<ref name="herman467" /> the Quit India Movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.<ref name="Anderson"/><ref name="herman467"/> | |||
| ==== Truth and Satyagraha ==== | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| Gandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or '']'', and called his movement ], which means "appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the Truth."<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiwieldsweap00shar |title=Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories |publisher=Navajivan |year=1960 |page=}}</ref> The first formulation of the ''satyagraha'' as a political movement and principle occurred in 1920, which Gandhi tabled as "Resolution on Non-cooperation" in September that year before a session of the Indian Congress. It was the ''satyagraha'' formulation and step, states Dennis Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma.{{sfnp|Dalton|2012|pp=30–32}} | |||
| Gandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or '']'', and called his movement ], which means "appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the Truth".<ref>{{cite book|author=Gene Sharp|title=Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiwieldsweap00shar |year=1960|publisher=Navajivan|page=}}</ref> The first formulation of the ''satyagraha'' as a political movement and principle occurred in 1920, which he tabled as "Resolution on Non-cooperation" in September that year before a session of the Indian Congress. It was the ''satyagraha'' formulation and step, states Dennis Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dennis Dalton|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxUp1igCL_0C |year=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-15959-3|pages=30–32}}</ref> | |||
| ] (nonviolence)" – ], 13 March 1927]] | ] (nonviolence)" – ], 13 March 1927]] | ||
| Gandhi based ''Satyagraha'' on the Vedantic ideal of self-realisation, ahimsa (nonviolence), vegetarianism, and universal love. William Borman states that the key to his ''satyagraha'' is rooted in the Hindu ] texts. |
Gandhi based ''Satyagraha'' on the Vedantic ideal of self-realisation, ahimsa (nonviolence), vegetarianism, and universal love. William Borman states that the key to his ''satyagraha'' is rooted in the Hindu ] texts.{{sfnp|Borman|1986|pp=–34}} According to Indira Carr, Gandhi's ideas on ''ahimsa'' and ''satyagraha'' were founded on the philosophical foundations of Advaita Vedanta.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Indira Carr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZQqBgAAQBAJ |title=Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-134-92796-8 |editor-last=Stuart Brown |page=264 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> I. Bruce Watson states that some of these ideas are found not only in traditions within Hinduism, but also in Jainism or Buddhism, particularly those about non-violence, vegetarianism and universal love, but Gandhi's synthesis was to politicise these ideas.<ref name="Watson">{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=I. Bruce |year=1977 |title=Satyagraha: The Gandhian Synthesis |journal=Journal of Indian History |volume=55 |issue=1/2 |pages=325–35}}</ref> His concept of ''satya'' as a civil movement, states Glyn Richards, are best understood in the context of the Hindu terminology of ] and '']''.<ref name="richards1">{{cite journal |last=Richards |first=Glyn |date=1986 |title=Gandhi's Concept of Truth and the Advaita Tradition |journal=Religious Studies |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1017/S0034412500017996 |issn=0034-4125 |jstor=20006253 |s2cid=170379545}}</ref> | ||
| Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth |
Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said, "God is Truth." Gandhi would later change this statement to "Truth is God." Thus, ''satya'' (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God".<ref name="Parel2006">{{cite book |last=Parel, Anthony |title=Gandhi's Philosophy and the Quest for Harmony |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-86715-3 |page=195 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQhz0fW0HZUC&pg=PA195 |access-date=13 January 2012 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073617/https://books.google.com/books?id=MQhz0fW0HZUC&pg=PA195 |url-status=live }}</ref> Gandhi, states Richards, described the term "God" not as a separate power, but as the Being (Brahman, Atman) of the ] tradition, a nondual universal that pervades in all things, in each person and all life.<ref name="richards1" /> According to Nicholas Gier, this to Gandhi meant the unity of God and humans, that all beings have the same one soul and therefore equality, that ''atman'' exists and is same as everything in the universe, ahimsa (non-violence) is the very nature of this ''atman''.<ref name=gier40>{{cite book|author=Nicholas F. Gier|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|year=2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=40–42|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073707/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| ] to defy colonial law giving salt collection monopoly to the British.<ref>{{ |
] to defy colonial law giving salt collection monopoly to the British.<ref>{{cite web|title=Salt March | Definition, Causes, History, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Salt-March|access-date=20 February 2023|website=Britannica |first1=Kenneth |last1=Pletcher |archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121121103/https://www.britannica.com/event/Salt-March|url-status=live}}</ref> His ''satyagraha'' attracted vast numbers of Indian men and women.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sita Anantha Raman|title=Women in India: A Social and Cultural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwKrCQAAQBAJ |year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-01440-6|pages=164–166}}</ref>]] | ||
| The essence of ] is "soul force" as a political means, refusing to use brute force against the oppressor, seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed, aiming to transform or "purify" the oppressor. It is not inaction but determined passive resistance and non-co-operation where, states Arthur Herman, "love conquers hate". |
The essence of ] is "soul force" as a political means, refusing to use brute force against the oppressor, seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed, aiming to transform or "purify" the oppressor. It is not inaction but determined passive resistance and non-co-operation where, states Arthur Herman, "love conquers hate".{{sfnp|Herman|2008|p=}} A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his "]" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force", as it essentially "makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."{{efn|name="rules"|<ref>{{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=M.K. |contribution=Some Rules of Satyagraha ''Young India (Navajivan)'' 23 February 1930 |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |volume=48 |page=340}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Misra |first=Bijoy |date=18 October 2017 |title=Mahatma Gandhi's Rules for Satyagraha |website=www.lokvani.com |url=https://www.lokvani.com/lokvani/article.php?article_id=13907 |access-date=5 July 2024 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730054534/https://www.lokvani.com/lokvani/article.php?article_id=13907 |url-status=usurped }} (Young India, 27 February 1930, The Gujarati original of this appeared in Navajivan, 23 February 1930)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Yadav |first=Yogendra |date=9 January 2013 |title=Some Rules of Satyagraha |website=The Gandhi-King Community |url=https://gandhiking.ning.com/profiles/blogs/some-rules-of-satyagraha-1 |access-date=5 July 2024 |archive-date=11 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811213050/https://gandhiking.ning.com/profiles/blogs/some-rules-of-satyagraha-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | ||
| Gandhi wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."<ref>{{ |
Gandhi wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prabhu |editor1-first=R.K. |editor2-last=Rao |editor2-first=U.R. |year=1967 |chapter=Power of Satyagraha |chapter-url=http://www.mkgandhi.org/momgandhi/chap34.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902015645/http://www.mkgandhi.org/momgandhi/chap34.htm |archive-date=2 September 2007 |title=The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi |location=Ahemadabad |publisher=Navajivan Mudranalaya |isbn=81-7229-149-3}}</ref> ] and non-co-operation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering",<ref name="CollectedWorks20">{{cite book |title=Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi |chapter=156. The Law of Suffering |last=Gandhi |first=M.K. |volume=20 |year=1982 |orig-year=Young India, 16 June 1920 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India |location=New Delhi |edition=electronic |pages=396–99 |chapter-url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL020.PDF |access-date=14 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128150127/http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL020.PDF |archive-date=28 January 2012}}</ref> a doctrine that ''the endurance of suffering is a means to an end''. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progress of an individual or society. Therefore, non-co-operation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with ] and ].<ref name="Sharma2008">{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Jai Narain|year=2008 |title=Satyagraha: Gandhi's approach to conflict resolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XxJvoBWTAXoC&pg=PA17|access-date=26 January 2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-480-6|page=17|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073713/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxJvoBWTAXoC&pg=PA17|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| While Gandhi's idea of ''satyagraha'' as a political means attracted a widespread following among Indians, the support was not universal. For example, Muslim leaders such as Jinnah opposed the ''satyagraha'' idea, accused Gandhi to be reviving Hinduism through political activism, and began effort to counter Gandhi with Muslim nationalism and a demand for Muslim homeland.<ref>{{cite book|author=R. Taras|title=Liberal and Illiberal Nationalisms|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Npt_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|year= 2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-59640-5|page=91 |
While Gandhi's idea of ''satyagraha'' as a political means attracted a widespread following among Indians, the support was not universal. For example, Muslim leaders such as Jinnah opposed the ''satyagraha'' idea, accused Gandhi to be reviving Hinduism through political activism, and began effort to counter Gandhi with Muslim nationalism and a demand for Muslim homeland.<ref>{{cite book|author=R. Taras|title=Liberal and Illiberal Nationalisms|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Npt_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|year= 2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-59640-5|page=91 | quote=In 1920 Jinnah opposed satyagraha and resigned from the Congress, boosting the fortunes of the Muslim League.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Yasmin Khan |year=2007 |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan/page/11 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-12078-3|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rafiq Zakaria|title=The Man who Divided India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RdITXUpyVgC |year=2002|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7991-145-7|pages=83–85}}</ref> The untouchability leader ], in June 1945, after his decision to convert to Buddhism and the first ] of modern India, dismissed Gandhi's ideas as loved by "blind Hindu devotees", primitive, influenced by spurious brew of Tolstoy and Ruskin, and "there is always some simpleton to preach them".{{sfnp|Herman|2008|p=586}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cháirez-Garza |first=Jesús Francisco |s2cid=145020542 |title=Touching space: Ambedkar on the spatial features of untouchability |journal=Contemporary South Asia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=22 |issue=1 |date=2 January 2014 |doi=10.1080/09584935.2013.870978 |pages=37–50}}</ref><ref>Ambedkar, B. R. (1945), , Thacker & Co. Editions, First Edition, pp. v, 282–297.</ref> ] caricatured Gandhi as a "cunning huckster" seeking selfish gain, an "aspiring dictator", and an "atavistic spokesman of a pagan Hinduism." Churchill stated that the civil disobedience movement spectacle of Gandhi only increased "the danger to which white people there are exposed."{{sfnp|Herman|2008|pp=359, 378–380}} | ||
| === Nonviolence === | |||
| ], Lancashire, 26 September 1931]] | ], Lancashire, 26 September 1931]] | ||
| Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale.<ref>{{Cite book|last |
Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asirvatham |first=Eddy |title=Political Theory |publisher=S.chand |isbn=81-219-0346-7 |year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Parel |first=Anthony J. |title=Pax Gandhiana: The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMGSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |pages=202– |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-049146-8 |access-date=21 July 2019 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073651/https://books.google.com/books?id=bMGSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |url-status=live |quote=Gandhi staked his reputation as an original political thinker on this specific issue. Hitherto, violence had been used in the name of political rights, such as in street riots, regicide, or armed revolutions. Gandhi believes there is a better way of securing political rights, that of nonviolence, and that this new way marks an advance in political ethics.}}</ref> The concept of nonviolence ('']'') has a long history in Indian religious thought, and is considered the highest dharma (ethical value/virtue), a precept to be observed towards all living beings (''sarvbhuta''), at all times (''sarvada''), in all respects (''sarvatha''), in action, words and thought.<ref>{{cite book |author=Christopher Chapple|title=Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Y00Q0_mOkAC |year=1993|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7914-1497-2|pages=16–18, 54–57}}</ref> Gandhi explains his philosophy and ideas about ''ahimsa'' as a political means in his autobiography '']''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gandhi |first=Mohandis K. |date=11 August 1920 |journal=Young India |publisher=M. K. Gandhi |page=3 |title=The Doctrine of the Sword |url=https://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/datalink/files/ghp_journals/journal_image_3/young_india_vol2_img251.jpg |access-date=3 May 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019152536/https://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/datalink/files/ghp_journals/journal_image_3/young_india_vol2_img251.jpg}} Cited from {{harvp|Borman|1986|pp=}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Faisal |last=Devji |title=The Impossible Indian: Gandhi and the Temptation of Violence |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2012}} {{ISBN?}}</ref>{{sfnp|Johnson|2006|p=}}<ref name="Stein20102">{{cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India |pages=289– |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA289 |quote=Gandhi was the leading genius of the later, and ultimately successful, campaign for India's independence. |author-link=Burton Stein |access-date=21 July 2019|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721074132/https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA289 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| Although Gandhi considered non-violence to be "infinitely superior to violence", he preferred violence to cowardice.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite web | last=Gupta | first=Sourabh | title=Gandhi Jayanti: Why non-violent Mahatma Gandhi preferred violence to cowardice | website=India Today | date=2 October 2013 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/featured/story/gandhi-jayanti-non-violent-mahatma-gandhi-preferred-violence-over-cowardice-212996-2013-10-01 | access-date=6 August 2023 | archive-date=6 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806103121/https://www.indiatoday.in/featured/story/gandhi-jayanti-non-violent-mahatma-gandhi-preferred-violence-over-cowardice-212996-2013-10-01 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Jahanbegloo 2020"/> Gandhi added that he "would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honor than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonor."<ref name="Jahanbegloo 2020">{{cite book | last=Jahanbegloo | first=R. | title=Mahatma Gandhi: A Nonviolent Perspective on Peace | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Peacemakers | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-000-22313-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBIHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 | page=69 | access-date=6 August 2023 | archive-date=6 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806124828/https://books.google.com/books?id=BBIHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 | url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's views came under heavy criticism in Britain when it was under attack from ], and later when the ] was revealed. He told the British people in 1940, "I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr ] and Signor ] to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them."<ref name="Wolpert2002">], p. 197.</ref> ] remarked that Gandhi's methods confronted "an old-fashioned and rather shaky despotism which treated him in a fairly chivalrous way", not a totalitarian power, "where political opponents simply disappear."<ref>Orwell, review of ]'s ''Gandhi and Stalin'', ''The Observer'', 10 October 1948, reprinted in ''It Is what I Think'', pp. 452–53.</ref> | |||
| In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, "Hitler killed five million ]. It is the greatest crime of our time. But the Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher's knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs... It would have aroused the world and the people of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway in their millions."<ref>{{Cite book|year=1950|title = The life of Mahatma Gandhi|author=Fischer, Louis|publisher=Harper|page=348|isbn = 978-0-06-091038-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHcGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA348}}</ref> Gandhi believed this act of "collective suicide", in response to the Holocaust, "would have been heroism".<ref>George Orwell, "]", ''Partisan Review'', January 1949.</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2022|reason="would have been heroism" does appear to be something Gandhi said, but isn't quoted in the Orwell article}} | |||
| Gandhi as a politician, in practice, settled for less than complete non-violence. His method of non-violent Satyagraha could easily attract masses and it fitted in with the interests and sentiments of business groups, better-off people and dominant sections of peasantry, who did not want an uncontrolled and violent social revolution which could create losses for them. His doctrine of ahimsa lay at the core of unifying role played by the Gandhian Congress.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reddy|first=K Krishna|title=Indian History|publisher=McGraw Hill Education|year=2011|isbn=978-0-07-132923-1|location=New Delhi|pages=C214}}</ref> However, during the Quit India Movement, even many staunch Gandhians used 'violent means'.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=Bipan|title=India's Struggle for Independence|url=https://www.mentorstudypoint.in/downloads/(Bipan_Chandra.pdf|publisher=]|year=1988|isbn=978-8-184-75183-3|pages=475}}</ref> | |||
| === On inter-religious relations === | |||
| ==== Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs ==== | |||
| Gandhi believed that Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism were traditions of Hinduism, with a shared history, rites and ideas. At other times, he acknowledged that he knew little about Buddhism other than his reading of ]'s book on it. Based on that book, he considered Buddhism to be a reform movement and the Buddha to be a Hindu.<ref name="Jordens1998p107" /> He stated he knew Jainism much more, and he credited Jains to have profoundly influenced him. Sikhism, to Gandhi, was an integral part of Hinduism, in the form of another reform movement. Sikh and Buddhist leaders disagreed with Gandhi, a disagreement Gandhi respected as a difference of opinion.<ref name="Jordens1998p107">{{cite book|author=J.T.F. Jordens|title=Gandhi's Religion: A Homespun Shawl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELODDAAAQBAJ |year=1998|publisher=New York: Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37389-1|pages=107–08}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh|editor=Harold Coward|title=Indian Critiques of Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5iQbjXgA0cC |year=2003|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-7914-8588-0|pages=185–88}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Muslims ==== | |||
| Gandhi had generally positive and empathetic views of ], and he extensively studied the ]. He viewed Islam as a faith that proactively promoted peace, and felt that non-violence had a predominant place in the Quran.<ref name="Gorder">{{cite book |last1=Gorder |first1=A. Christian Van |title=Islam, Peace and Social Justice: A Christian Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=James Clarke & Co |isbn=978-0-227-90200-4 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVWlAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT166}}</ref> He also read the Islamic prophet ]'s biography, and argued that it was "not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet, the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers, his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malekian |first1=Farhad |title=Corpus Juris of Islamic International Criminal Justice |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-5275-1693-9 |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-pwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409}}</ref> Gandhi had a large ] following, who he encouraged to join him in a mutual nonviolent ] against the social oppression of their time. Prominent Muslim allies in his nonviolent resistance movement included ] and ]. However, Gandhi's empathy towards Islam, and his eager willingness to valorise peaceful Muslim social activists, was viewed by many Hindus as an appeasement of Muslims and later became a leading cause for his assassination at the hands of intolerant ].<ref>Yasmin Khan, "Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state." '']'' 45.1 (2011): 57–80.</ref> | |||
| While Gandhi expressed mostly positive views of Islam, he did occasionally criticise Muslims.<ref name="Gorder" /> He stated in 1925 that he did not criticise the teachings of the Quran, but he did criticise the interpreters of the Quran. Gandhi believed that numerous interpreters have interpreted it to fit their preconceived notions.<ref>{{cite book|author=M K Gandhi|title=Young India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XfjAAAAMAAJ|year=1925|publisher=Navajivan Publishing|pages=81–82}}</ref> He believed Muslims should welcome criticism of the Quran, because "every true scripture only gains from criticism". Gandhi criticised Muslims who "betray intolerance of criticism by a non-Muslim of anything related to Islam", such as the penalty of stoning to death under Islamic law. To Gandhi, Islam has "nothing to fear from criticism even if it be unreasonable".<ref name="Gandhi2004p193">{{cite book|author=Mohandas Karmchand Gandhi|editor=V Geetha|title=Soul Force: Gandhi's Writings on Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wwkt5TX623UC|year=2004|publisher=Gandhi Publications Trust |isbn=978-81-86211-85-4|pages=193–94}}</ref><ref name=nagler17>{{cite book|author1=Mohandas K. Gandhi|author2-link=Michael N. Nagler |author2=Michael Nagler (Ed) |title=Gandhi on Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L3MRPQAACAAJ |year=2006|publisher=Berkeley Hills|isbn=1-893163-64-4|pages=1–17, 31–38}}</ref> He also believed there were material contradictions between Hinduism and Islam,<ref name=nagler17 /> and he criticised Muslims, along with communists, who were quick to resort to violence.<ref>{{cite book|author=Niranjan Ramakrishnan|title=Reading Gandhi in the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMPZvrd3BzwC&pg=PA59 |year=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-32514-3|page=59}}</ref> | |||
| One of the strategies Gandhi adopted was to work with Muslim leaders of pre-partition India, to oppose the British imperialism in and outside the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=paine20>{{cite book|author=Sarah C.M. Paine|title=Nation Building, State Building, and Economic Development: Case Studies and Comparisons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJ9sBgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-46409-9|pages=20–21}}</ref><ref name=ghosep161 /> After the First World War, in 1919–22, he won the Muslim leadership support of the Ali Brothers by backing the ] in favour of the Islamic Caliph and his historic ], and opposing the secular Islam-supporting ]. By 1924, Atatürk had ended the Caliphate, the Khilafat Movement was over, and Muslim support for Gandhi had largely evaporated.<ref name=paine20 /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kumaraswamy | first1 = P. R. | year = 1992 | title = Mahatma Gandhi and the Jewish National Home: An Assessment | journal = Asian and African Studies: Journal of the Israel Oriental Society | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 1–13 }}</ref><ref name=ghosep161>{{cite book|author=Ghose, Sankar |title=Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA164 |year=1991 |publisher=Allied Publishers|pages=161–64|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6}}</ref> | |||
| In 1925, Gandhi gave another reason for why he had got involved in the Khilafat movement and the Middle East affairs between Britain and the Ottoman Empire. Gandhi explained to his co-religionists (Hindus) that he sympathised and campaigned for the Islamic cause, not because he cared for the Sultan, but because "I wanted to enlist the Mussalman's sympathy in the matter of cow protection".<ref>{{cite book|author=Simone Panter-Brick|title=Gandhi and Nationalism: The Path to Indian Independence |year=2015 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-aIcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78453-023-5|pages=118–19}}</ref> According to the historian M. Naeem Qureshi, like the then Indian Muslim leaders who had combined religion and politics, Gandhi too imported his religion into his political strategy during the Khilafat movement.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Naeem Qureshi|title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C&pg=PA104|year=1999|editor=Reinhard Schulze|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=90-04-11371-1|pages=104–05 with footnotes|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424072809/https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C&pg=PA104|archive-date=24 April 2016}}</ref> | |||
| In the 1940s, Gandhi pooled ideas with some Muslim leaders who sought religious harmony like him, and opposed the proposed partition of British India into India and Pakistan. For example, his close friend ] suggested that they should work towards opening Hindu temples for Muslim prayers, and Islamic mosques for Hindu prayers, to bring the two religious groups closer.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Soaleh Korejo|title=The Frontier Gandhi: His Place in History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGduAAAAMAAJ|year=1993|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-577461-0|pages=77–79}}</ref> Gandhi accepted this and began having Muslim prayers read in Hindu temples to play his part, but was unable to get Hindu prayers read in mosques. The Hindu nationalist groups objected and began confronting Gandhi for this one-sided practice, by shouting and demonstrating inside the Hindu temples, in the last years of his life.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhispassionli00wolp|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-972872-5|pages=–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rein Fernhout|editor=ʻAbd Allāh Aḥmad Naʻim, Jerald Gort and Henry Jansen|title=Human Rights and Religious Values: An Uneasy Relationship?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plEEQnaDGYYC&pg=PA126 |year= 1995|publisher= Rodopi|isbn= 978-90-5183-777-3|pages=126–31}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Christians ==== | |||
| Gandhi praised Christianity. He was critical of Christian missionary efforts in British India, because they mixed medical or education assistance with demands that the beneficiary convert to Christianity.<ref name="Bauman2015p56" /> According to Gandhi, this was not true "service" but one driven by an ulterior motive of luring people into religious conversion and exploiting the economically or medically desperate. It did not lead to inner transformation or moral advance or to the Christian teaching of "love", but was based on false one-sided criticisms of other religions, when Christian societies faced similar problems in South Africa and Europe. It led to the converted person hating his neighbours and other religions, and divided people rather than bringing them closer in compassion. According to Gandhi, "no religious tradition could claim a monopoly over truth or salvation".<ref name="Bauman2015p56">{{cite book|author=Chad M. Bauman|title= Pentecostals, Proselytization, and Anti-Christian Violence in Contemporary India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6aBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |year=2015|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-020210-1|pages=50, 56–59, 66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert Eric Frykenberg|author2=Richard Fox Young|title=India and the Indianness of Christianity|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgubl3CQQDgC&pg=PA211 |year=2009|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-6392-8|pages=211–14}}</ref> Gandhi did not support laws to prohibit missionary activity, but demanded that Christians should first understand the message of ], and then strive to live without stereotyping and misrepresenting other religions. According to Gandhi, the message of Jesus was not to humiliate and imperialistically rule over other people considering them inferior or second class or slaves, but that "when the hungry are fed and peace comes to our individual and collective life, then Christ is born".<ref name=coward81>{{cite book|editor=Harold Coward|title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC|author=John C.B. Webster|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1158-4|pages=81–86, 89–95|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317045104/http://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC|archive-date=17 March 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi believed that his long acquaintance with Christianity had made him like it as well as find it imperfect. He asked Christians to stop humiliating his country and his people as heathens, idolators and other abusive language, and to change their negative views of India. He believed that Christians should introspect on the "true meaning of religion" and get a desire to study and learn from Indian religions in the spirit of universal brotherhood.<ref name=coward81 /> According to ] – a professor of Religious Studies, though Gandhi was born in a Hindu family and later became Hindu by conviction, many Christians in time thought of him as an "exemplary Christian and even as a saint".<ref>{{cite book|editor= Harold Coward|title= Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC|author= Eric J. Sharpe|year= 1993|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|isbn= 978-81-208-1158-4|page= 105|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150317045104/http://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC|archive-date= 17 March 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Some colonial era Christian preachers and faithfuls considered Gandhi as a saint.<ref name="Johnson 2006">{{cite book | last=Johnson | first=R.L. | title=Gandhi's Experiments with Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi | publisher=Lexington Books | series=Studies in Comparative Philosophy | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-7391-1143-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC |page=269}}</ref><ref name="Markovits 2004">{{cite book | last=Markovits | first=C. | title=The UnGandhian Gandhi: The Life and Afterlife of the Mahatma | publisher=Anthem Press | series=Anthem South Asian studies | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-84331-127-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpDvZO8xNNgC&pg=PA1616|page=16}}</ref><ref name="Rudolph Rudolph 2010">{{cite book | last1=Rudolph | first1=L.I. | last2=Rudolph | first2=S.H. | title=Postmodern Gandhi and Other Essays: Gandhi in the World and at Home | publisher=] | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-226-73131-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_wBDYZCRG4C |pages=99, 114–18}}</ref> Biographers from France and Britain have drawn parallels between Gandhi and Christian saints. Recent scholars question these romantic biographies and state that Gandhi was neither a Christian figure nor mirrored a Christian saint.<ref name="de Saint-Cheron 2017 p. 13">{{cite book | last=de Saint-Cheron | first=M. | title=Gandhi: Anti-Biography of a Great Soul | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-47062-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 | access-date=1 April 2018 | page=13}}</ref> Gandhi's life is better viewed as exemplifying his belief in the "convergence of various spiritualities" of a Christian and a Hindu, states Michael de Saint-Cheron.<ref name="de Saint-Cheron 2017 p. 13" /> | |||
| ==== Jews ==== | |||
| According to Kumaraswamy, Gandhi initially supported Arab demands with respect to ]. He justified this support by invoking Islam, stating that "non-Muslims cannot acquire sovereign jurisdiction" in ''Jazirat al-Arab'' (the Arabian Peninsula).<ref name="Kumaraswamy2010p36" /> These arguments, states Kumaraswamy, were a part of his political strategy to win Muslim support during the ]. In the post-Khilafat period, Gandhi neither negated Jewish demands nor did he use Islamic texts or history to support Muslim claims against Israel. Gandhi's silence after the Khilafat period may represent an evolution in his understanding of the conflicting religious claims over Palestine, according to Kumaraswamy.<ref name="Kumaraswamy2010p36" /> In 1938, Gandhi spoke in favour of Jewish claims, and in March 1946, he said to the Member of British Parliament ], "if the Arabs have a claim to Palestine, the Jews have a prior claim", a position very different from his earlier stance.<ref name="Kumaraswamy2010p36">{{cite book|author=P. R. Kumaraswamy|title=India's Israel Policy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5EHJHVXmLeEC |year= 2010|publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-231-52548-0|pages=36–38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Fischer Louis|title=The life of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmahatmagan00fisc_0/page/424|year=1950|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-06-091038-9|page=}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi discussed the ] and the ] through his lens of ].<ref name=gs /><ref>Panter-Brick, Simone (2008), ''Gandhi and the Middle East: Jews, Arabs and Imperial Interests''. London: ], {{ISBN|1-84511-584-8}}.</ref> In 1937, Gandhi discussed ] with his close Jewish friend Hermann Kallenbach.<ref name=dream>Panter-Brick, Simone. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717192928/http://www.dur.ac.uk/anthropology.journal/vol16/iss2/panter-brick.pdf |date=17 July 2012 }}. ''Durham Anthropology Journal'', Volume 16(2), 2009: pp. 54–66.</ref> He said that Zionism was not the right answer to the problems faced by Jews<ref name=Jack>], p. 317.</ref> and instead recommended Satyagraha. Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented European imperialism and used violence to achieve their goals; he argued that "the Jews should disclaim any intention of realising their aspiration under the protection of arms and should rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to find a home in Palestine. But they must wait for its fulfilment till Arab opinion is ripe for it."<ref name=gs /> | |||
| In 1938, Gandhi stated that his "sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions." Philosopher ] was highly critical of Gandhi's approach and in 1939 wrote an open letter to him on the subject. Gandhi reiterated his stance that "the Jews seek to convert the Arab heart", and use "''satyagraha'' in confronting the Arabs" in 1947.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Murti, Ramana V.V. |title=Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume= 29|issue=4 |year=1968|pages=605–13|jstor=2708297|doi=10.2307/2708297}}</ref> According to Simone Panter-Brick, Gandhi's political position on Jewish-Arab conflict evolved over the 1917–1947 period, shifting from a support for the Arab position first, and for the Jewish position in the 1940s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Panter-Brick|first=Simone|date=2009|title=Gandhi's Views on the Resolution of the Conflict in Palestine: A Note|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40262646|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=45|issue=1|pages=127–133|doi=10.1080/00263200802547719 |jstor=40262646 |s2cid=143820059 |issn=0026-3206}}</ref> | |||
| === On life, society and other application of his ideas === | |||
| ==== Vegetarianism, food, and animals ==== | |||
| Gandhi was brought up as a vegetarian by his devout Hindu mother.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stanley Wolpert|title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-515634-8|pages=14, 25–27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219190635/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C|archive-date=19 February 2017}}, Quote: "The Gandhis had always been strict vegetarians, as are all devout Hindus".</ref><ref name=kemmerer65 /> The idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in ] Vaishnavism and ] traditions in India, such as in his native Gujarat, where meat is considered as a form of food obtained by violence to animals.<ref name="Tahtinen1979p62">{{cite book|author=Unto Tähtinen|title=The Core of Gandhi's Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPk72b6A8yYC&pg=PA61 |year=1979|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-8364-0516-3|pages=61–62, 51–52}}</ref><ref>Chitrita Banerji, ''Eating India: an odyssey into the food and culture of the land of spices'' (2007), p. 169.</ref> Gandhi's rationale for vegetarianism was largely along those found in Hindu and Jain texts. Gandhi believed that any form of food inescapably harms some form of living organism, but one should seek to understand and reduce the violence in what one consumes because "there is essential unity of all life".<ref name=kemmerer65>{{cite book|author=Lisa Kemmerer|title=Animals and World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JowVDAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-979068-5|pages=65–68}}</ref><ref name=terchek204 /> | |||
| Gandhi believed that some life forms are more capable of suffering, and non-violence to him meant not having the intent as well as active efforts to minimise hurt, injury or suffering to all life forms.<ref name=terchek204>{{cite book|author=Ronald Terchek|title=Gandhi: Struggling for Autonomy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hg1MqCeW7OUC |year= 1998|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|isbn= 978-0-8476-9215-6|pages=204–06}}</ref> Gandhi explored food sources that reduced violence to various life forms in the food chain. He believed that slaughtering animals is unnecessary, as other sources of foods are available.<ref name="Tahtinen1979p62" /> He also consulted with vegetarianism campaigners during his lifetime, such as with ]. Food to Gandhi was not only a source of sustaining one's body, but a source of his impact on other living beings, and one that affected his mind, character and spiritual well being.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Becker, Carol|title=Gandhi's Body and Further Representations of War and Peace|journal=Art Journal|volume= 65|issue=4 |pages=78–95|year=2006 |doi=10.2307/20068500|jstor=20068500}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Joseph S. Alter |author-link=Joseph Alter |title=Gandhi's Body: Sex, Diet, and the Politics of Nationalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2U_SqENK3T8C|year=2011|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8122-0474-2|pages=4–5, 21–22, 34–38, 162–63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Kerry S. Walters|author2=Lisa Portmess|title=Ethical Vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ti_kVvWVBwC&pg=PA139 |year=1999|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-7914-4043-8|pages=139–144}}</ref> He avoided not only meat, but also eggs and milk. Gandhi wrote the book ''The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism'' and wrote for the London Vegetarian Society's publication.<ref>], p. 22.</ref> | |||
| Beyond his religious beliefs, Gandhi stated another motivation for his experiments with diet. He attempted to find the most non-violent vegetarian meal that the poorest human could afford, taking meticulous notes on vegetables and fruits, and his observations with his own body and his ''ashram'' in Gujarat.<ref name=herman89 /><ref name=gandhi328 /> He tried fresh and dry fruits (]), then just sun dried fruits, before resuming his prior vegetarian diet on advice of his doctor and concerns of his friends. His experiments with food began in the 1890s and continued for several decades.<ref name=herman89>{{cite book|author=Arthur Herman|title=Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-553-90504-5|pages=89–90, 294–95|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913065817/http://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C|archive-date=13 September 2014}}</ref><ref name=gandhi328>{{cite book|author=Mahatma Gandhi|title=An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth|url=https://archive.org/details/autobiographyst00gand/page/328|year=1957|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8070-5909-8|pages=}}</ref> For some of these experiments, Gandhi combined his own ideas with those found on ] in Indian ] texts. He believed that each vegetarian should experiment with their diet because, in his studies at his ''ashram'' he saw "one man's food may be poison for another".<ref>{{cite book|author=Joseph S. Alter|title=Gandhi's Body: Sex, Diet, and the Politics of Nationalism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2U_SqENK3T8C|year= 2011|publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-8122-0474-2|pages=21–22, 34–34, 74–75, 162–63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Georg Feuerstein|title=The Path of Yoga: An Essential Guide to Its Principles and Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Knp7nmz8qgMC |year=2011|publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-0-8348-2292-4|page=66}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi championed animal rights in general. Other than making vegetarian choices, he actively campaigned against dissection studies and experimentation on live animals (]) in the name of science and medical studies.<ref name="Tahtinen1979p62" /> He considered it a violence against animals, something that inflicted pain and suffering. He wrote, "Vivisection in my opinion is the blackest of all the blackest crimes that man is at present committing against God and His fair creation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/views_on_sci.htm |title=Towards an understanding of Gandhi's views on Science |publisher=Mkgandhi.org |date=1 November 1934 |access-date=12 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311184704/http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/views_on_sci.htm |archive-date=11 March 2016 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Fasting ==== | |||
| {{See also|List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Gandhi used ] as a political device, often threatening suicide unless demands were met. Congress publicised the fasts as a political action that generated widespread sympathy. In response, the government tried to manipulate news coverage to minimise his challenge to the Raj. He fasted in 1932 to protest the voting scheme for separate political representation for Dalits; Gandhi did not want them segregated. The British government stopped the London press from showing photographs of his emaciated body, because it would elicit sympathy. Gandhi's 1943 hunger strike took place during a two-year prison term for the anti-colonial Quit India movement. The government called on nutritional experts to demystify his action, and again no photos were allowed. However, his final fast in 1948, after the end of British rule in India, his hunger strike was lauded by the British press and this time did include full-length photos.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pratt, Tim |author2=Vernon, James |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1086/424944|title='Appeal from this fiery bed...': The Colonial Politics of Gandhi's Fasts and Their Metropolitan Reception|journal=Journal of British Studies|year=2005|volume=44|issue=1|pages=92–114|s2cid=145072298 }}</ref> | |||
| Alter states that Gandhi's fasting, vegetarianism and diet was more than a political leverage, it was a part of his experiments with self restraint and healthy living. He was "profoundly skeptical of traditional Ayurveda", encouraging it to study the scientific method and adopt its progressive learning approach. Gandhi believed yoga offered health benefits. He believed that a healthy nutritional diet based on regional foods and hygiene were essential to good health.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alter, Joseph S. |title=Gandhi's body, Gandhi's truth: Nonviolence and the biomoral imperative of public health|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|year=1996|volume=35|issue=2|pages=305–06, 309–10, 313–17, 320–21 (all with footnotes)|jstor= 2943361| doi= 10.2307/2943361|s2cid=162424304 }}</ref> Recently ] made Gandhi's health records public in a book 'Gandhi and Health@150'. These records indicate that despite being underweight at 46.7 kg Gandhi was generally healthy. He avoided modern medication and experimented extensively with water and earth healing. While his cardio records show his heart was normal, there were several instances he suffered from ailments like Malaria and was also operated on twice for piles and appendicitis. Despite health challenges, Gandhi was able to walk about 79000 km in his lifetime which comes to an average of 18 km per day and is equivalent to walking around the earth twice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://krishijagran.com/news/mahatma-gandhis-underweight-health-records-revealed-for-the-1st-time-know-his-heart-health-serious-diseases/|title=Mahatma Gandhi's Underweight Health Records Revealed For the 1st Time; Know his Heart Health, Serious Diseases|website=krishijagran.com|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Women ==== | |||
| Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, and urged "the women to fight for their own self-development." He opposed '']'', ], ] and '']''.<ref name="Norvell1997" /> A wife is not a slave of the husband, stated Gandhi, but his comrade, better half, colleague and friend, according to Lyn Norvell.<ref name="Norvell1997" /> In his own life however, according to Suruchi Thapar-Bjorkert, Gandhi's relationship with his wife were at odds with some of these values.<ref name=suruchi77 /> | |||
| At various occasions, Gandhi credited his orthodox Hindu mother, and his wife, for first lessons in ''satyagraha''.<ref name="Kishwar2008p132">{{cite book|author=Madhu Purnima Kishwar|title=Zealous Reformers, Deadly Laws|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rSGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 |year=2008 |publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-81-321-0009-6|pages=132–33}}</ref> He used the legends of Hindu goddess ] to expound women's innate strength, autonomy and "lioness in spirit" whose moral compass can make any demon "as helpless as a goat".<ref name="Kishwar2008p132" /> To Gandhi, the women of India were an important part of the "swadeshi movement" (Buy Indian), and his goal of decolonising the Indian economy.<ref name="Kishwar2008p132" /> | |||
| Some historians such as Angela Woollacott and Kumari Jayawardena state that even though Gandhi often and publicly expressed his belief in the equality of sexes, yet his vision was one of gender difference and complementarity between them. Women, to Gandhi, should be educated to be better in the domestic realm and educate the next generation. His views on women's rights were less liberal and more similar to puritan-Victorian expectations of women, states Jayawardena, than other Hindu leaders with him who supported economic independence and equal gender rights in all aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=Angela Woollacott|title=Gender and Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5YcBQAAQBAJ |year=2006|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-20485-0|pages=107–08}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kumari Jayawardena|title=Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj_OCgAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-78478-431-7|pages=95–99}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Brahmacharya: abstinence from sex and food ==== | |||
| Along with many other texts, Gandhi studied ''Bhagavad Gita'' while in South Africa.<ref name="apsharma154">{{cite book|author=A. P. Sharma|title=Indian & Western Educational Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2o4bTpFQtdIC |year=2010|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=978-81-7806-201-3|pages=154–56}}</ref> This Hindu scripture discusses ], ] and ] along with virtues such as non-violence, patience, integrity, lack of hypocrisy, self restraint and abstinence.<ref>{{cite book|author=Winthrop Sargeant|editor=Christopher Key Chapple|title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-4384-2840-6|pages=x–xviii, 285 (verse 6.14), 415 (verse 10.5), 535 (verse 13.7)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415012931/https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C|archive-date=15 April 2017}}</ref> Gandhi began experiments with these, and in 1906 at age 37, although married and a father, he vowed to abstain from sexual relations.<ref name="apsharma154" /> | |||
| Gandhi's experiment with abstinence went beyond sex, and extended to food. He consulted the ] scholar Rajchandra, whom he fondly called Raychandbhai.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Weber|title=Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe |url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9|page=}}</ref> Rajchandra advised him that milk stimulated sexual passion. Gandhi began abstaining from cow's milk in 1912, and did so even when doctors advised him to consume milk.<ref name="Gandhi1957">{{cite book|author=Mahatma Gandhi|title=An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth|url=https://archive.org/details/autobiographyst00gand/page/262|access-date=23 November 2016|volume=39|year=1957|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8070-5909-8|page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sankar Ghose|title= Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C |year=1991|publisher= Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6|pages=66–67}}</ref> According to Sankar Ghose, Tagore described Gandhi as someone who did not abhor sex or women, but considered sexual life as inconsistent with his moral goals.<ref name=ghose354>{{cite book|author=Sankar Ghose|title= Mahatma Gandhi |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C |year= 1991|publisher= Allied Publishers|isbn= 978-81-7023-205-6|pages=354–57}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi tried to test and prove to himself his ''brahmacharya''. The experiments began some time after the death of his wife in February 1944. At the start of his experiment, he had women sleep in the same room but in different beds. He later slept with women in the same bed but clothed, and finally, he slept naked with women. In April 1945, Gandhi referenced being naked with several "women or girls" in a letter to Birla as part of the experiments.<ref name=parekh210>{{cite book|author=Bhikhu C. Parekh|title=Colonialism, tradition, and reform: an analysis of Gandhi's political discourse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXhuAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-9382-7|pages=210–21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629120818/http://books.google.com/books?id=exhuAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=29 June 2014}}</ref> According to the 1960s memoir of his grandniece Manu, Gandhi feared in early 1947 that he and she may be killed by Muslims in the run-up to India's independence in August 1947, and asked her when she was 18 years old if she wanted to help him with his experiments to test their "purity", for which she readily accepted.<ref name="jadadams2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/thrill-of-the-chaste-the-truth-about-gandhis-sex-life-1937411.html|title=Thrill of the chaste: The truth about Gandhi's sex life|date=2 January 2012|work=]|author=Jad Adams|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603033106/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/thrill-of-the-chaste-the-truth-about-gandhis-sex-life-1937411.html|archive-date=3 June 2013}}</ref> Gandhi slept naked in the same bed with Manu with the bedroom doors open all night. Manu stated that the experiment had no "ill effect" on her. Gandhi also shared his bed with 18-year-old Abha, wife of his grandnephew Kanu. Gandhi would sleep with both Manu and Abha at the same time.<ref name="jadadams2012" /><ref name=majumdar224>{{cite book|author=Uma Majmudar|title=Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: From Darkness to Light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XombmM30kAC&pg=PA224 |year=2012 |publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-7914-8351-0|pages=224–25}}</ref> None of the women who participated in the ''brahmachari'' experiments of Gandhi indicated that they had sex or that Gandhi behaved in any sexual way. Those who went public said they felt as though they were sleeping with their ageing mother.<ref name=ghose354 /><ref name=parekh210 /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Lal, Vinay |title=Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate Sexuality|journal=Journal of the History of Sexuality|date=Jan–Apr 2000|volume=9 |issue =1/2|pages=105–36|jstor=3704634}}</ref> | |||
| According to Sean Scalmer, Gandhi in his final year of life was an ], and his sickly skeletal figure was caricatured in Western media.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sean Scalmer|title=Gandhi in the West: The Mahatma and the Rise of Radical Protest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDcXJxRR4TUC&pg=PA16|year=2011|publisher=]|pages=12–17 with footnotes|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071616/https://books.google.com/books?id=oDcXJxRR4TUC&pg=PA16|archive-date=1 January 2016|isbn=978-1-139-49457-1}}</ref> In February 1947, he asked his confidants such as Birla and Ramakrishna if it was wrong for him to experiment his ''brahmacharya'' oath.<ref name=ghose354 /> Gandhi's public experiments, as they progressed, were widely discussed and criticised by his family members and leading politicians. However, Gandhi said that if he would not let Manu sleep with him, it would be a sign of weakness. Some of his staff resigned, including two of his newspaper's editors who had refused to print some of Gandhi's sermons dealing with his experiments.<ref name="jadadams2012" /> Nirmalkumar Bose, Gandhi's Bengali interpreter, for example, criticised Gandhi, not because Gandhi did anything wrong, but because Bose was concerned about the psychological effect on the women who participated in his experiments.<ref name=majumdar224 /> Veena Howard states Gandhi's views on brahmacharya and religious renunciation experiments were a method to confront women issues in his times.<ref name=howard2013>{{cite journal |author=Howard, Veena R. |year=2013|title=Rethinking Gandhi's celibacy: Ascetic power and women's empowerment|journal=] |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=130–61 |publisher=] |doi= 10.1093/jaarel/lfs103 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Untouchability and castes ==== | |||
| Gandhi spoke out against untouchability early in his life.<ref name="Jaffrelotp62">{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability: Fighting the Indian Caste System|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1590ts70g0C&pg=PA60|year=2005|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-13602-0|pages=60–63}}</ref> Before 1932, he and his associates used the word ''antyaja'' for untouchables. In a major speech on untouchability at ] in 1920, Gandhi called it a great evil in Hindu society but observed that it was not unique to Hinduism, having deeper roots, and stated that Europeans in South Africa treated "all of us, Hindus and Muslims, as untouchables; we may not reside in their midst, nor enjoy the rights which they do".<ref name=gandhi149 /> Calling the doctrine of untouchability intolerable, he asserted that the practice could be eradicated, that Hinduism was flexible enough to allow eradication, and that a concerted effort was needed to persuade people of the wrong and to urge them to eradicate it.<ref name=gandhi149 /> | |||
| According to ], while Gandhi considered untouchability to be wrong and evil, he believed that caste or class is based on neither inequality nor inferiority.<ref name="Jaffrelotp62" /> Gandhi believed that individuals should freely intermarry whomever they wish, but that no one should expect everyone to be his friend: every individual, regardless of background, has a right to choose whom he will welcome into his home, whom he will befriend, and whom he will spend time with.<ref name="Jaffrelotp62" /><ref name=gandhi149>{{Cite book|last=The Publication Division|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.164029|title=The Collected Works Of Mahatma Gandhi Xix November 1920- April 1921|date=1966}}</ref> | |||
| In 1932, Gandhi began a new campaign to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he began to call '']s'', "the children of god".<ref name="Coward2003" /> On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification and launched a year-long campaign to help the ''harijan'' movement.<ref>], pp. 230–89.</ref> This campaign was not universally embraced by the ] community: Ambedkar and his allies felt Gandhi was being paternalistic and was undermining Dalit political rights. Ambedkar described him as "devious and untrustworthy".<ref name="GreatSoulReview" /> He accused Gandhi as someone who wished to retain the caste system.<ref name="Dirks2011p267" /> Ambedkar and Gandhi debated their ideas and concerns, each trying to persuade the other.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gandhi-Ambedkar Correspondence | Selected Letters of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/Selected%2520Letters/amb-gandhi%2520corr..htm|access-date=2023-02-20|website=www.mkgandhi.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rajmohan Gandhi|title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC|year=2006|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-25570-8|pages=333–59|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222104043/https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref> It was during the Harijan tour that he faced the first assassination attempt. While in Poona, a bomb was thrown by an unidentified assailant (described only as a ] in the press<ref>{{cite news|date=27 June 1934|title=Mahatma martyred will be stronger than Mahatma living. Act Marks Lowest Depth of Perversity, Says Asaf Ali.|page=1|newspaper=]}}</ref>) at a car belonging to his entourage but Gandhi and his family escaped as they were in the car that was following. Gandhi later declared that he "cannot believe that any sane sanatanist could ever encourage the insane act ... The sorrowful incident has undoubtedly advanced the Harijan cause. It is easy to see that causes prosper by the martyrdom of those who stand for them."<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Benjamin, N.|author2=Narkulwad, Ganesh|year=2019|title=Gandhi's Links with Poona: An Overview|url=https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/1.-OCTOBER-2018-MARCH-2019.pdf#page=38|journal=Gandhi Marg|volume=40|issue=3–4|pages=165–186}}</ref> | |||
| ]'', 27 June 1934]] | |||
| In 1935, Ambedkar announced his intentions to leave Hinduism and join Buddhism.<ref name="Dirks2011p267" /> According to Sankar Ghose, the announcement shook Gandhi, who reappraised his views and wrote many essays with his views on castes, intermarriage, and what Hinduism says on the subject. These views contrasted with those of Ambedkar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sankar Ghose|title=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA236 |year=1991|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6|page=236}}</ref> Yet in the elections of 1937, excepting some seats in Mumbai which Ambedkar's party won, India's untouchables voted heavily in favour of Gandhi's campaign and his party, the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|author= Rajmohan Gandhi|title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC&pg=PA385 |year=2006 |publisher=]|isbn= 978-0-520-25570-8|page= 385}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi and his associates continued to keep in touch with Ambedkar. Ambedkar worked with other Congress leaders through the 1940s and the headed committee of India's constitution in the late 1940s, but did indeed convert to Buddhism in 1956.<ref name="Dirks2011p267" /> According to Jaffrelot, Gandhi's views evolved between the 1920s and 1940s; by 1946, he actively encouraged intermarriage between castes. His approach, too, to untouchability differed from Ambedkar's, championing fusion, choice, and free intermixing, while Ambedkar envisioned each segment of society maintaining its group identity, and each group then separately advancing the "politics of equality".<ref name="Jaffrelotp62" /> | |||
| Ambedkar's criticism of Gandhi continued to influence the Dalit movement past Gandhi's death. According to Arthur Herman, Ambedkar's hatred for Gandhi and Gandhi's ideas was so strong that, when he heard of Gandhi's assassination, he remarked after a momentary silence a sense of regret and then added, "My real enemy is gone; thank goodness the eclipse is over now".<ref name="Herman2008p586" /><ref>{{cite journal|author= KR Rao|editor =MVVS Murthi|display-editors=etal|journal=Journal of Gandhian Studies|title = Satyagraha: Gandhi's yoga of nonviolence| volume = 3|year=1975|page=48|publisher= Gandhi Bhawan, University of Allahabad}};<br />Laxman Kawale (2012), ''Dalit's Social Transformation: Redefining the Social Justice'', ISRJ, Volume 1, Issue XII, page 3; Quote: "Even though Ambedkar was a party to Poona Pact, he was never reconciled to it. His contempt against Gandhi ... continued even after his assassination on January 30, 1948. On the death of Gandhi, he expressed, "My real enemy has gone; thank goodness the eclipse is over". He equated the assassination of Gandhi with that of Caesar and the remark of Cicero to the messenger – "Tell the Romans, your hour of liberty has come". He further remarked, "While one regrets the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, one cannot help finding in his heart the echo of the sentiments expressed by Cicero on the assassination of Caesar".</ref> According to ], "ideologues have carried these old rivalries into the present, with the demonization of Gandhi now common among politicians who presume to speak in Ambedkar's name."<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|date=2012-06-22|title=The Other Liberal Light|magazine=The New Republic|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/104203/the-other-liberal-light|access-date=2023-02-20|issn=0028-6583}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Nai Talim, basic education ==== | |||
| {{Main|Nai Talim}} | |||
| Gandhi rejected the colonial Western format of the education system. He stated that it led to disdain for manual work, generally created an elite administrative bureaucracy. Gandhi favoured an education system with far greater emphasis on learning skills in practical and useful work, one that included physical, mental and spiritual studies. His methodology sought to treat all professions equal and pay everyone the same.<ref>{{cite book|author=V.R. Devika |author2=G. Arulmani|editor= Gideon Arulmani|display-editors=etal|title=Handbook of Career Development: International Perspectives|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_RS4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA111| year=2014|publisher= Springer Science|isbn= 978-1-4614-9460-7|page=111}}</ref><ref name=weber80 /> This leads him to create a university in Ahmedabad, ]. | |||
| Gandhi called his ideas ''Nai Talim'' (literally, 'new education'). He believed that the Western style education violated and destroyed the indigenous cultures. A different basic education model, he believed, would lead to better self awareness, prepare people to treat all work equally respectable and valued, and lead to a society with less social diseases.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.J. Chambliss|title=Philosophy of Education: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncDYnnvzm1sC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-51161-5|page=233}}</ref><ref>Dehury, Dinabandhu "Mahatma Gandhi's Contribution to Education", ''Orissa Review'', {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215184920/http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/sept-oct2006/engpdf/11-15.pdf |date=15 February 2010 }}; </ref> | |||
| Nai Talim evolved out of his experiences at the ] in South Africa, and Gandhi attempted to formulate the new system at the Sevagram ashram after 1937.<ref name=weber80>{{cite book|author=Weber, Thomas |title=Gandhi As Disciple And Mentor|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiasdisciple0000webe|url-access=registration |year=2004|publisher=Cambridge U. Press|page= with footnote 42|isbn=978-1-139-45657-9}}</ref> Nehru government's vision of an industrialised, centrally ] after 1947 had scant place for Gandhi's village-oriented approach.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Yencken, David |author2=Fien, John |author3=Sykes, Helen |name-list-style=amp |title=Environment, Education, and Society in the Asia-Pacific: Local Traditions and Global Discourses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpE3W2MhC78C&pg=PA107|year=2000|publisher=Psychology Press|page=107|isbn=978-0-203-45926-3}}</ref> | |||
| In his autobiography, Gandhi wrote that he believed every Hindu child must learn ] because its historic and spiritual texts are in that language.<ref name="Childhood" /> | |||
| ==== Swaraj, self-rule ==== | |||
| {{Main|Swaraj}} | |||
| Gandhi believed that ''swaraj'' not only can be attained with non-violence,<ref name="GangulyDocker20082"/> but it can also be run with non-violence. A military is unnecessary, because any aggressor can be thrown out using the method of non-violent non-co-operation. While the military is unnecessary in a nation organised under ''swaraj'' principle, Gandhi added that a police force is necessary given human nature. However, the state would limit the use of weapons by the police to the minimum, aiming for their use as a restraining force.<ref name="Chakrabarty">{{cite book|author=Chakrabarty, Bidyut|title=Social and political thought of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpoliticalt0000chak/page/138|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36096-8|pages=}}</ref> | |||
| According to Gandhi, a non-violent state is like an "ordered anarchy".<ref name="Chakrabarty" /> In a society of mostly non-violent individuals, those who are violent will sooner or later accept discipline or leave the community, stated Gandhi.<ref name="Chakrabarty" /> He emphasised a society where individuals believed more in learning about their duties and responsibilities, not demanded rights and privileges. On returning from South Africa, when Gandhi received a letter asking for his participation in writing a world charter for human rights, he responded saying, "in my experience, it is far more important to have a charter for human duties."<ref>]. '']''. Nilgiri Press, 2011. p. 49.</ref> | |||
| Swaraj to Gandhi did not mean transferring colonial era British power brokering system, favours-driven, bureaucratic, class exploitative structure and mindset into Indian hands. He warned such a transfer would still be English rule, just without the Englishman. "This is not the Swaraj I want", said Gandhi.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gillen, Paul |author2=Ghosh, Devleena |name-list-style=amp |title=Colonialism and Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnQk28Du5poC&pg=PA130|year=2007|publisher=UNSW Press|pages=129–31|isbn=978-0-86840-735-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Anil Mishra|title=Reading Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xa8cD95Mt4YC |year=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-81-317-9964-2|pages=167–70}}</ref> Tewari states that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a system of government; it meant promoting both individuality and the self-discipline of the community. Democracy meant settling disputes in a nonviolent manner; it required freedom of thought and expression. For Gandhi, democracy was a way of life.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tewari | first1 = S. M. | year = 1971 | title = The Concept of Democracy in the Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi | journal = Indian Political Science Review | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 225–51 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Hindu nationalism and revivalism ==== | |||
| Some scholars state Gandhi supported a religiously diverse India,<ref>{{cite book|author1=John L. Esposito|author2=Darrell J. Fasching|author3=Todd Lewis|title=Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L9QQAQAAIAAJ |year= 2007|publisher= ]|isbn=978-0-19-517695-7|pages=543–44}}</ref> while others state that the Muslim leaders who championed the partition and creation of a separate Muslim Pakistan considered Gandhi to be Hindu nationalist or revivalist.<ref>{{cite book|author= Chetan Bhatt|title= Hindu nationalism: origins, ideologies and modern myths|url= https://archive.org/details/hindunationalism00chet/page/111|year= 2001|publisher= Berg|isbn= 978-1-85973-343-1|pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Leora Batnitzky|author2=Hanoch Dagan|title=Institutionalizing Rights and Religion: Competing Supremacies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIA7DgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-108-17953-9|page=250}}, Quote: "Many Muslims viewed Gandhi not as a secularist, but as a Hindu nationalist."</ref> For example, in his letters to Mohammad Iqbal, Jinnah accused Gandhi to be favouring a Hindu rule and revivalism, that Gandhi led Indian National Congress was a fascist party.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lars Tore Flåten|title=Hindu Nationalism, History and Identity in India: Narrating a Hindu past under the BJP|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5NZRDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT249 |year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-20871-6|page=249}}</ref> | |||
| In an interview with C.F. Andrews, Gandhi stated that if we believe all religions teach the same message of love and peace between all human beings, then there is neither any rationale nor need for proselytisation or attempts to convert people from one religion to another.<ref name=singh79 /> Gandhi opposed missionary organisations who criticised Indian religions then attempted to convert followers of Indian religions to Islam or Christianity. In Gandhi's view, those who attempt to convert a Hindu, "they must harbour in their breasts the belief that Hinduism is an error" and that their own religion is "the only true religion".<ref name=singh79 /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mahatma Gandhi|author2=Anand T. Hingorani|title=All Religions are True|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2rDWAAAAMAAJ|year= 1962|publisher= Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=112–13}}</ref> Gandhi believed that people who demand religious respect and rights must also show the same respect and grant the same rights to followers of other religions. He stated that spiritual studies must encourage "a Hindu to become a better Hindu, a Mussalman to become a better Mussalman, and a Christian a better Christian."<ref name=singh79>{{cite journal| author1=Singh AR| author2= Singh SA| title=Gandhi on religion, faith and conversion: secular blueprint relevant today | journal=Mens Sana Monographs | year= 2004 | volume= 2 | issue= 1 | pages= 79–88 | pmid=22815610 | pmc=3400300 }}</ref> | |||
| According to Gandhi, religion is not about what a man believes, it is about how a man lives, how he relates to other people, his conduct towards others, and one's relationship to one's conception of god.<ref name=parekh82>{{cite book|author=Bhikhu C. Parekh|title=Gandhi|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Qwyjly4tTUUC |year= 2001|publisher= Sterling Publishing|isbn= 978-1-4027-6887-3|pages= 82–84}}</ref> It is not important to convert or to join any religion, but it is important to improve one's way of life and conduct by absorbing ideas from any source and any religion, believed Gandhi.<ref name=parekh82 /> | |||
| ==== Gandhian economics ==== | |||
| {{Main|Gandhian economics}} | |||
| Gandhi believed in the ''sarvodaya'' economic model, which literally means "welfare, upliftment of all".<ref name=rivett1>{{cite journal | last=Rivett | first=Kenneth | title=The Economic Thought of Mahatma Gandhi | journal=The British Journal of Sociology | publisher=JSTOR | volume=10 | issue=1 | year=1959 | doi=10.2307/587582 | pages=1–15| jstor=587582 }}</ref> This, states Bhatt, was a very different economic model than the socialism model championed and followed by free India by Nehru – India's first prime minister. To both, according to Bhatt, removing poverty and unemployment were the objective, but the Gandhian economic and development approach preferred adapting technology and infrastructure to suit the local situation, in contrast to Nehru's large scale, socialised state owned enterprises.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bhatt | first1 = V. V. | year = 1982 | title = Development Problem, Strategy, and Technology Choice: Sarvodaya and Socialist Approaches in India | journal = Economic Development and Cultural Change | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 85–99 | jstor=1153645 | doi = 10.1086/451307| s2cid = 154077320 }}</ref> | |||
| To Gandhi, the economic philosophy that aims at "greatest good for the greatest number" was fundamentally flawed, and his alternative proposal ''sarvodaya'' set its aim at the "greatest good for all". He believed that the best economic system not only cared to lift the "poor, less skilled, of impoverished background" but also empowered to lift the "rich, highly skilled, of capital means and landlords". Violence against any human being, born poor or rich, is wrong, believed Gandhi.<ref name=rivett1 /><ref>{{cite journal | last=Rothermund | first=Indira | title=The Individual and Society in Gandhi's Political Thought | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=] | volume=28 | issue=2 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2943005 | pages=313–20| jstor=2943005 | s2cid=145179518 }}</ref> He stated that the mandate theory of majoritarian democracy should not be pushed to absurd extremes, individual freedoms should never be denied, and no person should ever be made a social or economic slave to the "resolutions of majorities".<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramjee Singh|editor=Ronald Bontekoe|display-editors=etal|title=Justice and Democracy: Cross-cultural Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcGvAzjPSboC&pg=PA233 |year=1997|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-1926-2|pages=233–35}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi challenged Nehru and the modernisers in the late 1930s who called for rapid industrialisation on the Soviet model; Gandhi denounced that as dehumanising and contrary to the needs of the villages where the great majority of the people lived.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chakrabarty, Bidyut |title=Jawaharlal Nehru and Planning, 1938–1941: India at the Crossroads|journal=]|year=1992|volume=26|issue=2|pages=275–87|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00009781|s2cid=143462773}}</ref> After Gandhi's assassination, Nehru led India in accordance with his personal socialist convictions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Socialism and Indian economic policy|author=Padma Desai and Jagdish Bhagwati|journal=World Development|volume= 3|issue= 4|year= 1975|pages=213–21|doi=10.1016/0305-750X(75)90063-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Socialism at crossroads|author=B.K. Nehru|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|volume=17|date=Spring 1990|pages=1–12|jstor=23002177|issue=1}}</ref> Historian Kuruvilla ] says "it was Nehru's vision, not Gandhi's, that was eventually preferred by the Indian State."<ref>{{cite book|author=Pandikattu, Kuruvila |title=Gandhi: the meaning of Mahatma for the millennium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrGadHsc1bUC&pg=PA237 |year=2001 |publisher=CRVP |isbn=978-1-56518-156-4|page=237}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi called for ending poverty through improved agriculture and small-scale cottage rural industries.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rivett | first1 = Kenneth | year = 1959 | title = The Economic Thought of Mahatma Gandhi | journal = British Journal of Sociology | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 1–15 | jstor=587582 | doi = 10.2307/587582}}</ref> Gandhi's economic thinking disagreed with Marx, according to the political theory scholar and economist ]. Gandhi refused to endorse the view that economic forces are best understood as "antagonistic class interests".<ref name=parekh5 /> He argued that no man can degrade or brutalise the other without degrading and brutalising himself and that sustainable economic growth comes from service, not from exploitation. Further, believed Gandhi, in a free nation, victims exist only when they co-operate with their oppressor, and an economic and political system that offered increasing alternatives gave power of choice to the poorest man.<ref name=parekh5>{{cite book|author=Bhikhu C. Parekh|title=Gandhi|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Qwyjly4tTUUC |year= 2001|publisher= Sterling Publishing|isbn= 978-1-4027-6887-3|pages= 5–6, 15–16}}</ref> | |||
| While disagreeing with Nehru about the socialist economic model, Gandhi also critiqued capitalism that was driven by endless wants and a materialistic view of man. This, he believed, created a vicious vested system of materialism at the cost of other human needs, such as spirituality and social relationships.<ref name=parekh5 /> To Gandhi, states Parekh, both communism and capitalism were wrong, in part because both focused exclusively on a materialistic view of man, and because the former deified the state with unlimited power of violence, while the latter deified capital. He believed that a better economic system is one which does not impoverish one's culture and spiritual pursuits.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bhikhu Parekh| author-link = Bhikhu Parekh| title=Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sP2wCwAAQBAJ |year=1991|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-349-12242-4|pages=133–36}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Gandhism ==== | |||
| {{Main|Gandhism|Gandhians}} | |||
| ''Gandhism'' designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted; of central importance is nonviolent resistance. A ] can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.<ref name="Hardiman2001" /> M. M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it is a political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarian world view. It is an effort not to systematise wisdom but to transform society and is based on an undying faith in the goodness of human nature.<ref>Sankhdher, M. M. (1972), "Gandhism: A Political Interpretation", ''Gandhi Marg'', pp. 68–74.</ref> However Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion of "Gandhism", as he explained in 1936: | |||
| {{blockquote|There is no such thing as "Gandhism", and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems ... The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills.<ref>Kamath, M.V. (2007), ''Gandhi, a spiritual journey'', Indus Source, {{ISBN|81-88569-11-9}}, p. 195.</ref>}} | |||
| == Literary works == | == Literary works == | ||
| ]'', a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 to 1932]] | ]'', a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 to 1932]] | ||
| Gandhi was a prolific writer. His signature style was simple, precise, clear and as devoid of artificialities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M.K. Gandhi as a Author {{!}} M.K. Gandhi: Author, Journalist, Printer-Publisher {{!}} Journalist Gandhi|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/j.a.p/author.htm|access-date=25 January 2022|website=www.mkgandhi.org|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125084617/https://www.mkgandhi.org/j.a.p/author.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> One of Gandhi's earliest publications, ''Hind Swaraj'', published in Gujarati in 1909, became "the intellectual blueprint" for India's independence movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved".<ref name=ie12>{{cite news|title=Would Gandhi have been a Wikipedian?|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/would-gandhi-have-been-a-wikipedian/900506/0|access-date=26 January 2012|work=]|date=17 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209021916/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/would-gandhi-have-been-a-wikipedian/900506/0|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> For decades, Gandhi edited several newspapers including '']'' in Gujarati, in ] and in the English language; '']'' while in South Africa and, '']'', in English, and ''Navajivan'', a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, ''Navajivan'' was also published in Hindi. Gandhi also wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804022748/http://www.lifepositive.com/Spirit/masters/mahatma-gandhi/journalist.asp |date=4 August 2007}} by V. N. Narayanan. Life Positive Plus, October–December 2002.</ref> | |||
| Gandhi also wrote several books, including his autobiography, ''] (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા")'', of which Gandhi bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.<ref name="GreatSoulReview" /> His other autobiographies included: ''Satyagraha in South Africa'' about his struggle there, '']'', a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of ]'s '']'' which was an early ].<ref name="Unto this last">{{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=M.K. |title=Unto this Last: A paraphrase |url=http://wikilivres.ca/Unto_This_Last_%E2%80%94_M._K._Gandhi |publisher=Navajivan Publishing House |location=Ahmedabad |isbn=81-7229-076-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030070419/http://wikilivres.ca/Unto_This_Last_%E2%80%94_M._K._Gandhi |archive-date=30 October 2012 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. Gandhi also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.<ref name="Pareku">{{cite book |last=Pareku |first=Bhikhu |title=Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC&pg=PT159 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-160667-0 |page=159 |year=2001 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134137/https://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC&pg=PT159#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1934, Gandhi wrote ''Songs from Prison'' while prisoned in ] in Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite book |last=M.K. Gandhi |url=http://archive.org/details/songsfromprison00mkga |title=Songs From Prison |date=1934 |others=Public Resource}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi was a prolific writer. His signature style was simple, precise, clear and as devoid of artificialities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M.K. Gandhi as a Author {{!}} M.K. Gandhi: Author, Journalist, Printer-Publisher {{!}} Journalist Gandhi|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/j.a.p/author.htm|access-date=25 January 2022|website=www.mkgandhi.org|language=en}}</ref> One of Gandhi's earliest publications, ''Hind Swaraj'', published in Gujarati in 1909, became "the intellectual blueprint" for India's independence movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved".<ref name=ie12>{{cite news|title=Would Gandhi have been a Wikipedian?|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/would-gandhi-have-been-a-wikipedian/900506/0|access-date=26 January 2012|work=]|date=17 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209021916/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/would-gandhi-have-been-a-wikipedian/900506/0|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> For decades he edited several newspapers including '']'' in Gujarati, in ] and in the English language; '']'' while in South Africa and, '']'', in English, and ''Navajivan'', a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, ''Navajivan'' was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804022748/http://www.lifepositive.com/Spirit/masters/mahatma-gandhi/journalist.asp |date=4 August 2007 }} by V. N. Narayanan. Life Positive Plus, October–December 2002.</ref> | |||
| Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, ''] (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા")'', of which he bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.<ref name="GreatSoulReview" /> His other autobiographies included: ''Satyagraha in South Africa'' about his struggle there, '']'', a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of ]'s '']'' which was an early ].<ref name="Unto this last">{{Cite book |last= Gandhi |first= M. K. |title= Unto this Last: A paraphrase |url= http://wikilivres.ca/Unto_This_Last_%E2%80%94_M._K._Gandhi |publisher= Navajivan Publishing House |location= Ahmedabad |language= en |isbn= 81-7229-076-4 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121030070419/http://wikilivres.ca/Unto_This_Last_%E2%80%94_M._K._Gandhi |archive-date= 30 October 2012 |access-date= 21 July 2012 }}</ref> This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.<ref name="Pareku">{{cite book|last=Pareku|first=Bhikhu|title=Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC&pg=PT159|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-160667-0|page=159|year=2001}}</ref> In 1934, he wrote ''Songs from Prison'' while prisoned in ] in Maharashtra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=M.K. Gandhi |url=http://archive.org/details/songsfromprison00mkga |title=Songs From Prison |date=1934 |others=Public Resource}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name '']'' in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about |
Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name '']'' in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about 100 volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it contained a large number of errors and omissions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Revised edition of Bapu's works to be withdrawn |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Revised-edition-of-Bapus-works-to-be-withdrawn/articleshow/1298101.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029052020/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-11-16/india/27838774_1_second-edition-bapu-gujarat-vidyapith|archive-date=29 October 2012|access-date=25 March 2012|newspaper=]|url-status=live |date=16 November 2005}}</ref> The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.<ref>{{cite web |author=Peter Rühe |url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/e/cwmg/cwmg_controversy.htm |title=Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Controversy |publisher=Gandhiserve.org |access-date=12 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907204816/http://www.gandhiserve.org/e/cwmg/cwmg_controversy.htm |archive-date=7 September 2016 }}</ref> | ||
| == Legacy == | == Legacy == | ||
| {{See also|List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi|List of things named after Mahatma Gandhi|List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi}} | {{See also|List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi|List of things named after Mahatma Gandhi|List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi}} | ||
| Gandhi is noted as the greatest figure of the successful ] against the British rule. He is also hailed as the greatest figure of modern India.<ref name="Vilanilam">{{cite book | |
Gandhi is noted as the greatest figure of the successful ] against the British rule. He is also hailed as the greatest figure of modern India.{{efn|<ref name="Vilanilam">{{cite book |last=Vilanilam |first=J.V. |title=Mass Communication In India: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2005 |isbn=978-93-5280-570-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oFjDwAAQBAJ |quote=The greatest of all national leaders (and journalists) of the independence movement was Mahatma Gandhi. |page=68 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163650/https://books.google.com/books?id=0oFjDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Parker">{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Geoffrey |title=The Times Illustrated History of the World |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-06-270010-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bj0sAQAAIAAJ |quote=The hero of Indian independence from the British, and the greatest figure in decolonization, was Mahatma Gandhi |page=290 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163654/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bj0sAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Douglas">{{cite book |last=Douglas |first=R. |title=The World War 1939–1945: The Cartoonists' Vision |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Library Editions: WW2 |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-46048-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpJFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |quote=Mahatma Gandhi was the most influential of all the Indian politicians in the campaign for independence |page=192 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163648/https://books.google.com/books?id=PpJFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prashad |first1=G. |last2=Nawani |first2=A. |title=Writings on Nehru: Some Reflections on Indian Thoughts and Related Essays |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7211-204-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXjvbI4ZswIC |quote=Mahatma Gandhi was the greatest absorbant and the greatest personality of modern India |page=92 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220154726/https://books.google.com/books?id=iXjvbI4ZswIC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blamberger |first1=G. |last2=Kakar |first2=S. |title=Imaginations of Death and the Beyond in India and Europe |publisher=Springer Nature Singapore |year=2018 |isbn=978-981-10-6707-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mH1TDwAAQBAJ |quote=Mahatma Gandhi, modern India's greatest icon, elevated his search for moksha above any of his social or political goals, including India's freedom from colonial rule. |page=3 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220154357/https://books.google.com/books?id=mH1TDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Carson |first=C. |title=The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. |publisher=Grand Central Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7595-2037-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTI7AQAAQBAJ |quote=Gandhi is not only the greatest figure in India's history, but his influence is felt in almost every aspect of life and public policy. |page=108 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220155912/https://books.google.com/books?id=PTI7AQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>}} American historian ] described Gandhi as "India's greatest revolutionary nationalist leader" and the greatest Indian since the ].{{sfnp|Wolpert|2001|pp=32–263}} In 1999, Gandhi was named "Asian of the century" by '']''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indira 'woman of millennium', Mahatma 'Asian of century' |website=Tribune India |date=2 December 1999 |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99dec02/head2.htm |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163643/https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99dec02/head2.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2000 ] poll, he was voted as the greatest man of the millennium.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi 'greatest man' |publisher=] |date=1 January 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/583427.stm |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/583427.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mahatma Gandhi Biography">{{cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi Biography |url=https://sjsa.maharashtra.gov.in/en/mahatma-gandhi-biography |work=Social Justice & Special Assistance, Government of Maharashtra |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=14 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314232130/https://sjsa.maharashtra.gov.in/en/mahatma-gandhi-biography |url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| The word '']'', while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the ] words ''maha'' (meaning ''Great'') and ''atma'' (meaning ''Soul'').<ref name="McGregor19932" |
The word '']'', while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the ] words ''maha'' (meaning ''Great'') and ''atma'' (meaning ''Soul'').<ref name="McGregor19932">{{cite book |last=McGregor |first=Ronald Stuart |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhindiengli00mcgr_0 |title=The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-864339-5 |page= |access-date=31 August 2013 |url-access=registration | quote=''mahā-'' (S. 'great, mighty, large, ..., eminent') + '']'' (S. ''''1.''' soul, spirit; the self, the individual; the mind, the heart; ''2.'' the ultimate being.'): 'high-souled, of noble nature; a noble or venerable man.'}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gandhi|2008|p=|ps=. "...Kasturba would accompany Gandhi on his departure from ] for ] in July 1914 ''en route'' to India. ... In different South African towns (], Cape Town, ], ], and the ] cities of ] and ]), the struggle's martyrs were honoured and the Gandhi's bade farewell. Addresses in ] and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken up the poor's cause. The whites too said good things about Gandhi, who predicted a future for the Empire if it respected justice."}} He was publicly bestowed with the honorific title "Mahatma" in July 1914 at farewell meeting in Town Hall, ].<ref>{{cite book|title=India-China Relations |author=Charan Shandilya|publisher=Pt. Sunderlal Institute of Asian Studies|page=187}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Mahatma Gandhi: A Chronology|year=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MgBAAAAMAAJ|publisher=]|page=60|access-date=17 March 2023|archive-date=17 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163647/https://books.google.com/books?id=4MgBAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi by 1915.<ref name="Tagore1998">{{cite book |last=Tagore |first=Rabindranath |editor=Dutta, Krishna |others=Robinson, Andrew |title=Rabindranath Tagore: an anthology |year=1998 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-20079-4 |page=2}}</ref>{{efn|The earliest record of usage, however, is in a private letter from ] to ] dated 1909.<ref>{{harvp|Guha|2013a|pp=362, 662}}. "During my last trip to Europe I saw a great deal of Mr Gandhi. From year to year (I have known him intimately for over twenty years) I have found him getting more and more selfless. He is now leading almost an ascetic sort of life – not the life of an ordinary ascetic that we usually see but that of a great Mahatma and the one idea that engrosses his mind is his motherland."</ref><ref>Pranjivan Mehta to G. K. Gokhale, dated Rangoon, 8 November 1909, File No. 4, Servants of India Society Papers, NMML.</ref>}} In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.{{sfnp|Gandhi|1990a|p=viii}}<ref>Basu Majumdar, A. K. (1993), ''Rabindranath Tagore: The Poet of India'', Indus Publishing, {{ISBN|81-85182-92-2}}, p. 83: "When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath's eldest brother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the first to address him as Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then the whole of India called him Mahatma Gandhi."</ref>{{sfnp|Ghose|1991|p= |ps=. "So Tagore differed from many of Gandhi's ideas, but yet he had great regard for him and Tagore was perhaps the first important Indian who called Gandhi a Mahatma. But in 1921 when Gandhi was asked whether he was really a Mahatma Gandhi replied that he did not feel like one, and that, in any event, he could not define a Mahatma for he had never met any."}} | ||
| ] in honour of Mahatma Gandhi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Champion of Liberty Issue |publisher=Smithsonian National Postal Museum |accessdate=25 December 2023 |url=https://postalmuseum.si.edu/object/npm_1980.2493.5370 |archive-date=27 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227230840/https://postalmuseum.si.edu/object/npm_1980.2493.5370 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] | |||
| Innumerable streets, roads, and localities in India are named after Gandhi. These include ] (the ] of a number of Indian cities including ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]), ] (near ], Mumbai) and ] (the capital of the state of ], Gandhi's birthplace).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guha|first1=Ramachandra |title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy|year=2007|publisher=Ecco Press |location=Delhi|isbn=978-0-06-019881-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaaftergandhi00guha}}</ref> | |||
| As of 2008, over 150 countries have released stamps on Gandhi.<ref name="India 2008">{{cite web |agency=Press Trust of India |title=Stamps on Mahatma Gandhi in 150 countries |website=India Today |date=2 October 2008 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/stamps-on-mahatma-gandhi-in-150-countries-30857-2008-10-02 |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163643/https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/stamps-on-mahatma-gandhi-in-150-countries-30857-2008-10-02 |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2019, about 87 countries including ], the ], ], ], ], and ] released commemorative Gandhi stamps on the 150th anniversary of his birth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Palestine, Turkey and Uzbekistan Issue Commemorative Gandhi Stamps |website=The Wire |date=2 October 2019 |url=https://thewire.in/world/palestine-turkey-uzbekistan-commemorative-gandhi-stamps |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163647/https://thewire.in/world/palestine-turkey-uzbekistan-commemorative-gandhi-stamps |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://en.irna.ir/news/83501059/Memorial-stamp-marking-Mahatma-Gandhi-unveiled-in-Iran |title=Memorial stamp marking Mahatma Gandhi unveiled in Iran |date=2 October 2019 |publisher=] |access-date=5 June 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163649/https://en.irna.ir/news/83501059/Memorial-stamp-marking-Mahatma-Gandhi-unveiled-in-Iran |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Yojana October 2020 (English) (Special Edition): A Development Monthly |page=70 |publisher=Public Division}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Chaudhury |first=Dipanjan Roy |title=Russia marks 150th year of Mahatma Gandhi with series of events |website=The Economic Times |date=2 October 2019 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/russia-marks-150th-year-of-mahatma-gandhi-with-series-of-events/articleshow/71403404.cms |access-date=17 March 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317163647/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/russia-marks-150th-year-of-mahatma-gandhi-with-series-of-events/articleshow/71403404.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| Innumerable streets, roads and localities in India are named after Gandhi. These include ] (the ] of a number of Indian cities including Mumbai, ], ], ], ], ] and ]), ] (near ], Mumbai) and ] (the capital of the state of ], Gandhi's birthplace).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guha|first1=Ramachandra|title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy|year= 2007|publisher=Ecco Press|location=Delhi|isbn=978-0-06-019881-7|url=https://archive.org/details/indiaaftergandhi00guha}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In 2014, ]'s Indian community commissioned a statue of Gandhi, created by ] and Anil Sutar in the ],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Tony |date=16 November 2014 |title=Indian PM Narendra Modi unveils Gandhi statue |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/indian-pm-narendra-modi-unveils-gandhi-statue-20141116-11nwf9.html |access-date=7 April 2024 |website=Brisbane Times |language=en |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122082916/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/indian-pm-narendra-modi-unveils-gandhi-statue-20141116-11nwf9.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi |url=https://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/people/foreigners/display/104400-mohandas-karamchand-mahatma-gandhi |access-date=7 April 2024 |website=Monument Australia |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407131416/https://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/people/foreigners/display/104400-mohandas-karamchand-mahatma-gandhi |url-status=live }}</ref> It was unveiled by ], then Prime Minister of India. | |||
| ] asteroid ] was named in his honour in September 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2020/MPC_20200924.pdf|title=The Minor Planet Circular 125471|date=24 September 2020|pages=939|publisher=Minor Planet Center|access-date=29 March 2024|archive-date=1 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001011306/https://minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2020/MPC_20200924.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2022, a statue of Gandhi was installed in ] on the embankment of the rowing canal, opposite the cult monument to the defenders of Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jjtv.kz/en/news/society/24948-statue-of-mahatma-gandhi-erected-in-astana |title=Statue of Mahatma Gandhi erected in Astana |website=jjtv.kz |date=14 October 2022 |access-date=8 November 2022 |archive-date=8 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108045833/https://jjtv.kz/en/news/society/24948-statue-of-mahatma-gandhi-erected-in-astana |url-status=live |author1=Айжан }}</ref> | |||
| As of 2008, over 150 countries released stamps on Gandhi.<ref name="India 2008">{{cite web | last=India | first=Press Trust of | title=Stamps on Mahatma Gandhi in 150 countries | website=India Today | date=2008-10-02 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/stamps-on-mahatma-gandhi-in-150-countries-30857-2008-10-02 }}</ref> In October 2019, about 87 countries including ], ], ], ], ] released commemorative Gandhi stamps on 150th birth anniversary of Gandhi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Palestine, Turkey and Uzbekistan Issue Commemorative Gandhi Stamps | website=The Wire | date=2019-10-02 | url=https://thewire.in/world/palestine-turkey-uzbekistan-commemorative-gandhi-stamps }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | website=en.irna.ir | url=https://en.irna.ir/news/83501059/Memorial-stamp-marking-Mahatma-Gandhi-unveiled-in-Iran }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Yojana October 2020 (English)(Special Edition): A Development Monthly|page=70|publisher=Public Division}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Chaudhury | first=Dipanjan Roy | title=Russia marks 150th year of Mahatma Gandhi with series of events | website=The Economic Times | date=2019-10-02 | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/russia-marks-150th-year-of-mahatma-gandhi-with-series-of-events/articleshow/71403404.cms}}</ref> | |||
| On 15 December 2022, the ] headquarters in ] unveiled the statue of Gandhi. UN Secretary-General ] called Gandhi an "uncompromising advocate for peaceful co-existence."<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi's bust at UN, a reminder of values he upheld: UN Chief |website=Business Standard News |date=15 December 2022 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/mahatma-gandhi-s-bust-at-un-a-reminder-of-values-he-upheld-un-chief-122121500167_1.html |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226013414/https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/mahatma-gandhi-s-bust-at-un-a-reminder-of-values-he-upheld-un-chief-122121500167_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ] asteroid ] was named in his honour in September 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2020/MPC_20200924.pdf|title=The Minor Planet Circular 125471|date=24 September 2020|pages=939|publisher=Minor Planet Center}}</ref> In October 2022, a statue of Gandhi was installed in ] on the embankment of the rowing canal, opposite the cult monument to the defenders of Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jjtv.kz/en/news/society/24948-statue-of-mahatma-gandhi-erected-in-astana|title=Statue of Mahatma Gandhi erected in Astana|website=jjtv.kz|date=14 October 2022}}</ref> | |||
| On 15 December 2022, the ] headquarters in ] unveiled the statue of Gandhi. UN Secretary-General ] called Gandhi an "uncompromising advocate for peaceful co-existence".<ref>{{cite web | title=Mahatma Gandhi's bust at UN, a reminder of values he upheld: UN Chief | website=Business Standard News | date=15 December 2022 | url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/mahatma-gandhi-s-bust-at-un-a-reminder-of-values-he-upheld-un-chief-122121500167_1.html}}</ref> | |||
| === Followers and international influence === | === Followers and international influence === | ||
| Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements.<ref name="Stein20102"/> Leaders of the ] in the United States, including ], ], and ], drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about nonviolence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/kings_trip_to_india/ |title=King's Trip to India |publisher=Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu |access-date=24 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321002316/http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/kings_trip_to_india/|archive-date=21 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Sidner, Sara |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/02/17/king.anniversaryvisit/index.html |title=King moved, as father was, on trip to Gandhi's memorial |publisher=] |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414101902/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/02/17/king.anniversaryvisit/index.html |archive-date=14 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=D'Souza, Placido P. |url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/COMMEMORATING-MARTIN-LUTHER-KING-JR-Gandhi-s-2640319.php |title=Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King |work=] |date=20 January 2003 |access-date=24 January 2012 |archive-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118040508/http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/COMMEMORATING-MARTIN-LUTHER-KING-JR-Gandhi-s-2640319.php |url-status=live}}</ref> King said, "Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics."<ref name="Tougas2011">{{cite book |last=Tougas |first=Shelley |title=Birmingham 1963: How a Photograph Rallied Civil Rights Support |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzWQKHKcrOMC&pg=PT12 |access-date=24 January 2012 |year=2011 |publisher=Capstone Press |isbn=978-0-7565-4398-3 |page=12 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134209/https://books.google.com/books?id=zzWQKHKcrOMC&pg=PT12#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> King sometimes referred to Gandhi as "the little brown saint."<ref>{{cite book |last=Cone |first=James |title=Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream Or a Nightmare |year=1992 |publisher=Orbis Books |isbn=0-88344-824-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/martinmalcolmame00jame}}</ref> Anti-] activist and former President of South Africa, ], was inspired by Gandhi.<ref name="Mandela-2000">{{Cite magazine|last=Mandela|first=Nelson|date=31 December 1999|title=The Sacred Warrior|language=en-US|magazine=Time|url=https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993025,00.html|access-date=20 February 2023|issn=0040-781X|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307161503/https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993025,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Others include ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mzv.cz/newdelhi/en/pr/commemorative_soiree_relevance_of_vaclav.html|title=Commemorative Soirée: Relevance of Václav Havel Today|publisher=Embassy of the Czech Republic in Delhi|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204160106/https://www.mzv.cz/newdelhi/en/pr/commemorative_soiree_relevance_of_vaclav.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web |first=Rubina|last=Sethi|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040222/spectrum/book1.htm |title=An alternative Gandhi |work=]|location=India |date=22 February 2004 |access-date=12 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514084050/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040222/spectrum/book1.htm |archive-date=14 May 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| ] of Gandhi at ]]] | |||
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| ]]] | |||
| ], |
| ] of Gandhi at ], ], Canada]] | ||
| | ] of Gandhi in ], Spain]] | |||
| | ], Brazil]] | |||
| Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements.<ref name="Stein20102"/> Leaders of the ] in the United States, including ], ], and ], drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about nonviolence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/kings_trip_to_india/ |title=King's Trip to India |publisher=Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu |access-date=24 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321002316/http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/kings_trip_to_india/|archive-date=21 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Sidner, Sara |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/02/17/king.anniversaryvisit/index.html |title=King moved, as father was, on trip to Gandhi's memorial |work=CNN |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414101902/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/02/17/king.anniversaryvisit/index.html |archive-date=14 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=D'Souza, Placido P. |url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/COMMEMORATING-MARTIN-LUTHER-KING-JR-Gandhi-s-2640319.php |title=Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King |work=] |date=20 January 2003 |access-date=24 January 2012 |archive-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118040508/http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/COMMEMORATING-MARTIN-LUTHER-KING-JR-Gandhi-s-2640319.php |url-status=live }}</ref> King said "Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics."<ref name="Tougas2011">{{cite book|last=Tougas|first=Shelley|title=Birmingham 1963: How a Photograph Rallied Civil Rights Support|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzWQKHKcrOMC&pg=PT12|access-date=24 January 2012|year= 2011|publisher=Capstone Press|isbn=978-0-7565-4398-3|page=12}}</ref> King sometimes referred to Gandhi as "the little brown saint."<ref>{{cite book|last=Cone|first=James|title=Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream Or a Nightmare|year=1992|publisher=Orbis Books|isbn=0-88344-824-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/martinmalcolmame00jame}}</ref> Anti-] activist and former President of South Africa, ], was inspired by Gandhi.<ref name="Mandela-2000">{{Cite magazine|last=Mandela|first=Nelson|date=1999-12-31|title=The Sacred Warrior|language=en-US|magazine=Time|url=https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993025,00.html|access-date=2023-02-20|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> Others include ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mzv.cz/newdelhi/en/pr/commemorative_soiree_relevance_of_vaclav.html|title=Commemorative Soirée: Relevance of Václav Havel Today|publisher=Embassy of the Czech Republic in Delhi}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web |first=Rubina|last=Sethi|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040222/spectrum/book1.htm |title=An alternative Gandhi |work=]|location=India |date=22 February 2004 |access-date=12 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514084050/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040222/spectrum/book1.htm |archive-date=14 May 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| In his early years, the former ] Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.<ref name="Mandela-2000" /> Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense, Mandela completed what Gandhi started."<ref name="BhanaVahed2005" /> | In his early years, the former ] Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.<ref name="Mandela-2000" /> Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense, Mandela completed what Gandhi started."<ref name="BhanaVahed2005" /> | ||
| Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading |
Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading his ideas. In Europe, ] was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book ''Mahatma Gandhi'', and Brazilian anarchist and feminist ] wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, physicist ] exchanged letters with Gandhi and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a letter writing about him.<ref name="Albano-Müller">{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html |title=Einstein on Gandhi (Einstein's letter to Gandhi – Courtesy:Saraswati Albano-Müller & Notes by Einstein on Gandhi – Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem) |publisher=Gandhiserve.org |date=18 October 1931 |access-date=24 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117104005/http://www.gandhiserve.org/streams/einstein.html |archive-date=17 January 2012 }}</ref> Einstein said of Gandhi: | ||
| <blockquote>Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilised world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come. | <blockquote>Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilised world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come. | ||
| Line 567: | Line 396: | ||
| Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.</blockquote> | Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.</blockquote> | ||
| ], a political activist from ] visited India in 1930, where he met Gandhi and was influenced by Gandhi's non-violent philosophy which he adopted in his campaign in ].<ref name=":1">{{ |
], a political activist from ], visited India in 1930, where he met Gandhi and was influenced by Gandhi's non-violent philosophy, which he adopted in his campaign in ].<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Uwechue|first=Raph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTlyAAAAMAAJ|title=Makers of Modern Africa: Profiles in History|date=1981|publisher=Published by Africa Journal Ltd. for Africa Books Ltd.|isbn=978-0-903274-14-2|access-date=5 September 2021|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134139/https://books.google.com/books?id=zTlyAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| ] went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the ] in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). ] (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.<ref name="Dhupelia-Mesthrie2005">{{cite book|last=Dhupelia-Mesthrie|first=Uma|title=Gandhi's prisoner?: the life of Gandhi's son Manilal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCR0AJx-9pwC&pg=PA293|access-date=26 January 2012|year=2005|publisher=Permanent Black|isbn=978-81-7824-116-6|page=293}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=In the company of Bapu|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1041003/asp/look/story_3824566.asp|date=3 October 2004|work=]|access-date=26 January 2012 |
] went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the ] in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). ] (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.<ref name="Dhupelia-Mesthrie2005">{{cite book|last=Dhupelia-Mesthrie|first=Uma|title=Gandhi's prisoner?: the life of Gandhi's son Manilal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCR0AJx-9pwC&pg=PA293|access-date=26 January 2012|year=2005|publisher=Permanent Black|isbn=978-81-7824-116-6|page=293|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134332/https://books.google.com/books?id=hCR0AJx-9pwC&pg=PA293|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=In the company of Bapu|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1041003/asp/look/story_3824566.asp|date=3 October 2004|work=]|access-date=26 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208170605/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1041003/asp/look/story_3824566.asp|archive-date=8 February 2012}}</ref> | ||
| In addition, the British musician ] referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.<ref name="Rolling Stone">{{cite magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528225215/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/8898300/lennon_lives_forever|url= https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/8898300/lennon_lives_forever|archive-date=28 May 2007|title=Lennon Lives Forever |author=Gilmore, Mikal |date=5 December 2005 |magazine=Rolling Stone |
In addition, the British musician ] referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.<ref name="Rolling Stone">{{cite magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528225215/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/8898300/lennon_lives_forever|url= https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/8898300/lennon_lives_forever|archive-date=28 May 2007|title=Lennon Lives Forever |author=Gilmore, Mikal |date=5 December 2005 |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=24 January 2012}}</ref> In 2007, former US Vice-President and environmentalist ] drew upon Gandhi's idea of ''satyagraha'' in a speech on climate change.<ref name="Al Gore">{{cite news |last1=Applebome |first1=Peter |title=Applying Gandhi's Ideas to Climate Change |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/30/nyregion/30towns.html |access-date=2 December 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=30 March 2008 |quote=Al Gore cited both Gandhi and Abraham Lincoln in a speech on climate change in 2007. He noted Gandhi's sense of satyagraha ... |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202130853/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/30/nyregion/30towns.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 44th President of the United States ] said in September 2009 that his biggest inspiration came from Gandhi. His reply was in response to the question: "Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?" Obama added, "He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."<ref name="Wakefield">{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna32723625 |title=Obama steers clear of politics in school pep talk |agency=] |date=8 September 2009 |publisher=] |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223415/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32723625/ns/politics-white_house/t/obama-steers-clear-politics-school-pep-talk/ |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> | ||
| US President ] said in a 2010 address to the ] that: | |||
| <blockquote>I am mindful that I might not be standing before you today, as President of the United States, had it not been for Gandhi and the message he shared with America and the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/11/08/remarks-president-joint-session-indian-parliament-new-delhi-india |title=Remarks by the President to the Joint Session of the Indian Parliament in New Delhi, India |date=8 November 2010 |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120173337/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/11/08/remarks-president-joint-session-indian-parliament-new-delhi-india |via=] |publisher=] |archive-date=20 January 2017 }}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Obama said in September 2009 that his biggest inspiration came from Gandhi. His reply was in response to the question "Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?". He continued that "He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."<ref name="Wakefield">{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32723625/ns/politics-white_house/t/obama-steers-clear-politics-school-pep-talk |title=Obama steers clear of politics in school pep talk |agency=] |date=8 September 2009 |publisher=] |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223415/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32723625/ns/politics-white_house/t/obama-steers-clear-politics-school-pep-talk/ |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| ''Time'' magazine named ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] as ''Children of Gandhi'' and his spiritual heirs to nonviolence.<ref name="TimeTCOG">{{cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993026,00.html|title=The Children of Gandhi|date=31 December 1999|magazine=Time|format=excerpt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005013134/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C993026%2C00.html|archive-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> The ] in ], Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.<ref name="MorenoCelebrates">{{cite web |url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-community-celebrates-district-named-for-1613050.php |title=Houston community celebrates district named for Gandhi |author=Moreno, Jenalia |date=16 January 2010 |work=] |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411062824/http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-community-celebrates-district-named-for-1613050.php |archive-date=11 April 2015 }}</ref> | ''Time'' magazine named ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] as ''Children of Gandhi'' and his spiritual heirs to nonviolence.<ref name="TimeTCOG">{{cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993026,00.html|title=The Children of Gandhi|date=31 December 1999|magazine=Time|format=excerpt|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005013134/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C993026%2C00.html|archive-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> The ] in ], Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.<ref name="MorenoCelebrates">{{cite web |url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-community-celebrates-district-named-for-1613050.php |title=Houston community celebrates district named for Gandhi |author=Moreno, Jenalia |date=16 January 2010 |work=] |access-date=24 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411062824/http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Houston-community-celebrates-district-named-for-1613050.php |archive-date=11 April 2015 }}</ref> | ||
| Gandhi's ideas had a significant influence on ]. It began with his engagement with ] and ]. ] said that the French philosopher ] engaged critically with Gandhi from the point of view of "European spirituality |
Gandhi's ideas had a significant influence on ]. It began with his engagement with ] and ]. ] said that the French philosopher ] engaged critically with Gandhi from the point of view of "European spirituality."<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MB2DwAAQBAJ&q=blanchot |title=Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-Politics |first1=Shaj |last1=Mohan |first2=Divya |last2=Dwivedi |first3=Jean-Luc |last3=Nancy |year=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4742-2173-3 |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134142/https://books.google.com/books?id=4MB2DwAAQBAJ&q=blanchot#v=snippet&q=blanchot&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Since then philosophers including ], ] and ] found that Gandhi was a necessary reference to discuss morality in politics. American political scientist ] wrote an analytical text, ], on the significance of Gandhi's ideas, for creating nonviolent social change. Recently, in the light of climate change, Gandhi's views on technology are gaining importance in the fields of ] and ].<ref name="Bloomsbury Publishing" /> | ||
| === Global days that celebrate Gandhi === | === Global days that celebrate Gandhi === | ||
| In 2007, the ] declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as "the ] |
In 2007, the ] declared Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, as "the ]".<ref name="UN declares 2 October, Gandhi's birthday, as International Day of Nonviolence">{{cite web|title=UN declares 2 October, Gandhi's birthday, as International Day of Nonviolence|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22926&Cr=non&Cr1=violence|publisher=UN News Centre|access-date=2 April 2012|date=15 June 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123011319/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22926&Cr=non&Cr1=violence|archive-date=23 January 2012}}</ref> First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish),<ref name="cartadelapaz">{{cite web |url=http://www.cartadelapaz.org/portal_cp/anoticies_detall.php?id=682 |title=School Day of Nonviolence And Peace |date=30 January 2009 |work=Letter of Peace addressed to the UN |publisher=cartadelapaz.org |access-date=9 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101164628/http://www.cartadelapaz.org/portal_cp/anoticies_detall.php?id=682 |archive-date=1 November 2011 }}</ref> 30 January is observed as the ] in schools of many countries.<ref name="DENIP">{{cite web |url=http://denip.webcindario.com/denip.english.html |title=DENIP: School Day of Nonviolence and Peace |author=Eulogio Díaz del Corral |date=31 January 1983 |work=DENIP |access-date=30 January 2012 |language=es |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227082217/http://denip.webcindario.com/denip.english.html |archive-date=27 February 2012}}</ref> In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.<ref name="DENIP" /> | ||
| === Awards === | === Awards === | ||
| '']'' ] named Gandhi the ] in 1930.<ref name="Mahatma Gandhi Biography"/> In the same magazine's 1999 list of ], Gandhi was second only to ], who had called Gandhi "the greatest man of our age."<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gchgl_XLqI0C&dq=%22greatest+man+of+our+age%22+gandhi+einstein&pg=PT862 |title=Einstein: The Life and Times |date=2011 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4482-0270-6 |page=}}</ref> The ] awarded him an ] in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_006_06_0311_0316_0.pdf |title=University and Educational Intelligence |journal=] |volume=6 |issue=6 |page=314 |date=December 1937 |access-date=15 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716025131/http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_006_06_0311_0316_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] awarded the annual ] to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. ], the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2003, Gandhi was posthumously awarded with the ].<ref name="livinghumanity">{{cite web| title=Peace Laureates – livinghumanity| publisher=LivingHumanity| url=https://livinghumanity.org/peace-laureates/| access-date=24 March 2024| archive-date=21 March 2024| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321104237/https://livinghumanity.org/peace-laureates/| url-status=live}}</ref> Two years later, he was posthumously awarded with the ].<ref name="Burger 2002 p. ">{{cite book | last=Burger | first=D. | title=South Africa Yearbook 2002/03 | publisher=Government Communication and Information System | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-919855-14-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfRCpvoGtwgC | page=99 | access-date=24 March 2024 | archive-date=24 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324121451/https://books.google.com/books?id=hfRCpvoGtwgC | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2011, Gandhi topped the TIME's list of top 25 political icons of all time.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 February 2011 |title=Top 25 Political Icons |url=https://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2045906,00.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228045051/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0%2C28804%2C2046285_2045996_2045906%2C00.html |archive-date=28 December 2013 |access-date=9 February 2011 |magazine=]}}</ref> | |||
| ], Spain]] | |||
| '']'' ] named Gandhi the ] in 1930. In the same magazine's 1999 list of ], Gandhi was second only to ], who had called Gandhi "the greatest man of our age".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gchgl_XLqI0C&dq=%22greatest+man+of+our+age%22+gandhi+einstein&pg=PT862|title=Einstein: The Life and Times|date=28 September 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4482-0270-6|pages=""The greatest man of our age," was how Einstein now described Gandhi;"|language=en}}</ref> The ] awarded him an ] in 1937.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_006_06_0311_0316_0.pdf | title =University and Educational Intelligence | journal = ]| volume = 6 | issue =6 | page = 314 | date =December 1937 }}</ref> The ] awarded the annual ] to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. ], the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Gandhi topped the TIME's list of top 25 political icons of all time.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2045906,00.html |title=Top 25 Political Icons |access-date=9 February 2011 |magazine=] |date=4 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228045051/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0%2C28804%2C2046285_2045996_2045906%2C00.html |archive-date=28 December 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi did not receive the ], although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the ],<ref name="AFSC">{{cite web |url=http://www.afsc.org/nobel-peace-prize-nominations |title=Nobel Peace Prize Nominations | |
Gandhi did not receive the ], although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the ],<ref name="AFSC">{{cite web |url=http://www.afsc.org/nobel-peace-prize-nominations |title=Nobel Peace Prize Nominations |work=American Friends Service Committee |access-date=30 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204172207/http://www.afsc.org/nobel-peace-prize-nominations |archive-date=4 February 2012 |date=14 April 2010}}</ref> though Gandhi made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.<ref name="Tønnesson">{{cite web | ||
| |last = Tønnesson | |last = Tønnesson | ||
| |first = Øyvind | |first = Øyvind | ||
| Line 602: | Line 423: | ||
| |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130705224937/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/themes/peace/gandhi/ | |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130705224937/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/themes/peace/gandhi/ | ||
| |archive-date = 5 July 2013 | |archive-date = 5 July 2013 | ||
| }}</ref> Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission |
}}</ref> Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.<ref name="Tønnesson" /> Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate", and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.<ref name="Tønnesson" /> Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question."<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915025114/http://www.icrs.ugm.ac.id/wednesday-forum-schedule/111-relevance-of-gandhian-philosophy-in-the-21st-century |date=15 September 2011 }}. Icrs.ugm.ac.id. Retrieved 5 August 2013.</ref> When the ] was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."<ref name="Tønnesson" /> In the summer of 1995, the ] inducted Gandhi posthumously into the Vegetarian Hall of Fame.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://navs-online.org/purposes-programs/hall-of-fame/|title=Vegetarian Hall of Fame|website=North American Vegetarian Society|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413101836/https://navs-online.org/purposes-programs/hall-of-fame/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| ==== Father of the Nation ==== | ==== Father of the Nation ==== | ||
| Indians widely describe Gandhi as ].<ref name="archive.indianexpress.com" /><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com" /> Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 July 1944 by ] where Bose addressed Gandhi as "The Father of the Nation".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/01/stories/13011282.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413080948/http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/01/stories/13011282.htm |
Indians widely describe Gandhi as the ].<ref name="elkins-ginsburg-melton">{{cite book |last1=Elkins |first1=Zachary |title=The Endurance of National Constitutions |page=158 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51550-4 |quote=Whereas Pakistan's leaders died early, India's founding triumvirate of ], ], and ] provided a stable hand for the early years, and a personal continuity with the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi |last2=Ginsburg |first2=Tom |last3=Melton |first3=Melton}}</ref><ref name="archive.indianexpress.com">{{cite news |date=11 July 2012 |title=Gandhi not formally conferred 'Father of the Nation' title: Govt |work=] |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gandhi-not-formally-conferred-father-of-the-nation-title-govt/973101/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906121950/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gandhi-not-formally-conferred-father-of-the-nation-title-govt/973101 |archive-date=6 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |date=26 October 2012 |title=Constitution doesn't permit 'Father of the Nation' title: Government |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107223546/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Nehru"/><ref name="McAllister1982"/><ref name="Eck2003"/> Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 July 1944 by ] where Bose addressed Gandhi as "The Father of the Nation".<ref>{{Cite news |newspaper=] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/01/stories/13011282.htm |title=Crusade with arms|date=February 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413080948/http://www.thehindu.com/2000/02/01/stories/13011282.htm |archive-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> On 28 April 1947, ] during a conference also referred Gandhi as "Father of the Nation".<ref name="Father of the Nation RTI">{{cite news|title=Father of the Nation RTI |publisher=]|access-date=21 September 2016 |url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/10-year-olds-rti-on-father-of-the-nation-title-for-gandhi-474827|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204192603/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/10-year-olds-rti-on-father-of-the-nation-title-for-gandhi-474827|archive-date=4 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Constitution does not permit any titles">{{cite news|title=Constitution does not permit any titles|work=]|access-date=21 September 2016 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107223546/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Constitution-doesnt-permit-Father-of-the-Nation-title-Government/articleshow/16961980.cms|archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> He is also conferred the title "Bapu"<ref name="Nehru">{{cite book |last1=Nehru |first1=Jawaharlal |title=An Autobiography |publisher=Bodley Head}}</ref> (]: endearment for ''father'',<ref name="McAllister1982"/> ''papa''<ref name="McAllister1982" /><ref name="Eck2003"/>). | ||
| === Film, theatre and literature === | === Film, theatre, and literature === | ||
| A five-hour nine-minute long biographical documentary film,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfHUvW7L5-k#t=5h6m10s |title=Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948 (1968 – 5hrs 10min) |publisher=Channel of GandhiServe Foundation |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118145035/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfHUvW7L5-k#t=5h6m10s |archive-date=18 January 2015 }}</ref> '']'', made by ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Vithalbhai Jhaveri|url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/information/our_photographers/vithalbhai_jhaveri.html|publisher=GandhiServe Foundatiom|access-date=30 December 2014 |
* A five-hour, nine-minute long biographical documentary film,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfHUvW7L5-k#t=5h6m10s |title=Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948 (1968 – 5hrs 10min) |publisher=Channel of GandhiServe Foundation |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118145035/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfHUvW7L5-k#t=5h6m10s |archive-date=18 January 2015 }}</ref> '']'', made by ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Vithalbhai Jhaveri |url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/information/our_photographers/vithalbhai_jhaveri.html|publisher=GandhiServe Foundatiom|access-date=30 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231162132/http://www.gandhiserve.org/information/our_photographers/vithalbhai_jhaveri.html |archive-date=31 December 2014}}</ref> in 1968, quoting Gandhi's words and using black and white archival footage and photographs, captures the history of those times. | ||
| * ] portrayed him in ]'s 1982 film '']'',<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~sj6/Case%20of%20the%20Missing%20Mahatma.pdf#page=9|title=The Case of the Missing Mahatma:Gandhi and the Hindi Cinema |last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|year=2011|journal=]|volume=23|issue=2|pages=349–76|publisher=Duke University Press |doi=10.1215/08992363-1161949 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321082552/http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~sj6/Case%20of%20the%20Missing%20Mahatma.pdf#page=9|archive-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> which won the ] for Best Picture. It was based on the biography by ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Louis |date=1957 |title=The Life of Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=Johnathan Cape |url=http://archive.org/details/lifeofmahatmagan00loui |place=London}}</ref> The 1996 film '']'' documented Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.<ref name="Making">{{cite web|author=Melvani, Lavina|title=Making of the Mahatma |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=4798|work=]|date=February 1997 |access-date=26 January 2012 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203075903/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=4798|archive-date=3 February 2012}}</ref> | |||
| * Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 comedy film '']''. Jahnu Barua's ], places contemporary society as a backdrop with its vanishing memory of Gandhi's values as a metaphor for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonist of his 2005 film,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pandohar|first1=Jaspreet (Reviewer)|title=Movies – Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara (I Did Not Kill Gandhi) (2005) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2005/10/03/maine_gandhi_ko_nahi_mara_2005_review.shtml|publisher=BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)|access-date=30 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704134213/http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2005/10/03/maine_gandhi_ko_nahi_mara_2005_review.shtml|archive-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> writes ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lal|first1=Vinay|title=Moving Images of Gandhi |url=http://www.vinaylal.com/ESSAYS(Gandhi)/mov9.pdf#page=9|access-date=30 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042605/http://www.vinaylal.com/ESSAYS%28Gandhi%29/mov9.pdf#page=9|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> | |||
| * In the tale ''Le Jour du Jugement Dernier'', in the collection ''Les Mémoires de Satan et autres contes loufoques'', by ], God tries to judge Gandhi at the Last Judgement but realises that the character is more complex than he appears. | |||
| In 1967, Gandhi was set to be featured on the album cover of one of the best selling albums of ], '']'', however this idea was later cancelled due to respect for Gandhi.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Barczewski | first1=S. | last2=Farr | first2=M. | title=The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie | publisher=Springer International Publishing | series=Britain and the World | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-24459-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILm9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 | access-date=8 December 2022 | page=159}}</ref> | * In 1967, Gandhi was set to be featured on the album cover of one of the best selling albums of ], '']'', however this idea was later cancelled due to respect for Gandhi.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Barczewski | first1=S. | last2=Farr | first2=M. | title=The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie | publisher=Springer International Publishing | series=Britain and the World | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-24459-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILm9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 | access-date=8 December 2022 | page=159}}</ref> | ||
| * The 1979 opera '']'' by American composer ] is loosely based on Gandhi's life.<ref name="KostelanetzFlemming1999">{{cite book|author-first1=Richard |author-last1=Kostelanetz |author-link=Richard Kostelanetz |author-first2=Robert |author-last2=Flemming|title=Writings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_D8-I4aZALzMC |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21491-0 |page=}}</ref><ref name="Glass2015">{{cite book|author=Philip Glass|title=Words Without Music: A Memoir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpPXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |year=2015 |publisher=Liveright |isbn=978-1-63149-081-1 |pages=192, 307}}</ref> The opera's libretto, taken from the ], is sung in the original ].{{sfnp|Kostelanetz|Flemming|1999|p=168}} | |||
| * The 1995 Marathi play ''Gandhi Virudh Gandhi'' explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, '']'' was inspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play '']'' and the 1997 Hindi play ''Gandhi Ambedkar'' criticised Gandhi and his principles.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/opinion/4153/report-its-fashionable-to-be-anti-gandhi | title=It's fashionable to be anti-Gandhi | publisher=DNA | date=1 October 2005 | access-date=25 January 2013 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622050823/http://www.dnaindia.com/opinion/4153/report-its-fashionable-to-be-anti-gandhi | archive-date=22 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Id8PjapDYFoJqUkyzJvG7N/Drama-king.html | title=Drama king | work=] | date=20 February 2009 | access-date=25 January 2013 | author=Dutt, Devina | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430154736/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Id8PjapDYFoJqUkyzJvG7N/Drama-king.html | archive-date=30 April 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| The 1979 opera '']'' by American composer ] is loosely based on Gandhi's life.<ref name="KostelanetzFlemming1999">{{cite book|author-first1=Richard |author-last1=Kostelanetz |author-link=Richard Kostelanetz |author-first2=Robert |author-last2=Flemming|title=Writings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_D8-I4aZALzMC|year=1999|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-21491-0|page= }}</ref><ref name="Glass2015">{{cite book|author=Philip Glass|title=Words Without Music: A Memoir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpPXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT192|year=2015|publisher=Liveright|isbn=978-1-63149-081-1|pages=192, 307}}</ref> The opera's libretto, taken from the '']'', is sung in the original ].{{sfn|Kostelanetz|Flemming|1999|p=168}} | |||
| * Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are ] with his ''Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi'' in eight volumes, ]'s Gandhi Quartet, and ] and ] with their ''Mahatma Gandhi'' in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography, '']'' by ] contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.<ref name="LelyveldNYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/in-great-soul-joseph-lelyveld-re-examines-gandhi.html|title=Appreciating Gandhi Through His Human Side|work=The New York Times|date=29 March 2011|access-date=26 January 2012|first=Hari|last=Kunzru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131013732/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/in-great-soul-joseph-lelyveld-re-examines-gandhi.html|archive-date=31 January 2012}} (Review of ''Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India'' by Joseph Lelyveld).</ref> Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort" the overall message of the book.<ref name="LelyveldResponse">{{cite news |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/us-author-slams-gandhi-gay-claim/story-fn3dxity-1226030279549 |title=US author slams Gandhi gay claim |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=29 March 2011 |work=] |access-date=26 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501191126/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/us-author-slams-gandhi-gay-claim/story-fn3dxity-1226030279549 |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}</ref> The 2014 film '']'' takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Welcome Effort|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/a-welcome-effort/article1496255.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=24 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202232729/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/a-welcome-effort/article1496255.ece |archive-date=2 February 2014|date=28 February 2011|last1=Kamath|first1=Sudhish}}</ref> The 2019 play ''Bharat Bhagya Vidhata'', inspired by ] and produced by ] and Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur takes a look at how Gandhi cultivated the values of truth and non-violence.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pandit |first1=Unnati |title=Bharat Bhagya Vidhata' captivates the audience |url=https://thelivenagpur.com/2019/03/05/bharat-bhagya-vidhata-captivates-the-audience/ |website=The Live Nagpur |access-date=7 May 2019 |date=5 March 2019 |archive-date=7 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507072107/https://thelivenagpur.com/2019/03/05/bharat-bhagya-vidhata-captivates-the-audience/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| * "Mahatma Gandhi" is used by ] in his lyrics for the song "]" which is included in the 1934 musical '']''. In the song, Porter rhymes 'Mahatma Gandhi' with 'Napoleon Brandy.'<ref>{{cite news |date=1 November 1987 |title=NEW YORK; Cole Porter's Lyrics Depend On the Music, But Even Solo They're So Easy to Love |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/01/theater/new-york-cole-porter-s-lyrics-depend-music-but-even-solo-they-re-so-easy-love.html |access-date=7 May 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524203238/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/01/theater/new-york-cole-porter-s-lyrics-depend-music-but-even-solo-they-re-so-easy-love.html |archive-date=24 May 2015 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> | |||
| The 1995 Marathi play ''Gandhi Virudh Gandhi'' explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, '']'' was inspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play '']'' and the 1997 Hindi play ''Gandhi Ambedkar'' criticised Gandhi and his principles.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/opinion/4153/report-its-fashionable-to-be-anti-gandhi | title=It's fashionable to be anti-Gandhi | publisher=DNA | date=1 October 2005 | access-date=25 January 2013 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622050823/http://www.dnaindia.com/opinion/4153/report-its-fashionable-to-be-anti-gandhi | archive-date=22 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Id8PjapDYFoJqUkyzJvG7N/Drama-king.html | title=Drama king | work=] | date=20 February 2009 | access-date=25 January 2013 | author=Dutt, Devina | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430154736/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Id8PjapDYFoJqUkyzJvG7N/Drama-king.html | archive-date=30 April 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| * Gandhi is mentioned in the ] song "]". | |||
| Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with his ''Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi'' in eight volumes, ]'s Gandhi Quartet, and ] and ] with their ''Mahatma Gandhi'' in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography, '']'' by ] contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.<ref name="LelyveldNYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/in-great-soul-joseph-lelyveld-re-examines-gandhi.html|title=Appreciating Gandhi Through His Human Side|work=The New York Times|date=29 March 2011|access-date=26 January 2012|first=Hari|last=Kunzru|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131013732/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/30/books/in-great-soul-joseph-lelyveld-re-examines-gandhi.html|archive-date=31 January 2012}} (Review of ''Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India'' by Joseph Lelyveld).</ref> Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort" the overall message of the book.<ref name="LelyveldResponse">{{cite news |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/us-author-slams-gandhi-gay-claim/story-fn3dxity-1226030279549 |title=US author slams Gandhi gay claim |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=29 March 2011 |work=] |access-date=26 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501191126/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/us-author-slams-gandhi-gay-claim/story-fn3dxity-1226030279549 |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}</ref> The 2014 film '']'' takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Welcome Effort|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/a-welcome-effort/article1496255.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=24 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202232729/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/a-welcome-effort/article1496255.ece|archive-date=2 February 2014|date=28 February 2011|last1=Kamath|first1=Sudhish}}</ref> The 2019 play ''Bharat Bhagya Vidhata'', inspired by ] and produced by ] and Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur takes a look at how Gandhi cultivated the values of truth and non-violence.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pandit |first1=Unnati |title=Bharat Bhagya Vidhata' captivates the audience |url=https://thelivenagpur.com/2019/03/05/bharat-bhagya-vidhata-captivates-the-audience/ |website=The Live Nagpur |publisher=The Live Nagpur |access-date=7 May 2019|date=5 March 2019 }}</ref> | |||
| "Mahatma Gandhi" is used by ] in his lyrics for the song ] which is included in the 1934 musical ]. In the song, Porter rhymes "Mahatma Gandhi' with "Napoleon Brandy." | |||
| === Current impact within India === | === Current impact within India === | ||
| ], a temple in ] was erected in honour of Gandhi.]] | ], a temple in ], was erected in honour of Gandhi.]] | ||
| India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected ]<ref>{{cite book |author=Ghosh, B. N. |title=Contemporary issues in development economics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aM18jLPbhj8C&pg=PA211|year=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-25136-5|page=211}}</ref> but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast, Gandhi is "given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."<ref name="Obama">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/world/asia/07gandhi.html |title=Obama Invokes Gandhi, Whose Ideal Eludes India |author=Yardley, Jim |date=6 November 2010 |work=]|access-date=22 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817091454/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/world/asia/07gandhi.html |archive-date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a ], ]. His image also appears on ] issued by ], except for the ].<ref name="rbi_notes">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_banknotes.aspx |title=Reserve Bank of India – Bank Notes |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026095526/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_banknotes.aspx |archive-date=26 October 2011 }}</ref> Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a ] in India.<ref name="MDay">{{cite web |author=Chatterjee, Sailen |url=http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjan2000/f270120001.html |title=Martyrs' Day |work=Features |publisher=Press Information Bureau |access-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202060355/http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjan2000/f270120001.html |archive-date=2 February 2012 }}</ref> | |||
| India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Ghosh, B. N. |title=Contemporary issues in development economics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aM18jLPbhj8C&pg=PA211|year=2001|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-25136-5|page=211}}</ref> but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast, Gandhi is "given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."<ref name="Obama">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/world/asia/07gandhi.html |title=Obama Invokes Gandhi, Whose Ideal Eludes India |author=Yardley, Jim |date=6 November 2010 |work=]|access-date=22 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817091454/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/world/asia/07gandhi.html |archive-date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| There are three temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.<ref name="GandhiGod">{{cite web |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/Here,%20Gandhi%20is%20god/articleshow/21768559.cms |title=Here, Gandhi is God |author=Kaggere, Niranjan |publisher=BangaloreMirror.com |date=2 October 2010 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131004222327/http://www.bangaloremirror.com/bangalore/others/Here%2C%20Gandhi%20is%20god/articleshow/21768559.cms |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> One is located at ] in Odisha, the second at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in ] district of ], and the third at ] in the district of ], ].<ref name="GandhiGod" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahatma Gandhi Temple |url=http://www.mahatmagandhitemple.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414101632/http://mahatmagandhitemple.org/|archive-date=14 April 2018 |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=www.mahatmagandhitemple.org}}</ref> The Gandhi Memorial in ] resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the ] in ] now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.<ref name="AbramEdwards2003">{{cite book |last1=Abram |first1=David|last2=Edwards|first2=Nick|title=The Rough Guide to South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEhJBfbhTAAC|access-date=21 January 2012|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-84353-103-6|page=506}}</ref> | |||
| Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a ], ]. Gandhi's image also appears on ] issued by ], except for the ].<ref name="rbi_notes">{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_banknotes.aspx |title=Reserve Bank of India – Bank Notes |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026095526/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_banknotes.aspx |archive-date=26 October 2011 }}</ref> Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a ] in India.<ref name="MDay">{{cite web |url=http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjan2000/f270120001.html |title=Martyrs' Day |author=Chatterjee, Sailen |work=Features |publisher=Press Information Bureau |access-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202060355/http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjan2000/f270120001.html |archive-date=2 February 2012 }}</ref> | |||
| There are three temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.<ref name="GandhiGod">{{cite web |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/Here,%20Gandhi%20is%20god/articleshow/21768559.cms |title=Here, Gandhi is God |author=Kaggere, Niranjan |publisher=BangaloreMirror.com |date=2 October 2010 |access-date=29 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004222327/http://www.bangaloremirror.com/bangalore/others/Here%2C%20Gandhi%20is%20god/articleshow/21768559.cms |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> One is located at ] in Odisha and the second at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in ] district of ] and the third one at ] in the district of ], ].<ref name="GandhiGod" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahatma Gandhi Temple|url=http://www.mahatmagandhitemple.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414101632/http://mahatmagandhitemple.org/|archive-date=2018-04-14 |access-date=2023-02-20|website=www.mahatmagandhitemple.org}}</ref> The Gandhi Memorial in ] resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the ] in ] now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.<ref name="AbramEdwards2003">{{cite book|last1=Abram|first1=David|last2=Edwards|first2=Nick|title=The Rough Guide to South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEhJBfbhTAAC|access-date=21 January 2012|year= 2003|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-84353-103-6|page=506}}</ref> | |||
| === Descendants === | === Descendants === | ||
| {{distinguish|text=the Indian political family ]}} | |||
| ] (source: Gandhi Ashram Sabarmati)]] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Gandhi's children and grandchildren live in India and other countries. Grandson ] is a professor in ] and an author of Gandhi's biography titled ''Mohandas'', |
Gandhi's children and grandchildren live in India and other countries. Grandson ] is a professor in ] and an author of Gandhi's biography titled ''Mohandas'',{{sfnp|Gandhi|2007a|p={{pn|date=July 2024}}}} while another, Tarun Gandhi, has authored several authoritative books on his grandfather. Another grandson, Kanu Ramdas Gandhi (the son of Gandhi's third son ]), was found living at an old age home in ] despite having taught earlier in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |first=Hiral |last=Dave |date=22 June 2016 |title=Lodged in old age home in Delhi, Gandhi's grandson looks to Rajkot |newspaper=] |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/lodged-in-old-age-home-in-delhi-gandhi-s-grandson-looks-to-rajkot/story-8uykSprAZxSXisG2axWDSN.html |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026082647/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/lodged-in-old-age-home-in-delhi-gandhi-s-grandson-looks-to-rajkot/story-8uykSprAZxSXisG2axWDSN.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Surat |last=Ians |date=8 November 2016 |title=Kanu Gandhi, Gandhiji's grandson and ex-Nasa scientist, dies |newspaper=] |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kanu-gandhi-gandhiji-s-grandson-and-ex-nasa-scientist-dies/story-7WSlnYpQi6OYLMCxFZNt3N.html |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819194616/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kanu-gandhi-gandhiji-s-grandson-and-ex-nasa-scientist-dies/story-7WSlnYpQi6OYLMCxFZNt3N.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| {{Portal|Religion|Hinduism|India|Philosophy}} | {{Portal|Religion|Hinduism|India|Philosophy}} | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] – Gandhi International Research Institute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on Mahatma Gandhi and dialogue | * ] – Gandhi International Research Institute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on Mahatma Gandhi and dialogue | ||
| Line 644: | Line 465: | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | == Notes == | ||
| === Explanatory notes === | === Explanatory notes === | ||
| {{Notelist}} | {{Notelist}}<references group="pron" /> | ||
| === Citations === | === Citations === | ||
| {{Reflist|refs= | {{Reflist|refs= | ||
| Line 655: | Line 476: | ||
| <ref name="BhanaVahed2005">{{cite book|last1=Bhana|first1=Surendra|last2=Vahed|first2=Goolam H.|title=The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fF9uAAAAMAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Manohar|isbn=978-81-7304-612-4|pages=44–45, 149}}</ref> | <ref name="BhanaVahed2005">{{cite book|last1=Bhana|first1=Surendra|last2=Vahed|first2=Goolam H.|title=The Making of a Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fF9uAAAAMAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Manohar|isbn=978-81-7304-612-4|pages=44–45, 149}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="Brown1974">{{cite book |
<ref name="Brown1974">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Judith M. |year=1974|title=Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915–1922 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUo4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA94 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-09873-1 |pages=94–102}}</ref> | ||
| <!-- | |||
| <ref name="Coward2003">{{cite book |author=Coward, Harold G. |author-link=Harold Coward |title=Indian Critiques of Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGGudMuE4PIC&pg=PA52 |year=2003|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5910-2|pages=52–53}}</ref> | |||
| --> | |||
| <ref name="Desai2015p26">{{cite book |last1=Desai |first1=Ashwin |last2=Vahed |first2=Goolem |title=The South African Gandhi: Stretcher-Bearer of Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZZ1CgAAQBAJ |publisher=] |year=2015 |pages=22–26, 33–38 |isbn=978-0-8047-9717-7}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=" |
<ref name="Eck2003">{{cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |author-link=Diana Eck |title=Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpR0AmKLeY4C&pg=PA210 |publisher=] |year=2003 |page=210 |access-date=31 August 2013 |isbn=978-0-8070-7301-8 |quote=... his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi 'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the familiar, 'daddy'.}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name=gs>{{cite book|last=Lelyveld|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Lelyveld|title=Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India|url=https://archive.org/details/greatsoulmahatma0000lely/page/278|year=2011 |
<ref name=gs>{{cite book|last=Lelyveld|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Lelyveld|title=Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc. |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsoulmahatma0000lely/page/278 |year=2011|isbn=978-0-307-26958-4|pages=}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="GWPM">{{Cite news|last =Ferrell|first =David|title =A Little Serenity in a City of Madness|newspaper =]|page =B 2|date =27 September 2001|url =https:// |
<ref name="GWPM">{{Cite news|last =Ferrell|first =David|title =A Little Serenity in a City of Madness|newspaper =]|page =B 2 |date =27 September 2001|url =https://www.proquest.com/docview/421687420|format =Abstract|access-date =14 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131005003758/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/doc/421687420.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS%3AFT&type=current&date=Sep%2027%2C%202001&author=DAVID%20FERRELL&pub=Los%20Angeles%20Times&edition=&startpage=B.2&desc=Surroundings%3A%20Lake%20Shrine%3B%20%27A%20Little%20Serenity%20in%20a%20City%20of%20Madness%27%3B%20Meditation%20Gardens%20in%20Pacific%20Palisades%20Are%20a%20Place%20to%20Walk%2C%20Think%20and%20Pray|archive-date =5 October 2013 |id ={{ProQuest|421687420}}}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="GreatSoulReview">{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358 |title=Among the Hagiographers (A book review of "Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India" by Joseph Lelyveld) |author=Roberts, Andrew |author-link=Andrew Roberts (historian) |date=26 March 2011 |work=] |access-date=14 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103114003/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> | <ref name="GreatSoulReview">{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358 |title=Among the Hagiographers (A book review of "Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India" by Joseph Lelyveld) |author=Roberts, Andrew |author-link=Andrew Roberts (historian) |date=26 March 2011 |work=] |access-date=14 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103114003/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> | ||
| Line 667: | Line 494: | ||
| <ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes">{{cite news |title=Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum |author=Ramesh, Randeep |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/16/india.international |newspaper=] |date=16 January 2008 |access-date=14 January 2012 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901110713/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/16/india.international |archive-date=1 September 2013 }}</ref> | <ref name="Guardian-2008-ashes">{{cite news |title=Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum |author=Ramesh, Randeep |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/16/india.international |newspaper=] |date=16 January 2008 |access-date=14 January 2012 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901110713/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/16/india.international |archive-date=1 September 2013 }}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="Hardiman2001">{{cite journal|title=Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques Pouchepadass (Review)|first=David|last=Hardiman|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=11|issue=1|date=April 2001|pages=99–101|jstor=25188108|doi=10.1017/S1356186301450152|s2cid=154941166}}</ref> | <ref name="Hardiman2001">{{cite journal|title=Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques Pouchepadass (Review) |first=David|last=Hardiman|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=11|issue=1|date=April 2001 |pages=99–101|jstor=25188108 |doi=10.1017/S1356186301450152 |s2cid=154941166}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name=ie48pg5>{{cite news|title=Of all faiths and races, together they shed their silent tears|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2964%2C2759742|access-date=19 January 2012|work=]|date=31 January 1948|page=5 (top centre)}}</ref> | <ref name=ie48pg5>{{cite news|title=Of all faiths and races, together they shed their silent tears|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2964%2C2759742|access-date=19 January 2012|work=]|date=31 January 1948|page=5 (top centre)|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225055655/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2964%2C2759742|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name=ie48>{{cite news|title=Over a million get last darshan|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2273%2C2717510|page=1 (bottom left)|access-date=19 January 2012|work=]|date=1 February 1948}}</ref> | <ref name=ie48>{{cite news|title=Over a million get last darshan|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2273%2C2717510|page=1 (bottom left)|access-date=19 January 2012|work=]|date=1 February 1948|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204152021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&pg=2273,2717510|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
| <!-- | |||
| <ref name="Khan2011">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Yasmin |s2cid=144894540 |year=2011|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state |journal=] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=57–80 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223}} {{subscription required}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Khan2011">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Yasmin |s2cid=144894540 |year=2011|title=Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state |journal=] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=57–80 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X10000223}}</ref> | |||
| --> | |||
| <ref name="Kumar2006">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Shanti|title=Gandhi meets primetime: globalization and nationalism in Indian television|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abPsWgqrmMMC&pg=PA170|year=2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-07244-4|page=170}}</ref> | <ref name="Kumar2006">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Shanti|title=Gandhi meets primetime: globalization and nationalism in Indian television|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abPsWgqrmMMC&pg=PA170|year=2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-07244-4|page=170}}</ref> | ||
| Line 679: | Line 508: | ||
| <ref name="Lapping1989">{{cite book|author=Lapping, Brian |title=End of empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBsiAQAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Paladin|isbn=978-0-586-08870-8}}</ref> | <ref name="Lapping1989">{{cite book|author=Lapping, Brian |title=End of empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBsiAQAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Paladin|isbn=978-0-586-08870-8}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="McAllister1982">{{Cite book |last=McAllister |first=Pam |title=Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-86571-017-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/reweavingwebofli00mcal |page= |access-date=31 August 2013 |url-access=registration |quote=With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with the term of endearment used by your close friends, the term you used with all the movement leaders, roughly meaning 'Papa'.}} Another letter written in 1940 shows similar tenderness and caring.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Mbeki2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.polity.org.za/article/mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01|title=Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)|last=Smith|first=Colleen|date=1 October 2006|work=Speeches|publisher=Polityorg.za|access-date=20 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502050531/http://www.polity.org.za/article/mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01|archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=" |
<ref name="Mbeki2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.polity.org.za/article/mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01|title=Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)|last=Smith|first=Colleen|date=1 October 2006|work=Speeches |publisher=Polityorg.za|access-date=20 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502050531/http://www.polity.org.za/article/mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01|archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="Mohanty2011">{{cite journal |last=Mohanty |first=Rekha |year=2011 |title=From Satya to Sadbhavna |journal=Orissa Review |issue=January 2011 |pages=45–49 |url=http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2011/Jan/engpdf/46-50.pdf#page=58 |access-date=23 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101071619/http://odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2011/Jan/engpdf/46-50.pdf#page=58 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Murali1985">{{cite journal |last1=Murali |first1=Atlury |date=January 1985 |title=Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=12 |issue=1/2 |pages=188–217 |issn= 0376-9836 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=" |
<ref name="Murali1985">{{cite journal |last=Murali |first=Atlury |date=January 1985 |title=Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=12 |issue=1/2 |pages=188–217 |issn= 0376-9836}}</ref> | ||
| <!-- | |||
| <ref name="Norvell1997">{{cite journal |last1=Norvell |first1=Lyn |year=1997 |title=Gandhi and the Indian Women's Movement |url=http://www.bl.uk/eblj/1997articles/article2.html |journal=British Library Journal |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=12–27 |issn=0305-5167 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223515/http://www.bl.uk/eblj/1997articles/article2.html |archive-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> | |||
| --> | |||
| <ref name="Parekh2001">{{cite book|last=Parekh|first=Bhikhu C.|title=Gandhi: a very short introduction|publisher=]|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC|isbn=978-0-19-285457-5|year=2001|page=7}}</ref> | <ref name="Parekh2001">{{cite book|last=Parekh|first=Bhikhu C.|title=Gandhi: a very short introduction|publisher=]|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC|isbn=978-0-19-285457-5|year=2001|page=7}}</ref> | ||
| <!--ref name="Pyarelal1956">{{cite book|last=Nayyar|first=Pyarelal|title=Mahatma Gandhi – the last phase, Vol 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8wBAAAAMAAJ|author-link=Pyarelal Nayyar|year=1956|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|isbn=0-85283-112-9}}</ref--> | |||
| <!--ref name="Pyarelal1956">{{cite book|last=Nayyar|first=Pyarelal |year=1956 |title=Mahatma Gandhi – the last phase |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8wBAAAAMAAJ |author-link=Pyarelal Nayyar|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|isbn=0-85283-112-9}}</ref--> | |||
| <ref name="Sarkar2006">{{Cite journal|title=Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the 1930s|last=Sarkar|first=Jayabrata|journal=]|date=18 April 2006|volume=40|issue=2|pages=333–70|doi=10.1017/S0026749X0600179X|s2cid=145725909}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Sarkar2006">{{cite journal|title=Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the 1930s|last=Sarkar|first=Jayabrata|journal=]|date=18 April 2006|volume=40|issue=2|pages=333–70|doi=10.1017/S0026749X0600179X|s2cid=145725909}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Sarma1994">{{cite journal |last1=Sarma |first1=Bina Kumari |date=January 1994 |title=Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=21 |issue=1/2 |pages=78–79|issn= 0376-9836}}</ref> | <ref name="Sarma1994">{{cite journal |last1=Sarma |first1=Bina Kumari |date=January 1994 |title=Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=21 |issue=1/2 |pages=78–79|issn= 0376-9836}}</ref> | ||
| Line 700: | Line 534: | ||
| <ref name="Whiggism">{{cite journal |last1=Prashad |first1=Ganesh |date=September 1966 |title=Whiggism in India|journal=] |volume=81 |issue=3|pages= 412–31 |jstor=2147642 |doi=10.2307/2147642}}</ref> | <ref name="Whiggism">{{cite journal |last1=Prashad |first1=Ganesh |date=September 1966 |title=Whiggism in India|journal=] |volume=81 |issue=3|pages= 412–31 |jstor=2147642 |doi=10.2307/2147642}}</ref> | ||
| <ref name="wikilivres.ca">{{cite book|author=Desai, Mahadev Haribhai |title=Day-to-day with Gandhi: secretary's diary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDQKAQAAIAAJ|publisher=Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan|chapter=Preface|chapter-url=http://www.wikilivres.ca/Day_to_Day_with_Gandhi/Volume_1/Preface| |
<ref name="wikilivres.ca">{{cite book|author=Desai, Mahadev Haribhai |year=1930 |title=Day-to-day with Gandhi: secretary's diary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDQKAQAAIAAJ |publisher=Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan|chapter=Preface|chapter-url=http://www.wikilivres.ca/Day_to_Day_with_Gandhi/Volume_1/Preface|translator=Hemantkumar Nilkanth|isbn=978-81-906237-2-8}} {{usurped|1=}}</ref> | ||
| }} | |||
| == General and cited references == | == General and cited references == | ||
| === Books === | === Books === | ||
| {{ |
{{refbegin|30em}} | ||
| * Ahmed, Talat (2018). ''Mohandas Gandhi: Experiments in Civil Disobedience''. {{ISBN|0-7453-3429-6}}. | * Ahmed, Talat (2018). ''Mohandas Gandhi: Experiments in Civil Disobedience''. {{ISBN|0-7453-3429-6}}. | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Barr|first=F. Mary|title=Bapu: Conversations and Correspondence with Mahatma Gandhi|date=1956|edition=2nd |publisher=International Book House|location=Bombay|oclc=8372568 |title-link=Bapu (book)}} (see ]) | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Bondurant|first=Joan Valérie|author-link=Joan Bondurant|title=Conquest of Violence: the Gandhian philosophy of conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hcf8jPrSKYC|year=1971|publisher=]}} | * {{cite book|last=Bondurant|first=Joan Valérie|author-link=Joan Bondurant|title=Conquest of Violence: the Gandhian philosophy of conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hcf8jPrSKYC |year=1971|publisher=]}}{{ISBN?}} | ||
| * {{Cite book |last=Borman |first=William |title=Gandhi and Non-Violence |publisher=] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88706-331-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6DE9OUvrTEC}} | |||
| * Brown, Judith M. (2004). "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' Oxford University Press.{{ISBN?}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Judith Margaret |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhi00judi |year=1991 |title=Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-300-05125-4}}<!--used--> | |||
| * Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. ''The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi'' (2012); 14 essays by scholars | |||
| * Brown, Judith M. (2004). "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press.{{ISBN?}} | |||
| * {{cite book|ref=Brown1991|last=Brown|first=Judith Margaret|title=Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=boDAE8MLAJMC|year=1991|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-05125-4}}<!--used--> | |||
| * Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. (2012). ''The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi''; 14 essays by scholars.{{ISBN?}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Chadha|first=Yogesh|title=Gandhi: a life|url=https://archive.org/details/gandhilife0000chad|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-24378-6}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Chadha|first=Yogesh|title=Gandhi: a life |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhilife0000chad|url-access=registration |year=1997|publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-24378-6}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Divya |last2=Mohan |first2=Shaj |last3=Nancy |first3=Jean-Luc |title=Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-politics |year=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MB2DwAAQBAJ&q=gandhi+and+philosophy |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic, UK |isbn=978-1-4742-2173-3}}<!--used--> | |||
| * ]. ''The Life of Mahatma Gandhi'' (1957) | |||
| <!--*{{cite book|author=Chakrabarty, Bidyut |title=Social and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4x34We-mY40C|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36096-8}}--> | <!--*{{cite book|author=Chakrabarty, Bidyut |title=Social and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4x34We-mY40C|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36096-8}}--> | ||
| * {{ |
* {{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Dennis |title=Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action |publisher=] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-231-15959-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxUp1igCL_0C}} | ||
| * {{ |
* {{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Dennis |title=Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action |publisher=] |year=2012a |isbn=978-0-231-53039-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shCQVfWixiAC}} | ||
| * {{ |
* {{cite book |last=Dhiman |first=S. |title=Gandhi and Leadership: New Horizons in Exemplary Leadership |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-137-49235-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y2kCgAAQBAJ}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Easwaran|first=Eknath|author-link=Eknath Easwaran|title=]|url=|year=2011 |publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-1-58638-055-7}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Hook|first=Sue Vander|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Proponent of Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMmI6FZYNcIC&pg=PA18 |year=2010|publisher=ABDO|isbn=978-1-61758-813-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Rajmohan |title=Patel, A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ayZuAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Navajivan Pub. House}} | ||
| * {{ |
* {{Cite book|last1=Gandhi|first1=Rajmohan|date=2007a |title=Mohandas: A True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-310411-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEyXCoc76AEC}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Mohandas: True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FDI8LkGsIAC&pg=PT10 |year=2007b|publisher=] |isbn=978-81-8475-317-2 |author-link=Rajmohan Gandhi}} | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC |author-link=Rajmohan Gandhi|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-25570-8}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Gangrade|first=K.D.|title=Moral Lessons From Gandhi's Autobiography And Other Essays |year=2004 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-084-6 |chapter=Role of Shanti Sainiks in the Global Race for Armaments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UODB6R_LmWsC}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Ghose|first=Sankar|title=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C|year=1991 |publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-205-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|title=]|year=2013|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-385-53230-3 |author-link=Ramachandra Guha}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=http://archive.org/details/gandhibeforeindia |title=Gandhi Before India |year=2013a |isbn=978-0-670-08387-9 |publisher=Allen Lane}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|title=]|year=2013x|publisher=]|isbn=978-93-5118-322-8}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS7UAAAAQBAJ&q=%22the+subcaste+the+Gandhis+belonged+to+was+known+as+Modh+Bania,+the+prefix%22&pg=PP42 |title=Gandhi before India |date=15 October 2014a |publisher=] |isbn=978-93-5118-322-8 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130511/https://books.google.com/books?id=XS7UAAAAQBAJ&q=%22the+subcaste+the+Gandhis+belonged+to+was+known+as+Modh+Bania,+the+prefix%22&pg=PP42 |url-status=live }}{{vn|date=July 2024 |reason=Another "phantom" book on Google, ISBN is not in any database. There is a 2014 edition by another publisher.}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |title=Gandhi before India |year=2015 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-385-53230-3}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Hardiman|first=David|title=Gandhi in His Time and Ours: the global legacy of his ideas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWYV5qYZ3-oC|year=2003 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co.|isbn=978-1-85065-711-8}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Hardiman |first=David |title=Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas |publisher=] |year=2003a |isbn=978-0-231-13114-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XwStR-MUwPQC |access-date=29 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133801/https://books.google.com/books?id=XwStR-MUwPQC |url-status=live }} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Hatt|first=Christine|title=Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC|year=2002 |publisher=Evans Brothers|isbn=978-0-237-52308-4}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Herman|first=Arthur|title=Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C |year=2008|publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-553-90504-5}} Ebook: {{ISBN|978-0-553-80463-8}}.<!--used--> | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Jai|first=Janak Raj|year=1996|title=Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers: 1947–1980 |publisher=Regency Publications |isbn=978-81-86030-23-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Majmudar|first=Uma|title=Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: from darkness to light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC|year=2005|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6405-2}}<!--used--> | * {{cite book|last=Majmudar|first=Uma|title=Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: from darkness to light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC|year=2005|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6405-2}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{Cite book |editor-last=Markovits |editor-first=Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |editor-last=McDermott |editor-first=Rachel Fell |editor-last2=Gordon |editor-first2=Leonard A. |editor-link2=Leonard A. Gordon |editor-last3=Embree |editor-first3=Ainslie T. |editor-link3=Ainslie T. Embree |editor-last4=Pritchett |editor-first4=Frances W. |editor-last5=Dalton |editor-first5=Dennis |editor-link5=Dennis Dalton |year=2014 |title=Sources of Indian Traditions, Volume 2: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13830-7 |edition=3rd |location=New York}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Jake C.|title=Prophets of a just society|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetsofjustso0000mill|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-068-5}}<!--used--> | * {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Jake C.|title=Prophets of a just society|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetsofjustso0000mill|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-068-5}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book |last=Minault |first=Gail |date=1982 |title=The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India |publisher=] |isbn=0-231-05072-0}} | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book |last=Muldoon |first=Andrew |title=Empire, Politics and the Creation of the 1935 India Act: Last Act of the Raj |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-14431-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1gfDAAAQBAJ}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Pāṇḍeya|first=Viśva Mohana|title=Historiography of India's Partition: an analysis of imperialist writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2lu-ZI-vQC|year=2003 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0314-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|author-link1=Marc Pilisuk|last1=Pilisuk|first1=Marc |last2=Nagler|first2=Michael N.|title=Peace Movements Worldwide: Players and practices in resistance to war |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTJV2UcZVHcC |year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36482-2}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|last=Rühe|first=Peter|title=Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9fWAAAACAAJ|year=2004 |publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4459-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book |
* {{cite book|last=Schouten|first=Jan Peter|title=Jesus as Guru: the image of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pIoKdTH7KPsC |year=2008|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2443-4}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{ |
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=Gene|title=Gandhi as a Political Strategist: with essays on ethics and politics |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhiaspolitica0000shar |url-access=registration|year=1979|publisher=P. Sargent Publishers |isbn=978-0-87558-090-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S. S.|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Sinha|first=Satya|title=The Dialectic of God: The Theosophical Views Of Tagore and Gandhi|date=2015 |publisher=Partridge Publishing India|isbn=978-1-4828-4748-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTU_CQAAQBAJ}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Sofri|first=Gianni|title=Gandhi and India: a century in focus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QbCN4R_ZBCUC|year=1999|publisher=Windrush Press|isbn=978-1-900624-12-1}} | * {{cite book|last=Sofri|first=Gianni|title=Gandhi and India: a century in focus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QbCN4R_ZBCUC|year=1999|publisher=Windrush Press|isbn=978-1-900624-12-1}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Thacker|first=Dhirubhai|editor=Amaresh Datta|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti)|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1345|year=2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0|page=1345|chapter= |
* {{cite book|last=Thacker|first=Dhirubhai|editor=Amaresh Datta|title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1345|year=2006|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0|page=1345 |chapter=Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Todd|first=Anne M.|year=2004|title=Mohandas Gandhi |url=https://archive.org/details/mohandasgandhi0000todd |publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-7910-7864-8}}; short biography for children | ||
| * {{cite book| |
* {{cite book|last=Todd|first=Anne M.|year=2009|title=Mohandas Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC&pg=PA7 |publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0662-5}} | ||
| * {{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-515634-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721084554/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C |url-status=live}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |chapter=Midnight in Calcutta |title=Gandhi's Passion: The life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |chapter-url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/wolpert-gandhi.html |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001a |isbn=0-19-515634-X |access-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321161002/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/wolpert-gandhi.html |archive-date=21 March 2016 |url-status=live}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |title=Gandhi's Passion: the life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ih1VCqkUr4gC&pg=PA197 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-972872-5}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi |year=2002a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-515634-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219190635/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C |archive-date=19 February 2017 |url-status=live}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=A New History of India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=7th |isbn=0195166787 |location=New York |author-link=Stanley Wolpert}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-539394-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001210558/http://books.google.com/books?id=zuoMsBWCTBUC |archive-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=live}} | |||
| === Scholarly articles === | === Scholarly articles === | ||
| * Danielson, Leilah C. "'In My Extremity I Turned to Gandhi': American Pacifists, Christianity, and Gandhian Nonviolence, 1915–1941". ''Church History'' 72.2 (2003): 361–388. | * Danielson, Leilah C. {{"'}}In My Extremity I Turned to Gandhi': American Pacifists, Christianity, and Gandhian Nonviolence, 1915–1941". ''Church History'' 72.2 (2003): 361–388. | ||
| * Du Toit, Brian M. "The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 34#4 (1996): 643–660. {{JSTOR|161593}}. | * Du Toit, Brian M. "The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 34#4 (1996): 643–660. {{JSTOR|161593}}. | ||
| * Gokhale, B. G. "Gandhi and the British Empire |
* Gokhale, B. G. "Gandhi and the British Empire", ''History Today'' (Nov 1969), 19#11 pp 744–751 online. | ||
| * Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Gandhi Revival – A Review Article." ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 43#2 (Feb. 1984), pp. 293–298. {{JSTOR|2055315}} | * Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Gandhi Revival – A Review Article." ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 43#2 (Feb. 1984), pp. 293–298. {{JSTOR|2055315}} | ||
| * {{cite book |last=Khosla |first=G.D. |year=1965 |title=The Murder of the Mahatma (proceedings by the Chief Justice of Punjab) |publisher=Jaico Publishers |url=http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/The-Murder-of-the-Mahatma.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921232029/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/the-murder-of-the-mahatma.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2015}} | |||
| * Kishwar, Madhu. "Gandhi on Women." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' 20, no. 41 (1985): 1753–758. {{JSTOR|4374920}}. | * Kishwar, Madhu. "Gandhi on Women." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' 20, no. 41 (1985): 1753–758. {{JSTOR|4374920}}. | ||
| * Mohammed, Fevin "Gandhi the Great". (2013) (PhD in Historical Research, Coordinated under Prof. Ram Prasad Sharma). | |||
| * Murthy, C. S. H. N., Oinam Bedajit Meitei, and Dapkupar Tariang. "The Tale Of Gandhi Through The Lens: An Inter-Textual Analytical Study Of Three Major Films-Gandhi, The Making Of The Mahatma, And Gandhi, My Father." ''CINEJ Cinema Journal'' 2.2 (2013): 4–37. | * Murthy, C. S. H. N., Oinam Bedajit Meitei, and Dapkupar Tariang. "The Tale Of Gandhi Through The Lens: An Inter-Textual Analytical Study Of Three Major Films-Gandhi, The Making Of The Mahatma, And Gandhi, My Father." ''CINEJ Cinema Journal'' 2.2 (2013): 4–37. | ||
| * Power, Paul F. "Toward a Revaluation of Gandhi's Political Thought." ''Western Political Quarterly'' 16.1 (1963): 99–108 |
* Power, Paul F. "Toward a Revaluation of Gandhi's Political Thought." ''Western Political Quarterly'' 16.1 (1963): 99–108 excerpt. | ||
| * Rudolph, Lloyd I. "Gandhi in the Mind of America." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' 45, no. 47 (2010): 23–26. {{JSTOR|25764146}}. | * Rudolph, Lloyd I. "Gandhi in the Mind of America." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' 45, no. 47 (2010): 23–26. {{JSTOR|25764146}}. | ||
| {{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
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| === Primary sources === | === Primary sources === | ||
| {{Refbegin|30em}} | {{Refbegin|30em}} | ||
| * {{cite book|author=Abel M|title=Glimpses of Indian National Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ox3WE2GCbNAC&pg=PA125|year=2005|publisher=ICFAI Books|isbn=978-81-7881-420-9}} | * {{cite book|author=Abel M|title=Glimpses of Indian National Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ox3WE2GCbNAC&pg=PA125 |year=2005 |publisher=ICFAI Books|isbn=978-81-7881-420-9}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Andrews|first=C. F.|title=Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EAV6JhQmgkC|year=2008|publisher=Pierides Press|isbn=978-1-4437-3309-0|chapter=VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa|orig-year=1930}} | * {{cite book|last=Andrews|first=C. F.|title=Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EAV6JhQmgkC|year=2008|publisher=Pierides Press|isbn=978-1-4437-3309-0|chapter=VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa|orig-year=1930}} | ||
| * {{cite book|editor=Dalton, Dennis|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings|url=https://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhisel00maha|url-access=registration |
* {{cite book|editor=Dalton, Dennis|year=1996|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings|publisher=Hackett Publishing |url=https://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhisel00maha |url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-87220-330-3}} | ||
| * {{cite book|editor=Duncan, Ronald|title=Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://www.questia.com/read/54615149/selected-writings-of-mahatma-gandhi|year=2011|publisher=Literary Licensing, LLC|isbn=978-1-258-00907-6}} | * {{cite book|editor=Duncan, Ronald|title=Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://www.questia.com/read/54615149/selected-writings-of-mahatma-gandhi|year=2011|publisher=Literary Licensing, LLC|isbn=978-1-258-00907-6|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=1 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001171306/https://www.questia.com/read/54615149/selected-writings-of-mahatma-gandhi}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|year=1928 |title=Satyagraha in South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.209598 |publisher=Navajivan Publishing House |location=Ahmedabad |edition=1st |language=gu|translator=Valji G. Desai}} | |||
| * {{cite book|ref=Fischer2002|last1=Gandhi|first1=M. K.|last2=Fischer|first2=Louis|editor=Louis Fischer|title=]|year=2002|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-1-4000-3050-7}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|title= |
* {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|year=1994 |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India|isbn=978-81-230-0239-2}} (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve. | ||
| * {{cite journal|last1=Gandhi|first1=Mohandas Karamchand|year=1928 |title=Drain Inspector's Report|journal=The United States of India |volume=5|issue=6–8|pages=3–4|url=http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/item/20111212-545}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi|year=1994|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India|isbn=978-81-230-0239-2}} (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve. | |||
| * {{cite |
* {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|year=1990a |editor=Desai, Mahadev H. |title=Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth |publisher=Dover |location=Mineola, N.Y. |isbn=0-486-24593-4|title-link=The Story of My Experiments With Truth}} | ||
| * {{ |
* {{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Mohandas Karamchand|year=2002 |editor=Fischer, Louis |title=] |publisher=Vintage Books|edition=2nd|isbn=978-1-4000-3050-7}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|editor-last=Jack|editor-first=Homer A.|year=1994 |title=The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book of His Life and Writings |url=https://archive.org/details/gandhireadersou00gand |publisher=Grove Press|isbn=978-0-8021-3161-4}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last= |
* {{cite book|editor-last=Johnson|editor-first=Richard L. |year=2006 |title=Gandhi's Experiments with Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC |publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1143-7}}<!--used--> | ||
| * {{cite book |
* {{cite book|editor=Parel, Anthony J.|year=2009|title=Gandhi: "Hind Swaraj" and Other Writings Centenary Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oc47gUOPZfcC |publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-14602-9}} | ||
| * {{cite book|author1=Johnson, Richard L.|author2=Gandhi, M. K.|name-list-style=amp|title=Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC|year=2006|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1143-7}}<!--used--> | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Todd|first=Anne M.|title=Mohandas Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC&pg=PA7|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0662-5}} | |||
| * {{cite book|editor=Parel, Anthony J.|title=Gandhi: "Hind Swaraj" and Other Writings Centenary Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oc47gUOPZfcC|year=2009|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-14602-9}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
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| the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. | the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. | ||
| --> | --> | ||
| {{Sister project links|Mohandas K. Gandhi|display=Mahatma Gandhi|wikt=no|v=no|voy=no|n=no|b=no|author=yes|d=Q1001}} | {{Sister project links|Mohandas K. Gandhi|display=Mahatma Gandhi|wikt=no|v=no|voy=no|n=no|b=no|author=yes|d=Q1001}} | ||
| * <!-- site is undergoing upgrades, hence the downtime for the official link --> | * <!-- site is undergoing upgrades, hence the downtime for the official link --> | ||
| * {{URL|https://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/|About Mahatma Gandhi}} | * {{URL|https://www.gandhiheritageportal.org/|About Mahatma Gandhi}} | ||
| * {{URL| |
* {{URL|www.gandhiashramsabarmati.org/|Gandhi at Sabarmati Ashram}} | ||
| * {{Gutenberg author |id= |
* {{Gutenberg author |id=3490| name=Mahatma Gandhi}}<!--See also a single book at {{Gutenberg author |id=Gandhi,+M.+K.}}--> | ||
| * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Gandhi}} | * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Gandhi}} | ||
| * {{Librivox author |id=622}} | * {{Librivox author |id=622}} | ||
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| {{Political philosophy}} | |||
| {{Simple living}} | {{Simple living}} | ||
| {{Vegetarianism}} | {{Vegetarianism}} | ||
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| {{Time Persons of the Year|27–50}} | {{Time Persons of the Year|27–50}} | ||
| {{Asian of the Century}} | {{Asian of the Century}} | ||
| {{Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
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Latest revision as of 13:48, 4 January 2025
Indian independence activist (1869–1948)"Gandhi" redirects here. For other uses, see Gandhi (disambiguation).
| MahātmāGandhi | |
|---|---|
 Gandhi in 1931 | |
| Born | Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-10-02)2 October 1869 Porbandar, Porbandar State, Kathiawar Agency, British India |
| Died | 30 January 1948(1948-01-30) (aged 78) New Delhi, Dominion of India |
| Cause of death | Assassination |
| Monuments |
|
| Other names | Bāpū (father), Rāṣṭrapitā (the Father of the Nation) |
| Citizenship |
|
| Alma mater | Inns of Court School of Law |
| Occupations |
|
| Years active | 1893–1948 |
| Known for |
|
| Political party | Indian National Congress (1920–1934) |
| Spouse |
Kasturba Gandhi
(m. 1883; died 1944) |
| Children | |
| Parents | |
| Relatives | Gandhi family |
| President of the Indian National Congress | |
| In office December 1924 – April 1925 | |
| Preceded by | Maulana Azad |
| Succeeded by | Sarojini Naidu |
|
Mahatma Gandhi's voice
Gandhi's spiritual message to the world Recorded 17 October 1931 | |
| Signature | |
 | |
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence from British rule. He inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahātmā (from Sanskrit, meaning great-souled, or venerable), first applied to him in South Africa in 1914, is now used throughout the world.
Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi trained in the law at the Inner Temple in London and was called to the bar at the age of 22. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, Gandhi moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. Here, Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against discrimination and excessive land tax.
Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and, above all, achieving swaraj or self-rule. Gandhi adopted the short dhoti woven with hand-spun yarn as a mark of identification with India's rural poor. He began to live in a self-sufficient residential community, to eat simple food, and undertake long fasts as a means of both introspection and political protest. Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930 and in calling for the British to quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India.
Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a Muslim nationalism which demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within British India. In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Abstaining from the official celebration of independence, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to alleviate distress. In the months following, he undertook several hunger strikes to stop the religious violence. The last of these was begun in Delhi on 12 January 1948, when Gandhi was 78. The belief that Gandhi had been too resolute in his defence of both Pakistan and Indian Muslims spread among some Hindus in India. Among these was Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist from Pune, western India, who assassinated Gandhi by firing three bullets into his chest at an interfaith prayer meeting in Delhi on 30 January 1948.
Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence. Gandhi is considered to be the Father of the Nation in post-colonial India. During India's nationalist movement and in several decades immediately after, he was also commonly called Bapu, an endearment roughly meaning "father".
Early life and background
Parents
Gandhi's father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar state. His family originated from the then village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State. Although Karamchand only had been a clerk in the state administration and had an elementary education, he proved a capable chief minister.
During his tenure, Karamchand married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, Karamchand sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh, and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family. Karamchand and Putlibai had four children: a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); a second son, Karsandas (c. 1866–1913). and a third son, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar (also known as Sudamapuri), a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of the British Raj.
In 1874, Gandhi's father, Karamchand, left Porbandar for the smaller state of Rajkot, where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's diwan a measure of security. In 1876, Karamchand became diwan of Rajkot and was succeeded as diwan of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. Karamchand's family then rejoined him in Rajkot. They moved to their family home Kaba Gandhi No Delo in 1881.
Childhood
As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as "restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears." The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, Gandhi states that they left an indelible impression on his mind. Gandhi writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.
The family's religious background was eclectic. Mohandas was born into a Gujarati Hindu Modh Bania family. Gandhi's father, Karamchand, was Hindu and his mother Putlibai was from a Pranami Vaishnava Hindu family. Gandhi's father was of Modh Baniya caste in the varna of Vaishya. His mother came from the medieval Krishna bhakti-based Pranami tradition, whose religious texts include the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and a collection of 14 texts with teachings that the tradition believes to include the essence of the Vedas, the Quran and the Bible. Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother, an extremely pious lady who "would not think of taking her meals without her daily prayers... she would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her."
At the age of nine, Gandhi entered the local school in Rajkot, near his home. There, he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography. At the age of 11, Gandhi joined the High School in Rajkot, Alfred High School. He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue-tied student, with no interest in games; Gandhi's only companions were books and school lessons.
Marriage
In May 1883, the 13-year-old Gandhi was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an arranged marriage, according to the custom of the region at that time. In the process, he lost a year at school but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies. Gandhi's wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married. Recalling the day of their marriage, Gandhi once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." As was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.
Writing many years later, Gandhi described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride: "Even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me." Gandhi later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when Kasturba would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.
In late 1885, Gandhi's father, Karamchand, died. Gandhi had left his father's bedside to be with his wife mere minutes before his passing. Many decades later, Gandhi wrote "if animal passion had not blinded me, I should have been spared the torture of separation from my father during his last moments." Later, Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife, age 17, had their first child, who survived only a few days. The two deaths anguished Gandhi. The Gandhis had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.
In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in Ahmedabad. In January 1888, he enrolled at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. However, Gandhi dropped out and returned to his family in Porbandar.
Outside school, Gandhi's education was enriched by exposure to Gujarati literature, especially reformers like Narmad and Govardhanram Tripathi, whose works alerted the Gujaratis to their own faults and weaknesses such as belief in religious dogmatism.
Three years in London
Student of law
Gandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay. Mavji Dave Joshiji, a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London. In July 1888, Gandhi's wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving child, Harilal. Gandhi's mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew, but Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol, and women. Gandhi's brother, Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.
On 10 August 1888, Gandhi, aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. A local newspaper covering the farewell function by his old high school in Rajkot noted that Gandhi was the first Bania from Kathiawar to proceed to England for his Barrister Examination. As Mohandas Gandhi waited for a berth on a ship to London he found that he had attracted the ire of the Modh Banias of Bombay. Upon arrival in Bombay, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned Gandhi that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, Gandhi was excommunicated from his caste. Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off. Gandhi attended University College, London, where he took classes in English literature with Henry Morley in 1888–1889.
Gandhi also enrolled at the Inns of Court School of Law in Inner Temple with the intention of becoming a barrister. His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens. Gandhi retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law.
Gandhi demonstrated a keen interest in the welfare of London's impoverished dockland communities. In 1889, a bitter trade dispute broke out in London, with dockers striking for better pay and conditions, and seamen, shipbuilders, factory girls and other joining the strike in solidarity. The strikers were successful, in part due to the mediation of Cardinal Manning, leading Gandhi and an Indian friend to make a point of visiting the cardinal and thanking him for his work.
Vegetarianism and committee work
His vow to his mother influenced Gandhi's time in London. Gandhi tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons. However, he didn't appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, Gandhi joined the London Vegetarian Society (LVS) and was elected to its executive committee under the aegis of its president and benefactor Arnold Hills. An achievement while on the committee was the establishment of a Bayswater chapter. Some of the vegetarians Gandhi met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in translation as well as in the original.
Gandhi had a friendly and productive relationship with Hills, but the two men took a different view on the continued LVS membership of fellow committee member Thomas Allinson. Their disagreement is the first known example of Gandhi challenging authority, despite his shyness and temperamental disinclination towards confrontation.
Allinson had been promoting newly available birth control methods, but Hills disapproved of these, believing they undermined public morality. He believed vegetarianism to be a moral movement and that Allinson should therefore no longer remain a member of the LVS. Gandhi shared Hills' views on the dangers of birth control, but defended Allinson's right to differ. It would have been hard for Gandhi to challenge Hills; Hills was 12 years his senior and unlike Gandhi, highly eloquent. Hills bankrolled the LVS and was a captain of industry with his Thames Ironworks company employing more than 6,000 people in the East End of London. Hills was also a highly accomplished sportsman who later founded the football club West Ham United. In his 1927 An Autobiography, Vol. I, Gandhi wrote:
The question deeply interested me...I had a high regard for Mr. Hills and his generosity. But I thought it was quite improper to exclude a man from a vegetarian society simply because he refused to regard puritan morals as one of the objects of the society
A motion to remove Allinson was raised, and was debated and voted on by the committee. Gandhi's shyness was an obstacle to his defence of Allinson at the committee meeting. Gandhi wrote his views down on paper, but shyness prevented Gandhi from reading out his arguments, so Hills, the President, asked another committee member to read them out for him. Although some other members of the committee agreed with Gandhi, the vote was lost and Allinson was excluded. There were no hard feelings, with Hills proposing the toast at the LVS farewell dinner in honour of Gandhi's return to India.
Called to the bar
Gandhi, at age 22, was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from Gandhi. His attempts at establishing a law practice in Bombay failed because Gandhi was psychologically unable to cross-examine witnesses. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but Gandhi was forced to stop after running afoul of British officer Sam Sunny.
In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi. Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa. His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage. Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work. They offered a total salary of £105 (~$4,143 in 2023 money) plus travel expenses. He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least a one-year commitment in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, also a part of the British Empire.
Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914)
In April 1893, Gandhi, aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin. Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa where he developed his political views, ethics, and politics. During this time Gandhi briefly returned to India in 1902 to mobilise support for the welfare of Indians in South Africa.
Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination due to his skin colour and heritage. Gandhi was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and was told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere, Gandhi was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to leave the first-class. Gandhi sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights. Gandhi chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do. Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa. Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.
When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Arthur Herman, he thought of himself as "a Briton first, and an Indian second." However, the prejudice against Gandhi and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him. Gandhi found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices. Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the British Empire.
The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India. The farewell party was turned into a working committee to plan the resistance to a new Natal government discriminatory proposal. This led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa. Gandhi planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote, a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right. He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill. Though unable to halt the bill's passage, Gandhi's campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and through this organisation, Gandhi moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him, and Gandhi escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. However, Gandhi refused to press charges against any member of the mob.
During the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the British colonial stereotype that Hindus were not fit for "manly" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim "martial races." Gandhi raised 1,100 Indian volunteers to support British combat troops against the Boers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries at the Battle of Colenso to a White volunteer ambulance corps. At the Battle of Spion Kop, Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital since the terrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi and 37 other Indians received the Queen's South Africa Medal.
In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time. According to Anthony Parel, Gandhi was also influenced by the Tamil moral text Tirukkuṛaḷ after Leo Tolstoy mentioned it in their correspondence that began with "A Letter to a Hindu". Gandhi urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. His ideas of protests, persuasion skills, and public relations had emerged. Gandhi took these back to India in 1915.
Europeans, Indians and Africans
Gandhi focused his attention on Indians and Africans while he was in South Africa. Initially, Gandhi was not interested in politics, but this changed after he was discriminated against and bullied, such as by being thrown out of a train coach due to his skin colour by a white train official. After several such incidents with Whites in South Africa, Gandhi's thinking and focus changed, and he felt he must resist this and fight for rights. Gandhi entered politics by forming the Natal Indian Congress. According to Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, Gandhi's views on racism are contentious in some cases. He suffered persecution from the beginning in South Africa. Like with other coloured people, white officials denied Gandhi his rights, and the press and those in the streets bullied and called Gandhi a "parasite", "semi-barbarous", "canker", "squalid coolie", "yellow man", and other epithets. People would even spit on him as an expression of racial hate.
While in South Africa, Gandhi focused on the racial persecution of Indians before he started to focus on racism against Africans. In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, Gandhi's behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation. During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were "degrading the Indian to the level of a raw Kaffir." Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently. As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at the age of 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians. Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that "Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples" and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.
Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism. The Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela is among admirers of Gandhi's efforts to fight against racism in Africa. The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as though Gandhi was always a saint, when in reality, his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths, and was one that changed over time. Scholars have also pointed the evidence to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the Apartheid.
In 1903, Gandhi started the Indian Opinion, a journal that carried news of Indians in South Africa, Indians in India with articles on all subjects -social, moral and intellectual. Each issue was multi-lingual and carried material in English, Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil. It carried ads, depended heavily on Gandhi's contributions (often printed without a byline) and was an 'advocate' for the Indian cause.
In 1906, when the Bambatha Rebellion broke out in the colony of Natal, the then 36-year-old Gandhi, despite sympathising with the Zulu rebels, encouraged Indian South Africans to form a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit. Writing in the Indian Opinion, Gandhi argued that military service would be beneficial to the Indian community and claimed it would give them "health and happiness." Gandhi eventually led a volunteer mixed unit of Indian and African stretcher-bearers to treat wounded combatants during the suppression of the rebellion.
The medical unit commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months before being disbanded. After the suppression of the rebellion, the colonial establishment showed no interest in extending to the Indian community the civil rights granted to white South Africans. This led Gandhi to becoming disillusioned with the Empire and aroused a spiritual awakening within him; historian Arthur L. Herman wrote that Gandhi's African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming Gandhi into an "uncompromising non-cooperator".
By 1910, Gandhi's newspaper, Indian Opinion, was covering reports on discrimination against Africans by the colonial regime. Gandhi remarked that the Africans "alone are the original inhabitants of the land. … The whites, on the other hand, have occupied the land forcibly and appropriated it for themselves."
In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend Hermann Kallenbach, an idealistic community they named Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg. There, Gandhi nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.
In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.
Struggle for Indian independence (1915–1947)
See also: Indian independence movementAt the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, conveyed to Gandhi by C. F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser.
Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.
Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognise the declaration, but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942, and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947, the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.
Role in World War I
See also: The role of India in World War IIn April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi. Gandhi agreed to support the war effort. In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote: "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them... If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army." However, Gandhi stipulated in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."
Gandhi's support for the war campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence. Gandhi's private secretary noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since." According to political and educational scientist Christian Bartolf, Gandhi's support for the war stemmed from his belief that true ahimsa could not exist simultaneously with cowardice. Therefore, Gandhi felt that Indians needed to be willing and capable of using arms before they voluntarily chose non-violence.
In July 1918, Gandhi said that he could not persuade even one individual to enlist for the world war. "So far I have not a single recruit to my credit apart," Gandhi wrote. He added: "They object because they fear to die."
Champaran agitations
Main article: Champaran Satyagraha
Gandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the Champaran agitation in Bihar. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against largely Anglo-Indian plantation owners who were backed by the local administration. The peasants were forced to grow indigo (Indigofera sp.), a cash crop for Indigo dye whose demand had been declining over two decades and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.
Kheda agitations
Main article: Kheda SatyagrahaIn 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad, organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel. Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused, but by the end of May 1918, the government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.
Khilafat movement
Main article: Khilafat MovementIn 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the Ottoman Empire that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already vocally supported the British crown in the first world war. This decision of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with swaraj (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I. The British government had offered, instead of self-government, minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi. He announced his satyagraha (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the Rowlatt Act, to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial."
Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the Khilafat movement, wherein Sunni Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish Caliph as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community (ummah). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of Ottoman Empire in World War I. Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.
The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt satyagraha demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British. His support for the Khilafat movement also helped Gandhi sideline Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had announced his opposition to the satyagraha non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan. Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this. Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.
In 1922, the Khilafat movement gradually collapsed following the end of the non-cooperation movement with the arrest of Gandhi. A number of Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and Congress. Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited, and deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in United Provinces of Agra and Oudh alone.
Non-co-operation
Main article: Non-co-operation movementWith his book Hind Swaraj (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and swaraj (Indian independence) would come.
In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the Rowlatt Act, he would appeal to Indians to start civil disobedience. The British government ignored him and passed the law, stating it would not yield to threats. The satyagraha civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act. On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in satyagraha in Delhi.
People rioted in retaliation. On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, Gandhi asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but to express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they owned. He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side used violence. Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest. Government warned him not to enter Delhi, but Gandhi defied the order and was arrested on 9 April.
On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and British Indian Army officer Reginald Dyer surrounded them and ordered troops under his command to fire on them. The resulting Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent but was supported by some Britons and parts of the British media as a necessary response. Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using 'love' to deal with the 'hate' of the British government. Gandhi demanded that the Indian people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.
The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder. Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott. The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to swaraj and political independence for India. In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress. He reorganised the Congress. With Congress now behind Gandhi, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey, Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the British Raj.
Gandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the swadeshi policy – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours. Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.
The appeal of "Non-cooperation" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move. Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Atatürk in Turkey. Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations. The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions. He was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only two years.
Salt Satyagraha (Salt March/Civil Disobedience Movement)
Main article: Salt SatyagrahaAfter his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, Gandhi continued to pursue swaraj over the second half of the 1920s. He pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal. After Gandhi's support for World War I with Indian combat troops, and the failure of Khilafat movement in preserving the rule of Caliph in Turkey, followed by a collapse in Muslim support for his leadership, some such as Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh questioned his values and non-violent approach. While many Hindu leaders championed a demand for immediate independence, Gandhi revised his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.
The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal. British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and Winston Churchill announced opposition to "the appeasers of Gandhi" in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands. On 31 December 1929, an Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore. Gandhi led Congress in a celebration on 26 January 1930 of India's Independence Day in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the British salt tax in March 1930. He sent an ultimatum in the form of a letter personally addressed to Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, on 2 March. Gandhi condemned British rule in the letter, describing it as "a curse" that "has impoverished the dumb millions by a system of progressive exploitation and by a ruinously expensive military and civil administration... It has reduced us politically to serfdom." Gandhi also mentioned in the letter that the viceroy received a salary "over five thousand times India's average income." In the letter, Gandhi also stressed his continued adherence to non-violent forms of protest.
This was highlighted by the Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, Gandhi marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself, with the declared intention of breaking the salt laws. The march took 25 days to cover 240 miles with Gandhi speaking to often huge crowds along the way. Thousands of Indians joined him in Dandi.
According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life. However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because Gandhi feared he would be accused of using women as a political shield. When women insisted on joining the movement and participating in public demonstrations, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him. Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining. On 5 May, Gandhi was interned under a regulation dating from 1827 in anticipation of a protest that he had planned. The protest at Dharasana salt works on 21 May went ahead without Gandhi. A horrified American journalist, Webb Miller, described the British response thus:
In complete silence the Gandhi men drew up and halted a hundred yards from the stockade. A picked column advanced from the crowd, waded the ditches and approached the barbed wire stockade... at a word of command, scores of native policemen rushed upon the advancing marchers and rained blows on their heads with their steel-shot lathis . Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off blows. They went down like ninepins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whack of the clubs on unprotected skulls... Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing with fractured skulls or broken shoulders.
This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed. At no time did they offer any resistance. After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in the manner Gandhi inspired.
This campaign was one of Gandhi's most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people. However, Congress estimates put the figure at 90,000. Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, Jawaharlal Nehru.
Gandhi as folk hero
Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to Andhra Pradesh peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a messiah, a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints. The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.
According to Dennis Dalton, it was Gandhi's ideas that were responsible for his wide following. Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by "brute force and immorality", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by "soul force and morality." Gandhi captured the imagination of the people of his heritage with his ideas about winning "hate with love." These ideas are evidenced in his pamphlets from the 1890s, in South Africa, where too Gandhi was popular among the Indian indentured workers. After he returned to India, people flocked to Gandhi because he reflected their values.
Gandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another. He used terminology and phrases such as Rama-rajya from Ramayana, Prahlada as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of swaraj and satyagraha. During Gandhi's lifetime, these ideas sounded strange outside India, but they readily and deeply resonated with the culture and historic values of his people.
Negotiations
The government, represented by Lord Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists. Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.
In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech:
It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.
Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s. He called Gandhi as the one who was "seditious in aim" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire. Churchill called him a dictator, a "Hindu Mussolini", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with Brahmin cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain. Churchill attempted to isolate Gandhi, and his criticism of Gandhi was widely covered by European and American press. It gained Churchill sympathetic support, but it also increased support for Gandhi among Europeans. The developments heightened Churchill's anxiety that the "British themselves would give up out of pacifism and misplaced conscience."
Round Table Conferences
During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the Round Table Conferences, Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians. The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India. They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as B. R. Ambedkar as the representative leader of the untouchables. Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status, and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.
The Second Round Table conference was the only time Gandhi left India between 1914 and his death in 1948. Gandhi declined the government's offer of accommodation in an expensive West End hotel, preferring to stay in the East End, to live among working-class people, as he did in India. Gandhi based himself in a small cell-bedroom at Kingsley Hall for the three-month duration of his stay and was enthusiastically received by East Enders. During this time, Gandhi renewed his links with the British vegetarian movement.
After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new satyagraha. Gandhi was arrested and imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune. While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate. It came to be known as the Communal Award. In protest, Gandhi started a fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison. The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise Poona Pact.
Congress politics
In 1934, Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position, but felt that if he resigned, Gandhi's popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.
In 1936, Gandhi returned to active politics again with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonviolence as a means of protest. Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat. Bose later left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.
World War II and Quit India movement
Main article: Quit India Movement
Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in World War II. The British government responded with the arrests of Gandhi and many other Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement. A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government. While Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of a number of Indian leaders, and over 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the Allied Forces, the movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and it ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.
Gandhi's opposition to the Indian participation in World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself. Gandhi also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a 1942 speech in Mumbai. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India. The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee. His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.
In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government. In this effort, Gandhi urged that they neither kill nor injure British people but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials. He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the "ordered anarchy" of "the present system of administration" was "worse than real anarchy." Gandhi urged Indians to karo ya maro ("do or die") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.
Gandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. During this period, Gandhi's longtime secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack, his wife Kasturba died after 18 months' imprisonment on 22 February 1944, and Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. While in jail, he agreed to an interview with Stuart Gelder, a British journalist. Gelder then composed and released an interview summary, cabled it to the mainstream press, that announced sudden concessions Gandhi was willing to make, comments that shocked his countrymen, the Congress workers and even Gandhi. The latter two claimed that it distorted what Gandhi actually said on a range of topics and falsely repudiated the Quit India movement.
Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. Gandhi came out of detention to an altered political scene – the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage" and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi and Jinnah had extensive correspondence and the two men met several times over a period of two weeks in September 1944 at Jinnah's house in Bombay, where Gandhi insisted on a united religiously plural and independent India which included Muslims and non-Muslims of the Indian subcontinent coexisting. Jinnah rejected this proposal and insisted instead for partitioning the subcontinent on religious lines to create a separate Muslim homeland (later Pakistan). These discussions continued through 1947.
While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organisational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events. At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point, Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.
Partition and independence
See also: Indian independence movement and Partition of India
Gandhi opposed the partition of the Indian subcontinent along religious lines. The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to Quit India. However, the All-India Muslim League demanded "Divide and Quit India." Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.
Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for Direct Action Day, on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now Bangladesh and West Bengal (excluding Cooch Behar), gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day. The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict. The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence. The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India. Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed. Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.
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Archibald Wavell, the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle. Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas. Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single-minded idea to "overthrow British rule and influence and to establish a Hindu raj", and called Gandhi a "malignant, malevolent, exceedingly shrewd" politician. Wavell feared a civil war on the Indian subcontinent, and doubted Gandhi would be able to stop it.
The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India. Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but Stanley Wolpert states the "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi".
The partition was controversial and violently disputed. More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.
Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule, but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947. The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses. Gandhi's fasting and protests are credited for stopping the religious riots and communal violence.
Death
Main article: Assassination of Mahatma GandhiAt 5:17 p.m. on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, fired three bullets into Gandhi's chest from a pistol at close range. According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly. In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom. There, he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the All-India Radio saying:
Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.
Godse, a Hindu nationalist, with links to the Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, made no attempt to escape; several other conspirators were soon arrested as well. The accused were Nathuram Vinayak Godse, Narayan Apte, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Shankar Kistayya, Dattatraya Parchure, Vishnu Karkare, Madanlal Pahwa, and Gopal Godse.
The trial began on 27 May 1948 and ran for eight months before Justice Atma Charan passed his final order on 10 February 1949. The prosecution called 149 witnesses, the defence none. The court found all of the defendants except one guilty as charged. Eight men were convicted for the murder conspiracy, and others were convicted for violation of the Explosive Substances Act. Savarkar was acquitted and set free. Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte were sentenced to death by hanging while the remaining six (including Godse's brother, Gopal) were sentenced to life imprisonment.
Funeral and memorials
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Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over a million people joined the five-mile-long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where Gandhi was assassinated, and another million watched the procession pass by. His body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of Gandhi's body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead, four drag-ropes held by 50 people each pulled the vehicle. All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.
Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. His ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services. Most of the ashes were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad. Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.
The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti. The place near Yamuna River where he was cremated is the Rāj Ghāt memorial in New Delhi. A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph "Hē Rāma" (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, Hey Raam). These are said to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot.
Principles, practices, and beliefs
Main article: Practices and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi See also: GandhismGandhi's spirituality was greatly based on his embracement of the five great vows of Jainism and Hindu Yoga philosophy, viz. Satya (truth), ahimsa (nonviolence), brahmacharya (celibacy), asteya (non-stealing), and aparigraha (non-attachment). He stated that "Unless you impose on yourselves the five vows you may not embark on the experiment at all." Gandhi's statements, letters and life have attracted much political and scholarly analysis of his principles, practices and beliefs, including what influenced him. Some writers present Gandhi as a paragon of ethical living and pacifism, while others present him as a more complex, contradictory and evolving character influenced by his culture and circumstances.
Truth and Satyagraha
Gandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or Satya, and called his movement satyagraha, which means "appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the Truth." The first formulation of the satyagraha as a political movement and principle occurred in 1920, which Gandhi tabled as "Resolution on Non-cooperation" in September that year before a session of the Indian Congress. It was the satyagraha formulation and step, states Dennis Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma.
Gandhi based Satyagraha on the Vedantic ideal of self-realisation, ahimsa (nonviolence), vegetarianism, and universal love. William Borman states that the key to his satyagraha is rooted in the Hindu Upanishadic texts. According to Indira Carr, Gandhi's ideas on ahimsa and satyagraha were founded on the philosophical foundations of Advaita Vedanta. I. Bruce Watson states that some of these ideas are found not only in traditions within Hinduism, but also in Jainism or Buddhism, particularly those about non-violence, vegetarianism and universal love, but Gandhi's synthesis was to politicise these ideas. His concept of satya as a civil movement, states Glyn Richards, are best understood in the context of the Hindu terminology of Dharma and Ṛta.
Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said, "God is Truth." Gandhi would later change this statement to "Truth is God." Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God". Gandhi, states Richards, described the term "God" not as a separate power, but as the Being (Brahman, Atman) of the Advaita Vedanta tradition, a nondual universal that pervades in all things, in each person and all life. According to Nicholas Gier, this to Gandhi meant the unity of God and humans, that all beings have the same one soul and therefore equality, that atman exists and is same as everything in the universe, ahimsa (non-violence) is the very nature of this atman.
The essence of Satyagraha is "soul force" as a political means, refusing to use brute force against the oppressor, seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed, aiming to transform or "purify" the oppressor. It is not inaction but determined passive resistance and non-co-operation where, states Arthur Herman, "love conquers hate". A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his "I Have a Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force", as it essentially "makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."
Gandhi wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause." Civil disobedience and non-co-operation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering", a doctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progress of an individual or society. Therefore, non-co-operation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with truth and justice.
While Gandhi's idea of satyagraha as a political means attracted a widespread following among Indians, the support was not universal. For example, Muslim leaders such as Jinnah opposed the satyagraha idea, accused Gandhi to be reviving Hinduism through political activism, and began effort to counter Gandhi with Muslim nationalism and a demand for Muslim homeland. The untouchability leader Ambedkar, in June 1945, after his decision to convert to Buddhism and the first Law and Justice minister of modern India, dismissed Gandhi's ideas as loved by "blind Hindu devotees", primitive, influenced by spurious brew of Tolstoy and Ruskin, and "there is always some simpleton to preach them". Winston Churchill caricatured Gandhi as a "cunning huckster" seeking selfish gain, an "aspiring dictator", and an "atavistic spokesman of a pagan Hinduism." Churchill stated that the civil disobedience movement spectacle of Gandhi only increased "the danger to which white people there are exposed."
Nonviolence
Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale. The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) has a long history in Indian religious thought, and is considered the highest dharma (ethical value/virtue), a precept to be observed towards all living beings (sarvbhuta), at all times (sarvada), in all respects (sarvatha), in action, words and thought. Gandhi explains his philosophy and ideas about ahimsa as a political means in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth.
Although Gandhi considered non-violence to be "infinitely superior to violence", he preferred violence to cowardice. Gandhi added that he "would rather have India resort to arms in order to defend her honor than that she should in a cowardly manner become or remain a helpless witness to her own dishonor."
Literary works
Gandhi was a prolific writer. His signature style was simple, precise, clear and as devoid of artificialities. One of Gandhi's earliest publications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909, became "the intellectual blueprint" for India's independence movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved". For decades, Gandhi edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. Gandhi also wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.
Gandhi also wrote several books, including his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા"), of which Gandhi bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted. His other autobiographies included: Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last which was an early critique of political economy. This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. Gandhi also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books. In 1934, Gandhi wrote Songs from Prison while prisoned in Yerawada jail in Maharashtra.
Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about 100 volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it contained a large number of errors and omissions. The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.
Legacy
See also: List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi, List of things named after Mahatma Gandhi, and List of roads named after Mahatma GandhiGandhi is noted as the greatest figure of the successful Indian independence movement against the British rule. He is also hailed as the greatest figure of modern India. American historian Stanley Wolpert described Gandhi as "India's greatest revolutionary nationalist leader" and the greatest Indian since the Buddha. In 1999, Gandhi was named "Asian of the century" by Asiaweek. In a 2000 BBC poll, he was voted as the greatest man of the millennium.
The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma (meaning Soul). He was publicly bestowed with the honorific title "Mahatma" in July 1914 at farewell meeting in Town Hall, Durban. Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi by 1915. In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.
Innumerable streets, roads, and localities in India are named after Gandhi. These include M.G.Road (the main street of a number of Indian cities including Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Kanpur, Gangtok and Indore), Gandhi Market (near Sion, Mumbai) and Gandhinagar (the capital of the state of Gujarat, Gandhi's birthplace).
As of 2008, over 150 countries have released stamps on Gandhi. In October 2019, about 87 countries including Turkey, the United States, Russia, Iran, Uzbekistan, and Palestine released commemorative Gandhi stamps on the 150th anniversary of his birth.
In 2014, Brisbane's Indian community commissioned a statue of Gandhi, created by Ram V. Sutar and Anil Sutar in the Roma Street Parkland, It was unveiled by Narendra Modi, then Prime Minister of India.
Florian asteroid 120461 Gandhi was named in his honour in September 2020. In October 2022, a statue of Gandhi was installed in Astana on the embankment of the rowing canal, opposite the cult monument to the defenders of Kazakhstan.
On 15 December 2022, the United Nations headquarters in New York unveiled the statue of Gandhi. UN Secretary-General António Guterres called Gandhi an "uncompromising advocate for peaceful co-existence."
Followers and international influence
Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King Jr., James Lawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about nonviolence. King said, "Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics." King sometimes referred to Gandhi as "the little brown saint." Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi. Others include Steve Biko, Václav Havel, and Aung San Suu Kyi.
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In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi. Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense, Mandela completed what Gandhi started."
Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading his ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, physicist Albert Einstein exchanged letters with Gandhi and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a letter writing about him. Einstein said of Gandhi:
Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilised world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come. Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.
Farah Omar, a political activist from Somaliland, visited India in 1930, where he met Gandhi and was influenced by Gandhi's non-violent philosophy, which he adopted in his campaign in British Somaliland.
Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.
In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence. In 2007, former US Vice-President and environmentalist Al Gore drew upon Gandhi's idea of satyagraha in a speech on climate change. 44th President of the United States Barack Obama said in September 2009 that his biggest inspiration came from Gandhi. His reply was in response to the question: "Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?" Obama added, "He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."
Time magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King Jr., Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to nonviolence. The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.
Gandhi's ideas had a significant influence on 20th-century philosophy. It began with his engagement with Romain Rolland and Martin Buber. Jean-Luc Nancy said that the French philosopher Maurice Blanchot engaged critically with Gandhi from the point of view of "European spirituality." Since then philosophers including Hannah Arendt, Etienne Balibar and Slavoj Žižek found that Gandhi was a necessary reference to discuss morality in politics. American political scientist Gene Sharp wrote an analytical text, Gandhi as a political strategist, on the significance of Gandhi's ideas, for creating nonviolent social change. Recently, in the light of climate change, Gandhi's views on technology are gaining importance in the fields of environmental philosophy and philosophy of technology.
Global days that celebrate Gandhi
In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, as "the International Day of Nonviolence". First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish), 30 January is observed as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries. In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.
Awards
Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. In the same magazine's 1999 list of The Most Important People of the Century, Gandhi was second only to Albert Einstein, who had called Gandhi "the greatest man of our age." The University of Nagpur awarded him an LL.D. in 1937. The Government of India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2003, Gandhi was posthumously awarded with the World Peace Prize. Two years later, he was posthumously awarded with the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo. In 2011, Gandhi topped the TIME's list of top 25 political icons of all time.
Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee, though Gandhi made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947. Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award. Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate", and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, "The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question." When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi." In the summer of 1995, the North American Vegetarian Society inducted Gandhi posthumously into the Vegetarian Hall of Fame.
Father of the Nation
Indians widely describe Gandhi as the Father of the Nation. Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 July 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as "The Father of the Nation". On 28 April 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as "Father of the Nation". He is also conferred the title "Bapu" (Gujarati: endearment for father, papa).
Film, theatre, and literature
- A five-hour, nine-minute long biographical documentary film, Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, made by Vithalbhai Jhaveri in 1968, quoting Gandhi's words and using black and white archival footage and photographs, captures the history of those times.
- Ben Kingsley portrayed him in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. It was based on the biography by Louis Fischer. The 1996 film The Making of the Mahatma documented Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.
- Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 comedy film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. Jahnu Barua's Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara (I did not kill Gandhi), places contemporary society as a backdrop with its vanishing memory of Gandhi's values as a metaphor for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonist of his 2005 film, writes Vinay Lal.
- In the tale Le Jour du Jugement Dernier, in the collection Les Mémoires de Satan et autres contes loufoques, by Pierre Cormon, God tries to judge Gandhi at the Last Judgement but realises that the character is more complex than he appears.
- In 1967, Gandhi was set to be featured on the album cover of one of the best selling albums of The Beatles, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, however this idea was later cancelled due to respect for Gandhi.
- The 1979 opera Satyagraha by American composer Philip Glass is loosely based on Gandhi's life. The opera's libretto, taken from the Bhagavad Gita, is sung in the original Sanskrit.
- The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi Virudh Gandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father was inspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play Gandhi Ambedkar criticised Gandhi and his principles.
- Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, Chaman Nahal's Gandhi Quartet, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life. Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort" the overall message of the book. The 2014 film Welcome Back Gandhi takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might react to modern day India. The 2019 play Bharat Bhagya Vidhata, inspired by Pujya Gurudevshri Rakeshbhai and produced by Sangeet Natak Akademi and Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur takes a look at how Gandhi cultivated the values of truth and non-violence.
- "Mahatma Gandhi" is used by Cole Porter in his lyrics for the song "You're the Top" which is included in the 1934 musical Anything Goes. In the song, Porter rhymes 'Mahatma Gandhi' with 'Napoleon Brandy.'
- Gandhi is mentioned in the Kris Kristofferson song "They Killed Him".
Current impact within India
India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected Gandhi's economics but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast, Gandhi is "given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."
Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti. His image also appears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note. Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.
There are three temples in India dedicated to Gandhi. One is located at Sambalpur in Odisha, the second at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka, and the third at Chityal in the district of Nalgonda, Telangana. The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.
Descendants
Not to be confused with the Indian political family Nehru–Gandhi family.
Gandhi's children and grandchildren live in India and other countries. Grandson Rajmohan Gandhi is a professor in Illinois and an author of Gandhi's biography titled Mohandas, while another, Tarun Gandhi, has authored several authoritative books on his grandfather. Another grandson, Kanu Ramdas Gandhi (the son of Gandhi's third son Ramdas), was found living at an old age home in Delhi despite having taught earlier in the United States.
See also
- Gandhian socialism
- Gandhi cap
- Gandhi Teerth – Gandhi International Research Institute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on Mahatma Gandhi and dialogue
- Inclusive Christianity
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of peace activists
- Seven Social Sins (a.k.a. Seven Blunders of the World)
- Trikaranasuddhi
- Composite nationalism
- Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Notes
Explanatory notes
- Did not graduate
- Informal auditing student between 1888 and 1891
- Pronounced variously /ˈɡɑːndi, ˈɡændi/ GA(H)N-dee; Gujarati pronunciation: [ˈmoɦəndɑs ˈkəɾəmtʃənd ˈɡɑ̃dʱi]
- The earliest record of usage, however, is in a private letter from Pranjivan Mehta to Gopal Krishna Gokhale dated 1909.
Citations
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... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti-colonial nationalist politics in the twentieth-century in ways that neither indigenous nor westernized Indian nationalists could.
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The name Gandhi means "grocer", although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers.
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the Muslim League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. ... By the late 1940s, the League and the Congress had impressed in the British their own visions of a free future for Indian people. ... one, articulated by the Congress, rested on the idea of a united, plural India as a home for all Indians and the other, spelt out by the League, rested on the foundation of Muslim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslim homeland.
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South Asians learned that the British Indian Empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority lived in the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... did not hear the news for many weeks afterward. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first they know about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India.
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- ^ Brown (1991), p. 380: "Despite and indeed because of his sense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what he called his greatest fast. ... His decision was made suddenly, though after considerable thought – he gave no hint of it even to Nehru and Patel who were with him shortly before he announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 January 1948. He said he would fast until communal peace was restored, real peace rather than the calm of a dead city imposed by police and troops. Patel and the government took the fast partly as condemnation of their decision to withhold a considerable cash sum still outstanding to Pakistan as a result of the allocation of undivided India's assets because the hostilities that had broken out in Kashmir; ... But even when the government agreed to pay out the cash, Gandhi would not break his fast: that he would only do after a large number of important politicians and leaders of communal bodies agreed to a joint plan for restoration of normal life in the city."
- Talbot, Ian (2016). A History of Modern South Asia, Politics, States, Diasporas. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-300-19694-8. LCCN 2015937886.
Disputes over Kashmir and the division of assets and water in the aftermath of Partition increased Pakistan's anxieties regarding its much larger neighbor. Kashmir's significance for Pakistan far exceeded its strategic value; its "illegal" accession to India challenged the state's ideological foundations and pointed to a lack of sovereign fulfillment. The "K" in Pakistan's name stood for Kashmir. Of less symbolic significance was the division of post-Partition assets. Not until December 1947 was an agreement reached on Pakistan's share of the sterling assets held by the undivided Government of India at the time of independence. The bulk of these (550 million rupees) was held back by New Delhi because of the Kashmir conflict and paid only following Gandhi's intervention and fasting. India delivered Pakistan's military equipment even more tardily, and less than a sixth of the 160,000 tons of ordnance allotted to Pakistan by the Joint Defence Council was actually delivered.
- Elkins, Caroline (2022). Violence: A History of the British Empire. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780307272423. LCCN 2021018550.
A few months later, with war-fueled tensions over Kashmir mounting and India refusing to pay Pakistan 550 million rupees, Pakistan's share of Britain's outstanding war debt, Gandhi began to fast. "This time my fast is not only against Hindus and Muslims," the Mahatma said, "but also against the Judases who put on false appearances and betray themselves, myself and society." The elderly and frail man who was India's symbolic political and spiritual leader went three days without food before India's cabinet agreed to pay Pakistan, something Nehru had long promised Jinnah he would do.
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Sardar Patel decided, in the middle of December 1947, that the recent financial agreements with Pakistan should not be followed, unless Pakistan ceased to support the raiders. ... Gandhi was not convinced and he felt—like Mountbatten and Nehru—that the agreed transfer to Pakistan of a cash amount of Rs. 550 million should be implemented despite the Kashmir crisis. Gandhi started a fast unto death, which was officially done to stop communal trouble, especially in Delhi, but "word went round that it was directed against Sardar Patel's decision to withhold the cash balances"... Only because of Gandhi's interference, which was soon to cause his death, Sardar Patel gave in and the money was handed over to Pakistan.
- Sarkar, Sumit (2014). Modern India: 1885–1947. Delhi and Chennai: Pearson Education. p. 375. ISBN 9789332535749.
This last fast seems to have been directed in part also against Patel's increasingly communal attitudes (the Home Minister had started thinking in terms of a total transfer of population in the Punjab, and was refusing to honour a prior agreement by which India was obliged to give 55 crores of pre-Partition Government of India financial assets to Pakistan). 'You are not the Sardar I once knew,' Gandhi is said to have remarked during the fast.
- Gandhi, Gopalkrishna; Suhrud, Tridip (2022). Scorching Love: Letters from Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to his son, Devadas. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
The national capital and its surrounding areas are gripped by massacres and the spewing of hate. The two Punjabs on either side of the border are aflame. On 1 January 1948, a Thai visitor comes and compliments him on India's independence. "Today ... Indian fears his brother Indian. Is this independence?', Gandhi asks in response. Gandhi smarts at the Government of India's new cabinet headed by Jawaharlal Nehru deciding to withhold the transfer of Pakistan's share (Rs 55 crores) of the 'sterling balance' that undivided India has held at independence. The attack on Kashmur is cited as a reason for this. Patel says India cannot give money to Pakistan 'for making bullets to be shot at us'. Gandhi's intense agitation settles into an inner quiet on 12 January when the clear thought comes to him that he must fast. And indefinitely.
‘It will end when and if I am satisfied that there is a reunion of hearts of all communities...’ - Singh, Gurharpal; Shani, Georgio (2022). Sikh Nationalism: From a Dominant Minority to an Ethno-Religious Diaspora. Cambridge University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-107-13654-0. LCCN 2021017207.
For further evidence of Patel's involvement in the clearing of Muslims in north India, see Pandey (2001, 196). Against the background of the India-Pakistan conflict in Kashmir, the dispute between the two countries over the division of cash balances and Gandhi's fast in early 1948, Mountbatten noted the following of his interview with Patel: 'He expressed the view that the only way to re-establish decent relationship between the Muslims and non-Muslim communities was to remove Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan and drive out the Muslims of the East Punjab and the affected neighbouring areas.' MB1/D76/1. Mountbatten Papers, University of Southampton.
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He undertook a fast not only to restrain those bent on communal reprisal but also to influence the powerful Home Minister, Sardar Patel, who was refusing to share out the assets of the former imperial treasury with Pakistan, as had been agreed. Gandhi's insistence on justice for Pakistan now that the partition was a fact ... had prompted Godse's fanatical action.
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Three days later the Mahatma was dead, murdered by a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse, as a climax to a conspiracy hatched by a Poona Brahman group originally inspired by V.D. Savarkar—a conspiracy which, despite ample warnings, the police of Bombay and Delhi had done nothing to foil.
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It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival from refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to eventually abandon India's capital.
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In 1920 Jinnah opposed satyagraha and resigned from the Congress, boosting the fortunes of the Muslim League.
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Gandhi staked his reputation as an original political thinker on this specific issue. Hitherto, violence had been used in the name of political rights, such as in street riots, regicide, or armed revolutions. Gandhi believes there is a better way of securing political rights, that of nonviolence, and that this new way marks an advance in political ethics.
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Gandhi was the leading genius of the later, and ultimately successful, campaign for India's independence.
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The greatest of all national leaders (and journalists) of the independence movement was Mahatma Gandhi.
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The hero of Indian independence from the British, and the greatest figure in decolonization, was Mahatma Gandhi
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Mahatma Gandhi was the most influential of all the Indian politicians in the campaign for independence
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Mahatma Gandhi was the greatest absorbant and the greatest personality of modern India
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Mahatma Gandhi, modern India's greatest icon, elevated his search for moksha above any of his social or political goals, including India's freedom from colonial rule.
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Gandhi is not only the greatest figure in India's history, but his influence is felt in almost every aspect of life and public policy.
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mahā- (S. 'great, mighty, large, ..., eminent') + ātmā (S. '1. soul, spirit; the self, the individual; the mind, the heart; 2. the ultimate being.'): 'high-souled, of noble nature; a noble or venerable man.'
- Gandhi (2008), p. 172. "...Kasturba would accompany Gandhi on his departure from Cape Town for England in July 1914 en route to India. ... In different South African towns (Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, and the Natal cities of Durban and Verulam), the struggle's martyrs were honoured and the Gandhi's bade farewell. Addresses in Durban and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken up the poor's cause. The whites too said good things about Gandhi, who predicted a future for the Empire if it respected justice."
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- Guha (2013a), pp. 362, 662. "During my last trip to Europe I saw a great deal of Mr Gandhi. From year to year (I have known him intimately for over twenty years) I have found him getting more and more selfless. He is now leading almost an ascetic sort of life – not the life of an ordinary ascetic that we usually see but that of a great Mahatma and the one idea that engrosses his mind is his motherland."
- Pranjivan Mehta to G. K. Gokhale, dated Rangoon, 8 November 1909, File No. 4, Servants of India Society Papers, NMML.
- Gandhi (1990a), p. viii.
- Basu Majumdar, A. K. (1993), Rabindranath Tagore: The Poet of India, Indus Publishing, ISBN 81-85182-92-2, p. 83: "When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath's eldest brother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the first to address him as Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then the whole of India called him Mahatma Gandhi."
- Ghose (1991), p. 158. "So Tagore differed from many of Gandhi's ideas, but yet he had great regard for him and Tagore was perhaps the first important Indian who called Gandhi a Mahatma. But in 1921 when Gandhi was asked whether he was really a Mahatma Gandhi replied that he did not feel like one, and that, in any event, he could not define a Mahatma for he had never met any."
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Whereas Pakistan's leaders died early, India's founding triumvirate of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Rajendra Prasad provided a stable hand for the early years, and a personal continuity with the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi
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With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with the term of endearment used by your close friends, the term you used with all the movement leaders, roughly meaning 'Papa'.
Another letter written in 1940 shows similar tenderness and caring. - ^ Eck, Diana L. (2003). Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. Beacon Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8070-7301-8. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
... his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi 'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the familiar, 'daddy'.
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General and cited references
Books
- Ahmed, Talat (2018). Mohandas Gandhi: Experiments in Civil Disobedience. ISBN 0-7453-3429-6.
- Barr, F. Mary (1956). Bapu: Conversations and Correspondence with Mahatma Gandhi (2nd ed.). Bombay: International Book House. OCLC 8372568. (see book article)
- Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1971). Conquest of Violence: the Gandhian philosophy of conflict. University of California Press.
- Borman, William (1986). Gandhi and Non-Violence. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-331-2.
- Brown, Judith Margaret (1991). Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05125-4.
- Brown, Judith M. (2004). "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press.
- Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. (2012). The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi; 14 essays by scholars.
- Chadha, Yogesh (1997). Gandhi: a life. John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-24378-6.
- Dwivedi, Divya; Mohan, Shaj; Nancy, Jean-Luc (2019). Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-politics. Bloomsbury Academic, UK. ISBN 978-1-4742-2173-3.
- Dalton, Dennis (2012). Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15959-3.
- Dalton, Dennis (2012a). Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-53039-2.
- Dhiman, S. (2016). Gandhi and Leadership: New Horizons in Exemplary Leadership. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-49235-7.
- Easwaran, Eknath (2011). Gandhi the Man: How One Man Changed Himself to Change the World. Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-58638-055-7.
- Hook, Sue Vander (2010). Mahatma Gandhi: Proponent of Peace. ABDO. ISBN 978-1-61758-813-6.
- Gandhi, Rajmohan (1990). Patel, A Life. Navajivan Pub. House.
- Gandhi, Rajmohan (2007a). Mohandas: A True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-310411-7.
- Gandhi, Rajmohan (2007b). Mohandas: True Story of a Man, His People, and an Empire. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-81-8475-317-2.
- Gandhi, Rajmohan (2008). Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25570-8.
- Gangrade, K.D. (2004). "Role of Shanti Sainiks in the Global Race for Armaments". Moral Lessons From Gandhi's Autobiography And Other Essays. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-084-6.
- Ghose, Sankar (1991). Mahatma Gandhi. Allied Publishers. ISBN 978-81-7023-205-6.
- Guha, Ramachandra (2013). Gandhi Before India. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.
- Guha, Ramachandra (2013a). Gandhi Before India. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-670-08387-9.
- Guha, Ramachandra (2013x). Gandhi Before India. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-93-5118-322-8.
- Guha, Ramachandra (15 October 2014a). Gandhi before India. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-93-5118-322-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
- Guha, Ramachandra (2015). Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.
- Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in His Time and Ours: the global legacy of his ideas. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-711-8.
- Hardiman, David (2003a). Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13114-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
- Hatt, Christine (2002). Mahatma Gandhi. Evans Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-52308-4.
- Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-553-90504-5. Ebook: ISBN 978-0-553-80463-8.
- Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers: 1947–1980. Regency Publications. ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3.
- Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi's Pilgrimage of Faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6405-2.
- Markovits, Claude, ed. (2002). A History of Modern India, 1480–1950. Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-004-4.
- McDermott, Rachel Fell; Gordon, Leonard A.; Embree, Ainslie T.; Pritchett, Frances W.; Dalton, Dennis, eds. (2014). Sources of Indian Traditions, Volume 2: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (3rd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13830-7.
- Miller, Jake C. (2002). Prophets of a just society. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-068-5.
- Minault, Gail (1982). The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-05072-0.
- Muldoon, Andrew (2016). Empire, Politics and the Creation of the 1935 India Act: Last Act of the Raj. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-14431-1.
- Pāṇḍeya, Viśva Mohana (2003). Historiography of India's Partition: an analysis of imperialist writings. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0314-6.
- Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). Peace Movements Worldwide: Players and practices in resistance to war. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36482-2.
- Rühe, Peter (2004). Gandhi. Phaidon. ISBN 978-0-7148-4459-6.
- Schouten, Jan Peter (2008). Jesus as Guru: the image of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India. Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2443-4.
- Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a Political Strategist: with essays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87558-090-6.
- Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7.
- Sinha, Satya (2015). The Dialectic of God: The Theosophical Views Of Tagore and Gandhi. Partridge Publishing India. ISBN 978-1-4828-4748-2.
- Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century in focus. Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12-1.
- Thacker, Dhirubhai (2006). "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand". In Amaresh Datta (ed.). The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
- Todd, Anne M. (2004). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-7864-8.; short biography for children
- Todd, Anne M. (2009). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0662-5.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2001). Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515634-8. Archived from the original on 21 July 2023. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2001a). "Midnight in Calcutta". Gandhi's Passion: The life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515634-X. Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2002). Gandhi's Passion: the life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972872-5.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2002a). Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515634-8. Archived from the original on 19 February 2017.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2004). A New History of India (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195166787.
- Wolpert, Stanley (2009). Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539394-1. Archived from the original on 1 October 2013.
Scholarly articles
- Danielson, Leilah C. "'In My Extremity I Turned to Gandhi': American Pacifists, Christianity, and Gandhian Nonviolence, 1915–1941". Church History 72.2 (2003): 361–388.
- Du Toit, Brian M. "The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies 34#4 (1996): 643–660. JSTOR 161593.
- Gokhale, B. G. "Gandhi and the British Empire", History Today (Nov 1969), 19#11 pp 744–751 online.
- Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Gandhi Revival – A Review Article." The Journal of Asian Studies 43#2 (Feb. 1984), pp. 293–298. JSTOR 2055315
- Khosla, G.D. (1965). The Murder of the Mahatma (proceedings by the Chief Justice of Punjab) (PDF). Jaico Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2015.
- Kishwar, Madhu. "Gandhi on Women." Economic and Political Weekly 20, no. 41 (1985): 1753–758. JSTOR 4374920.
- Mohammed, Fevin "Gandhi the Great". (2013) (PhD in Historical Research, Coordinated under Prof. Ram Prasad Sharma).
- Murthy, C. S. H. N., Oinam Bedajit Meitei, and Dapkupar Tariang. "The Tale Of Gandhi Through The Lens: An Inter-Textual Analytical Study Of Three Major Films-Gandhi, The Making Of The Mahatma, And Gandhi, My Father." CINEJ Cinema Journal 2.2 (2013): 4–37. online
- Power, Paul F. "Toward a Revaluation of Gandhi's Political Thought." Western Political Quarterly 16.1 (1963): 99–108 excerpt.
- Rudolph, Lloyd I. "Gandhi in the Mind of America." Economic and Political Weekly 45, no. 47 (2010): 23–26. JSTOR 25764146.
Primary sources
- Abel M (2005). Glimpses of Indian National Movement. ICFAI Books. ISBN 978-81-7881-420-9.
- Andrews, C. F. (2008) . "VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa". Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0.
- Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-330-3.
- Duncan, Ronald, ed. (2011). Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-00907-6. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). Satyagraha in South Africa (in Gujarati). Translated by Valji G. Desai (1st ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2. (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). "Drain Inspector's Report". The United States of India. 5 (6–8): 3–4.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1990a). Desai, Mahadev H. (ed.). Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover. ISBN 0-486-24593-4.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (2002). Fischer, Louis (ed.). The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work and Ideas (2nd ed.). Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7.
- Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book of His Life and Writings. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4.
- Johnson, Richard L., ed. (2006). Gandhi's Experiments with Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7.
- Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: "Hind Swaraj" and Other Writings Centenary Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14602-9.
External links
- Gandhi's correspondence with the Indian government 1942–1944
- About Mahatma Gandhi
- Gandhi at Sabarmati Ashram
- Works by Mahatma Gandhi at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Mahatma Gandhi at the Internet Archive
- Works by Mahatma Gandhi at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Newspaper clippings about Mahatma Gandhi in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
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- Mahatma Gandhi
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