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{{Short description|Stance in occupied countries in World War II}} | |||
{{Expand|date=January 2007}} | |||
{{About|collaboration with Germany and Italy, the founding members of the ] in Europe during ]|collaboration in Asia with Japan before October 1945|Collaboration with Imperial Japan}} | |||
] | |||
{{pp-extended|small=yes}} | |||
{{WorldWarIISegmentUnderInfoBox}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} | |||
{{WWII timeline}} | |||
In ], many governments, organizations and individuals ] with the ], "out of conviction, desperation, or under coercion."{{sfn|Darcy|2019|p=75}} ]s sometimes welcomed German or Italian troops they believed would liberate their countries from colonization. The Danish, Belgian and Vichy French governments attempted to appease and bargain with the invaders in hopes of mitigating harm to their citizens and economies. | |||
Some countries' leaders cooperated with Italy and Germany because they wanted to ] lost during and after the ], or which their nationalist citizens simply coveted. Others such as France already had their own burgeoning fascist movements and/or ] sentiment, and the invaders validated and empowered this. Individuals such as ] in the Netherlands and ] in Greece saw collaboration as a path to personal power in the politics of their country. Others believed that Germany would prevail, and either wanted to be on the winning side, or feared being on the losing one. | |||
During ] ] occupied all or parts of the following countries: ], ], ], ], ], the ], ], ], ], the ], ], ], ], ] and ]. The term of "Collaboration" was coined by Marshall ], who proclaimed the ] in July 1940 and actively supported ] with Germany. | |||
Axis military forces recruited many volunteers, sometimes at gunpoint, more often with promises that they later broke, or from among POWs trying to escape appalling and frequently lethal conditions in their detention camps. Other volunteers willingly enlisted because they shared Nazi or fascist ideologies. | |||
Collaboration ranged from urging the civilian population to remain calm and accept foreign occupation, organizing trade, production, financial and economic support to joining various branches of the armed forces of ] or special "national" military units fighting under their command. Apart from active forms of collaboration, there was also "passive collaboration", where people on the occupied territories just went on with life, but were necessarily influenced by the occupation authorities. | |||
== Terminology == | |||
==Reasons for collaboration== | |||
There were various reasons for collaboration with the ] authorities: fear for one's life (many Soviet ] volunteered to serve under the German command in order to escape Nazi prison camps, notorious for starving the Soviet prisoners to death); believing that the Nazis would win the war and thus it would be better to be on the winning side; attempting to avoid conflict with the powerful Nazi ] forces (such as in Denmark); seeking short-term goals, such as a better-paid job with higher privileges; ability to legally take revenge against former personal enemies; and pure ] and ]; also, some people hoped for a stronger united ]. | |||
] in 1968 used the term ''collaborationist'' to describe those who collaborated for ideological reasons.<ref name="Hoffmann">{{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Hoffmann |title=Collaborationism in France during World War II |journal=The Journal of Modern History | |||
Hatred of ], and disgust of the ] system contributed greatly to the collaboration in the ]. The Nazis failed to capitalize on this sentiment, and slowly much of this anti-Soviet sentiment reversed itself and cooperation with the Nazis in the east began to diminish. The "anti-]" forces changed sides again, and thought it would be better to be on the ''other'' winning side, or in short, their earlier "opportunism", reversed itself. | |||
|volume=40 |issue=3 |year=1968 |page=376 |doi=10.1086/240209 |jstor=1878146 |s2cid=144309794| issn = 0022-2801}}</ref> Bertram Gordon, a professor of modern history, also used the terms ''collaborationist'' and ''collaborator'' for ] and non-ideological collaboration.<ref>{{cite book | |||
|last=Gordon |first=Bertram N. |title=Collaborationism in France during the Second World War |title-link=Collaborationism in France during the Second World War | |||
|publisher=Cornell University Press | |||
|location=Ithaca | |||
|year=1980 | |||
|isbn=978-0-8014-1263-9 | |||
|page=18 | |||
}}</ref> ''Collaboration'' described cooperation, sometimes passive, with a victorious power.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=John A. | |||
|author-link=John A. Armstrong |title=Collaborationism in World War II: The Integral Nationalist Variant in Eastern Europe | |||
|jstor=1878147 | |||
|journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=40 |issue=3 |year=1968 | |||
|pages=396–410 |doi=10.1086/240210 |s2cid=144135929 | |||
}}</ref> | |||
] saw collaboration as either involuntary, a reluctant recognition of necessity, or voluntary, ], or greedy. He also categorized collaborationism as "servile", attempting to be useful, or "ideological", full-throated advocacy of the occupier's ideology.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} | |||
{{Unreferenced|date=March 2007}} | |||
== Collaboration in Western Europe == | |||
==Requirements for collaboration== | |||
The Nazis did not consider everyone equally fit for cooperation. Even people from closely related nations were often valued differently in accordance with Nazi racial theories. For example, the Scandinavians and Northern Europeans were considered to be better than ]ns due to the supposed Lithuanian intermixing with ] in the past. {{Fact|date=January 2007}} Slavs were considered to be even worse. | |||
=== Belgium === | |||
The ]s were considered to be worst of all and thus unfit for cooperation, although some were used in ]s as ]s to report on other prisoners and enforce order. Others governed ]s and helped organize ]s to ]s (]). | |||
{{Main|German occupation of Belgium during World War II#Collaboration}} | |||
] (VNV) meeting in ] in 1941]] | |||
==Partial list of collaborationist organizations== | |||
Belgium was ]<ref>, Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</ref> and ] until the end of 1944. | |||
===Albania=== | |||
In April 1943 Reichsfuhrer-SS ] created ] manned by ] ]s and ]. From August 1944, the ] participated in operations against ] and local ]s. The discipline in the division was poor and in the beginning of 1945 it was disbanded. The emblem of the division was a black Albanian eagle. <ref name=Williamson>Williamson, G. ''The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror''</ref> | |||
Political collaboration took separate forms across the ]. In Dutch-speaking ], the ] (Flemish National Union or VNV), clearly authoritarian, anti-democratic and influenced by fascist ideas,<ref name=BWWII>B. De Wever, at Belgium-WWII, ("Au sein de la direction du parti, on retrouve deux tendances: une aile fasciste et une aile modérée.")</ref> became a major player in the German occupation strategy as part of the pre-war ]. VNV politicians were promoted to positions in the Belgian civil administration.<ref>, Christopher Hale, The History Press, 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-7524-6393-3}} "by June the plum jobs in the Belgian administration had been grabbed by VNV men"</ref> VNV and its comparatively moderate stance was increasingly eclipsed later in the war by the more radical and pro-German ] movement.<ref name="bosworth">{{cite book |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-fascism-9780199594788 |title=The Oxford handbook of fascism |last1=Bosworth |first1=R. J. B. |year=2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-929131-1 |page=483}}</ref><!-- no preview available --> | |||
===Belarus=== | |||
Belorussian collaborators participated in various ] of ] villagers. Many of these collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the ] advance, and in January 1945, formed the 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belorussian).{{Fact|date=January 2007}} | |||
In French-speaking ], ]'s ], a pre-war authoritarian and ] political party,<ref name=SP112>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gerard |editor1-first=Emmanuel |editor2-last=Van Nieuwenhuyse |editor2-first=Karel |title=Scripta Politica: Politieke Geschiedenis van België in Documenten (1918–2008) |year=2010 |publisher=Acco |location=Leuven |isbn=978-90-334-8039-3 |page=112|edition=2e herwerkte dr.}}</ref> became the VNV's Walloon equivalent, although Rex's ] put it at odds with the Flemish nationalism of VNV and the German '']''. Rex became increasingly radical after 1941 and declared itself part of the '']''. | |||
===Belgium=== | |||
373rd ] ] of ], manned by Belgians, took part in anti-guerrilla actions in the occupied territory of the ] from August 1941 to February 1942. In May 1943 the battalion was transformed into the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien and sent to the ]. In the autumn the brigade has been transformed into ]. Its remains surrendered to British troops in the final days of war. | |||
Although the ] went into exile in 1940, the Belgian civil service remained in place for much of the occupation. The ], an administrative panel of civil servants, although conceived as a purely ] institution, has been accused of helping to implement German occupation policies. Despite its intention of mitigating harm to Belgians, it enabled but could not moderate German policies such as the ] and ] to Germany. It did manage to delay the latter to October 1942.<ref name=Gotovich408>Gotovitch, José; Aron, Paul, eds. (2008). Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique. Brussels: André Versaille ed. p. 408. {{ISBN|978-2-87495-001-8}}.</ref> Encouraging the Germans to delegate tasks to the Committee made their implementation much more efficient than the Germans could have achieved by force.{{sfn|Dumoulin|Witte|2006|pp=20–26}} Belgium depended on Germany for food imports, so the committee was always at a disadvantage in negotiations.{{sfn|Dumoulin|Witte|2006|pp=20–26}} | |||
===Bosnia=== | |||
The ], manned by ] and ], but commanded by German officers, was created in February 1943. The division participated in anti-guerrilla operations in Yugoslavia. <ref name=Williamson/> By 1944, most of the division defected to the ]. | |||
The ] criticized the committee for helping the Germans.<ref name=Gotovich410>{{cite book|editor1-last=Gotovitch| editor1-first=José| editor2-last=Aron|editor2-first=Paul|title=Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique|year=2008|trans-title=Dictionary of the Second World War in Belgium |publisher=André Versaille éd.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNxoAAAAMAAJ |location=Brussels|isbn=978-2-87495-001-8|page=410}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grosbois|first=Thierry|title=Pierlot, 1930–1950|year=1998|location=Brussels|publisher=Racine|isbn=2-87386-485-0|pages=271–272}}</ref> The Secretaries-General were also unpopular in Belgium itself. In 1942, journalist ] described them as "the object of growing and almost unanimous unpopularity."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemyns|first1=Guillaume|last2=Struye|first2=Paul|author-link2=Paul Struye|title=La Belgique sous l'Occupation Allemande: 1940–1944|year=2002|publisher=Éd. Complexe|location=Brussels|isbn=2-87027-940-X|page=141|edition=Rev.}}</ref> As the face of the German occupation authority, they became unpopular with the public, which blamed them for the German demands they implemented.<ref name =Gotovich410/> | |||
===Central Asia=== | |||
After the war, several of the Secretaries-General were tried for collaboration. Most were quickly acquitted. {{Interlanguage link|Gérard Romsée|fr}}, the former secretary-general for internal affairs, was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment, and Gaston Schuind, Judicial Police of Brussels,<ref>, </ref>{{rs?|date=February 2024}} was sentenced to five.<ref name=Gotovich412-3>{{cite book|editor1-last=Gotovitch| editor1-first=José| editor2-last=Aron|editor2-first=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNxoAAAAMAAJ |title = Dictionnaire de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale en Belgique| trans-title=Dictionary of the Second World War in Belgium | year=2008| publisher=André Versaille éd. |location=Brussels|isbn=978-2-87495-001-8|pages=412–413}}</ref> Many former secretaries-general had careers in politics after the war. ] served as a ] from the centre-right ] (PSC-CVP) and became president of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Beke|first=Wouter|title=De Ziel van eel Zuil: de Christelijke Volkspartij 1945–1968|publisher=Catholic University of Leuven|year=2005|location=Leuven|page=363|isbn=90-5867-498-3}}</ref> | |||
The ] was the general name for the units of ]n exiles and ]s who fought on the side of Germany during the war. Estimates of the total number of Central Asians who fought under the Nazis number in the hundreds of thousands. | |||
Belgian police have also been accused of collaborating, especially in the ].<ref name="bosworth" /> | |||
===China=== | |||
First Japanese puppet in China was ] led by former Chinese emperor ] established after Japanese took over Manchuria in early 1930s. With the Japanese advance in China more puppet regimes were established: ] in 1936, ] in 1937 and ] in 1938. The two latter were merged into ] in 1940 and recently defected Chinese politician ] was put as the leader of the puppet regime. The government recruited troops from local population who were supplied by the Japanese. The army had as much as 2 million soldiers at peak, which was greater than the Japanese army in China, unique in WW2. Great number of collaborationist troops were men originally serving in National Revolutionary Army who had defected when facing both Communists and Japanese as enemies. Although it's manpower was very large, the soldiers were very ineffective compared to NRA soldiers due to low morale for being considered as ]. | |||
The Wang Jingwei government was disbanded after Japanese surrender to Allies in 1945, and Manchukuo and Mengjiang were destroyed by Soviet troops in ]. | |||
Towards the end of the war, militias of collaborationist parties actively carried out reprisals for resistance attacks or even assassinations.<ref name=Moore46-7/> Those assassinations included leading figures suspected of resistance involvement or sympathy,<ref name=Conway19>{{cite book|last=Conway|first=Martin|title=The Sorrows of Belgium: Liberation and Political Reconstruction, 1944–1947|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-969434-1|page=19}}</ref> such as ], head of the '']'', assassinated in February 1944. Among the retaliatory massacres of civilians<ref name=Moore46-7/> were the ], in which 20 civilians were killed by the Rexist paramilitary for the assassination of a ], and a massacre at ], where 67 were killed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Laporte|first=Christian|title=Un Oradour flamand à Meensel-Kiezegen|url=http://archives.lesoir.be/debut-aout-1944-les-collaborateurs-avaient-tue-67-civil_t-19940810-Z08DZ8.html|access-date=22 June 2013|newspaper=]|date=10 August 1994}}</ref> | |||
===Croatia=== | |||
{{main|Independent State of Croatia}} | |||
===British Channel Islands=== | |||
]'s Croatian puppet state was an ally of Nazi Germany. The Croatian extreme ], ], killed at least hundreds of thousands of Serbs and other victims in the ]. | |||
{{Main|Civilian life under the German occupation of the Channel Islands}} | |||
The ] were the only ] in Europe occupied by Nazi Germany. The policy of the islands' governments was what they called "correct relations" with the German occupiers. There was no armed or violent resistance by islanders to the occupation.<ref>Bunting, Madeleine (1995), ''The Model Occupation: The Channel Islands under German Rule, 1940–1945'', London: Harper Collins Publisher, pp. 51, 316</ref> After 1945 allegations of collaboration were investigated.{{clarify|by whom|date=July 2023}} In November 1946, the UK Home Secretary informed the UK House of Commons<ref name="hansard" /> that most allegations lacked substance. Only twelve cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, and the ] ruled them out for insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed the occupying authorities against their fellow citizens.<ref name="cruickshank" />{{page needed|date=July 2023}} | |||
The ], created in February 1943, and the ], created in January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as well as local Germans. | |||
On the islands of ] and ], laws<ref name="profits" /><ref name="guernsey" /> were passed to retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by war profiteers and black marketeers. | |||
===Denmark=== | |||
{{main|Occupation of Denmark}} | |||
After liberation, British soldiers had to intervene to prevent revenge attacks on women thought to have fraternized with German soldiers.<ref name="occupation9" /> | |||
At 4:15 in the morning of ] ] (Danish standard time), German forces crossed the border into ] Denmark, in direct violation of a German-Danish treaty of non-aggression signed the previous year. After two hours the Danish government ], believing that resistance was useless and hoping to work out an advantageous agreement with Germany. | |||
As a result of the cooperative attitude of the Danish authorities, German officials claimed that they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as neutrality."<ref>Jørgen Hæstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940–45. Odense, 1976. p. 9.</ref> The German authorities were inclined towards lenient terms with Denmark for several reasons: | |||
These factors allowed Denmark a very favourable relationship with Nazi Germany. The government remained intact and the ] continued to function more or less as it had before. They were able to maintain much of their former control over domestic policy.<ref>Phil Giltner, “The Success of Collaboration: Denmark’s Self-Assessment of its Economic Position after Five Years of Nazi Occupation,” ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 36:3 (2001) p. 486.</ref> Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the fall of France in June 1940. <ref>Henning Poulsen, “Hvad mente Danskerne?” ''Historie'' 2 (2000) p. 320.</ref> There was a general feeling that the unpleasant reality of German occupation must be confronted in the most realistic way possible, given the international situation. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed. <ref>Jerry Voorhis, “Germany and Denmark: 1940–45,” Scandinavian Studies 44:2 (1972) p. 174.</ref> After the assault on the Soviet Union, ], Denmark joined the ], together with the fellow ] state of ]; the ] was banned in Denmark. ] and trade was, partly due to geo-political reality and economic necessity, redirected toward Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark.<ref>Voorhis, 175.</ref> Increased ] and poverty was feared to lead to more of open revolt within the country, since Danes tended to blame all negative developments on the Germans. It was feared that any revolt would result in a crackdown by the German authorities.<ref>Poulsen, Historie, 320.</ref> | |||
=== Denmark === | |||
In return for these concessions, the Danish cabinet rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands to introduce the death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were German demands to allow German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens. Denmark also rejected demands for the transfer of Danish army units to German military use. Throughout the years of its hold on power, the government consistently refused to accept German demands regarding the Jews.<ref>Andrew Buckser, “Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of Danish Jews”, ''Shofar'' 19:2 (2001) p. 10.</ref> The authorities would not enact special laws concerning Jews, and their civil rights remained equal with those of the rest of the population. German authorities became increasingly exasperated with this position but concluded that any attempt to remove or mistreat Jews would be "politically unacceptable."<ref>Harold Flender, Rescue in Denmark, (New York: 1963) p. 30.</ref> Even the ] officer Dr. ], plenipotentiary in Denmark from November 1942, believed that any attempt to remove the Jews would be enormously disruptive to the relationship between the two governments and recommended against any action concerning the Jews of Denmark. | |||
{{Main|German occupation of Denmark}} | |||
] leaving for the Eastern Front from ]'s ]]] | |||
When on 9 April 1940, German forces invaded ] Denmark, they violated a treaty of non-aggression signed the year before, but claimed they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, and neutrality."<ref name="resistance" /> The Danish government quickly ] and remained intact. The ] maintained control over domestic policy.<ref name="collaboration" /> Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the ] in June 1940.<ref name="danskerne" /> | |||
On the 29th of June, 1941, days after the ], '']'' (Free Corps Denmark) was founded as a corps of Danish volunteers to fight against the Soviet Union. ''Frikorps Danmark'' was set up at the initiative of the ] and ] who approached Lieutenant-Colonel ] of the Danish army shortly after the invasion of the USSR had begun. The Nazi paper ''Fædrelandet'' proclaimed the creation of the corps on 29 June 1941.<ref>Bo Lidegaard (ed.) (2003): ''Dansk Udenrigspolitiks historie'', vol. 4, p. 461</ref> According to Danish law, it was not illegal to join a foreign army, but active recruiting on Danish soil was illegal. The SS disregarded this law and began recruiting efforts — predominantly recruiting Danish Nazis and members of the German-speaking minority.<ref>Lidegaard, p. 461.</ref> | |||
Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943,<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Why Norden? Why now? A geopolitical foregrounding |title=Geopolitics, Northern Europe, and Nordic Noir: What Television Series Tell Us About World Politics |author= Robert A. Saunders |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0429769603}}</ref> and helped organize sales of industrial and agricultural products to Germany.<ref name=ref /> The Danish government enacted a number of policies to satisfy Germany and retain the social order. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} and on 25 November 1941, Denmark joined the ].{{sfn|Voorhis|1972|p=174}} The Danish government and King ] repeatedly discouraged sabotage and encouraged informing on the resistance movement. Resistance fighters were imprisoned or executed; after the war informants were sentenced to death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/statsminister-vilhelm-buhls-s-antisabotagetale-2-september-1942/ |title=Statsminister Vilhelm Buhls Antisabotagetale 2 September 1942 |publisher=] |language=da |access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/samarbejdspolitikken-under-besaettelsen-1940-45/|title=Samarbejdspolitikken under besættelsen 1940–45|publisher=] |language=da |access-date=5 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Danmark besat og befriet – Bind II |last=Frisch |first=Hartvig |url=https://www.bogtorvet.net/danmark-besat-og-befriet-bd-1-2-3_frisch-hartvig-v-buhl-hedtoft-hansen-ejler-jensen-red_1867684|page=390 |year=1945 |publisher=Forlaget Fremad}}</ref><!-- only a publisher's link but best I could find. At least validates that book exists and looks academic --> | |||
===Estonia=== | |||
In 1941, ''Eesti ]'' (Estonian Self-Defence) took part in the round-up and killing of 7,000 people charged for collaboration with Soviet organs, or having committed crimes against humanity. Only a relatively small proportion of ''Eesti Omakaitse'' (approximately between 1000 and 1200 men) were directly involved in criminal acts, taking part in the round-up (and possibly killing) of hundreds of Roma people and Jews.<ref name="historycommission"> — ''''</ref> 15,000 Soviet POW died in Estonia, and it is impossible to say, how many of them died because of hard living conditions and how many were executed.<ref name="historycommission"/> | |||
Prior to, during and after the war, Denmark enforced a restrictive refugee policy; it handed over to German authorities at least 21 Jewish refugees who managed to cross the border;<ref name=ref>, Vilhjálmur Örn Vilhjálmsson and Bent Blüdnikow, Jewish Political Studies Review Vol. 18, No. 3/4 (Fall 2006), pp. 3–29 (27 pages) Published By: Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, retrieved February 14, 2023</ref> 18 of them died in concentration camps, including a woman and her three children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://folkedrab.dk/sw64290.asp |title=Danmark og de jødiske flygtninge 1938–1945: Flygtningestop |publisher=Dansk Institut for Internationale Studier |language=da |access-date=12 September 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122057/http://folkedrab.dk/sw64290.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2005 prime minister ] officially apologized for these policies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weiss |first=Jakob |date=5 May 2005 |language=da |title=Anders Fogh siger undskyld |trans-title=Anders Fogh apologizes |work=] |url=https://www.berlingske.dk/samfund/anders-fogh-siger-undskyld |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802142625/https://www.berlingske.dk/samfund/anders-fogh-siger-undskyld |archive-date=2 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The all-volunteer ''Estnische SS-Legion'', Battaillon Narwa was formed from the 800 men to have finished their training at ] (Heidelager in 1943). In April 1943 the Battaillon was sent to join the ] in Ukraine. After the general conscription call the unit was sent back to Estonia in March 1944, was reformed as the 20th Waffen Fusilier Battalion der SS. In June 1944 the Battalion joined the ],<ref name="EW">ESTONIAN VIKINGS: Estnisches SS-Freiwilligen Bataillon Narwa and Subsequent Units, Eastern Front, 1943–1944</ref> a division formed in 1944 by illegal ], finished its way in May 1945 in ]. The ] ruled that conscripts to the Waffen SS were exempted from the judgement that applied to the Waffen SS.<ref>], </ref> The division's soldiers carried stripes with the ]n national colors and images of three lions from the coat of arms of the ]<ref name=Williamson/>. | |||
Following the German ] on 22 June 1941, German authorities demanded the arrest of Danish communists. The Danish government complied, directing the police to arrest 339 communists listed on secret registers. Of these, 246, including the three communist members of the Danish parliament, were imprisoned in the ], in violation of the Danish constitution. On 22 August 1941, the Danish parliament passed the ], outlawing the ] and also communist activities, in another violation of the Danish constitution. In 1943, about half of the imprisoned communists were transferred to ], where 22 of them died. | |||
Units of Estonian ] participated in the extermination of the Jews in Estonia and ] region of Russia and provided guards for concentration camps for Jews and Soviet POWs (], ], ], ]), in all of which prisoners were killed. Despite the criminal activities in which numbers of policemen were engaged, it is not reasonable to assign responsibility solely by virtue of their positions to every individual who worked in the various police structures.<ref name="historycommission"/> However, it is reasonable to assign responsibility for these crimes to everyone who served in Police Department B-IV, by virtue of their office. | |||
] in Copenhagen in 1943]] | |||
The 36th Estonian Police Battalion were accused in took part in mass shooting of Jews in a Byelorussian town of ] on 7 August, 1942, but no documents exist, that clarify the role of Estonian units in the massacre.<ref> Eesti Ekspress</ref> The 37th, 38th, 40th, 286th, 288th Estonian battalions operated against the partisans in the Pskov, ], ] regions of Russia and ]. According to Russian sources, the 658th battalion participated in punitive operations against civilians near the town of ] and the village of Kerstovo, ], and burnt down the settlements of Babino, Habalovo, and Cigirinka.<ref></ref><ref name="ru">, published by the ]</ref> | |||
Industrial production and trade were, partly due to geopolitical reality and economic necessity, redirected towards Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark{{sfn|Voorhis|1972|p=175}} and feared that higher ] and poverty could lead to civil unrest, resulting in a crackdown by the Germans.<ref name="historie" /> Unemployment benefits could be denied if jobs were available in Germany, so an average of 20,000 Danes worked in German factories through the five years of the war.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mennesker for kul |last=Jørgensen |first=Hans |page=23 |year=1998 |publisher=Forlaget Fremad |isbn=978-87-557-2201-9}}</ref> | |||
{{seealso|Estonian war crimes trials}} | |||
The Danish cabinet, however, rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands for a death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were demands to give German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens and for the transfer of Danish army units to the German military.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} | |||
===France=== | |||
{{main|Vichy France}} | |||
] | |||
The Vichy government, headed by Marshall ] and ], actively collaborated in the extermination of the European Jews. It also participated in ], the extermination of Rom people, and in the extermination of other "undesirables." Vichy opened up a series of ] where it interned Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, political opponents, etc. Directed by ], the ] helped in the deportation of 76,000 Jews to the extermination camps. In 1995 President ] officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular during the July 1942 ], during which Laval decided, by his own, to deport children along with their parents. Only 2,500 of the deported Jews survived the war. The 1943 ] was another event during which the French police assisted the Gestapo in a massive raid, which included an urban reshaping plan involving the destruction of a whole neighborhood in the popular Old Port. Some few collaborators were judged in the 1980s for crimes against humanity (], etc.), while ], who had become after the war prefect of police of Paris (a function in which he illustrated himself during the ]) was convicted in 1998 for crimes against humanity. He had been Budget Minister under President ]. Other collaborators, such as ], managed to have important functions after the war (Dewoitine was eventually named head of ], the firm which created the Concorde plane). Debates concerning state collaboration remain, in 2008, very strong in France. | |||
=== France === | |||
The French volunteers to the SS formed the ], which in 1945 was among the final defenders of ]. | |||
==== |
====Vichy France==== | ||
{{main|Vichy France}}] Marshal ] meeting ] at ], 24 October 1940]] ] hero Marshal ] became the head of the post-democratic ] ''(État Français)'', governed not from Paris but from ], when the ] collapsed after the ].<ref>, | |||
{{main|Breton nationalism and World War II}} | |||
Stéphanie Trouillard, France24, May 16, 2020</ref> Prime minister ] resigned rather than sign the resulting armistice agreement. The ] then gave Pétain absolute power to call a ] (constitutional convention) to write a new constitution. Instead Pétain used his ]s to establish the authoritarian French State.<ref>Mark Mazower: Dark Continent (p. 73), Penguin books, {{ISBN|0-14-024159-0}}</ref> | |||
Breton nationists such as ] and ] had longstanding links with Nazi Germany because of the their fascist and ] ideologies, linked to the belief that the Bretons were a "pure" Celtic branch of the Aryan-Nordic race. At the outbreak of the war they left France and declared support for Germany. After 1940 they returned and their supporters such as ] and ] organized militias that worked in collaboration with the Germans. Lainé and Goulet later took refuge in Ireland. | |||
] and other Vichy ministers initially prioritized saving French lives and repatriating French prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite book|url= | |||
===Greece=== | |||
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/defeat-and-division/wisdom-of-a-great-leader/AE20F82CAED259834E4FFE0C7D05BBD6 |author=Douglas Porch|title= | |||
Defeat and Division: France at War, 1939–1942 |chapter="The Wisdom of a Great Leader" |series=Armies of the Second World War | pages=279–337 | |||
|publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2022|doi=10.1017/9781107239098.007 |isbn=978-1-107-04746-4 }}</ref> The illusion of autonomy was important to Vichy, which wanted to avoid direct rule by the ]. | |||
German authorities implicitly threatened to replace the Vichy administration with unreservedly pro-Nazi leaders such as ], ] and ], who were permitted to operate, to publish and to criticise Vichy for insufficiently cooperating with Nazi Germany. | |||
After the ] invasion of Greece, a Nazi-held puppet government was established in Athens. The three ] prime ministers (], ] and ]) cooperated with the Axis authorities. Besides, Greek National-Socialist parties (such as the ]) or anti-semitic organisations (such as the ]) helped German authorities fight the ] and identify and deport Greek Jews. Moreover, special armed collaborationist forces (such as the ]) were created to aid the collaborationist regime. | |||
==== Collaborationist movements ==== | |||
About 1,000 Greeks from Greece and thousands of Greeks from the Soviet Union, avenging their prosecution from Soviet authorities, joined the Waffen-SS, especially in Ukrainian divisions. A special case is that of the infamous ], a Greek who was an official of the Wehrmacht as well as an effective spy at the ]. | |||
] (]), ] (]), ] (]) and ] (]), extract from the front page of '']'', October 10, 1941.]] | |||
The four main political factions which emerged as leading proponents of radical collaborationism in France were Marcel Déat's ] ({{Lang|fr|Rassemblement National Populaire}}, RNP), Jacques Doriot's ] ({{Lang|fr|Parti Populaire Français}}, PPF), ]'s ] ({{Lang|fr|Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire}}, MSR), and ]'s ] ({{Lang|fr|Ligue Française}}).{{sfn|Davey|1971|p=29}} These groups were small in size, between 1940 and 1944 fewer than 220,000 French people (including in ]) joined collaborationist movements.<ref name="Jackson 2003 p. 194">{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtLSly2RN2wC&pg=PA194 |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-162288-5 |series=Modern World Series |page=194}}</ref><ref name="Millington 2020 p. 123">{{cite book |last=Millington |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LpwyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |title=A History of Fascism in France: From the First World War to the National Front |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-350-00654-6 |page=123}}</ref> In the last six months of the occupation, Déat, Darnand and Doriot became members of the government.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24" /> | |||
==== Uniformed collaboration ==== | |||
===Hungary=== | |||
{{see also|Milice|2=Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism|3=Charlemagne Division of the Waffen-SS}} | |||
The collaboration of the ] was decisive for the implementation of the ] in occupied France. Germany used French police to maintain order and repress the resistance. The French police were responsible for the census of Jews, their arrest and their assembly in camps from where they were sent abroad to extermination camps. To do this the police requisitioned buses and used the rail network of ] trains.<ref name=" |date=2007-04-27 |title=L'impossible pérennité de la police républicaine sous l'Occupation |url=https://documentation.insp.gouv.fr/insp/doc/CAIRN/_b64_b2FpLWNhaXJuLmluZm8tVklOR18wOTRfMDE4Mw%3D%3D/l-impossible-perennite-de-la-police-republicaine-sous-l-occupation?_lg=fr-FR |website=Centre de ressources et d'ingénierie documentaires de l'INSP |language=fr}}</ref> In January 1943, Laval established the ], a ] police force led by Joseph Darnand that assisted the ] in fighting ] and persecuting Jews, it counted 30,000 members both male and female.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24" /> | |||
In July 1941, the collaborationist parties cooperated in organising and recruiting the ] (LVF), to fight alongside German forces on the ]. From July 1941, a total of 5,800 French volunteers served with the LVF until its disbanding in November 1944. In February 1945, French volunteers, either from the LVF or the Milice, were incorporated into the ], which had a strength of 7,340 men at the time of its deployment in eastern Europe and Berlin.<ref name="Littlejohn 1981 pp. 170-172">{{cite book |last=Littlejohn |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=atnWlgEACAAJ |title=Foreign Legions of the Third Reich: Norway, Denmark, France |publisher=R.J. Bender |year=1981 |pages=170–172}}</ref> According to French historian Pierre Giolitto about 30,000 Frenchmen served in German military units (including non-combatants), during the course of the war.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24" /> | |||
] was a war ally and then puppet state of Nazi Germany. The Hungarians played an active role in the murder of about 23,600 Jews (14,000–18,000 of whom were from Hungary) in ] in the late August 1941.<ref></ref> Radical Hungarian governments — mainly the puppet government of ], appointed after the German occupation — actively participated in the Holocaust. | |||
==== Communist party ==== | |||
The ] was a Hungarian Nazi party led by ] which ruled Hungary from ], ] to January 1945 following ] in ]. During its short rule, 80,000 Jews were deported from Hungary to their deaths. Out of 825,000 Hungarian Jews before the war, only 260,000 survived. | |||
Until the ] on 21 June 1941, the national leadership of the ] (PCF) remained close to the line defined by the ] and the ], claiming that "the only legitimate struggle is the revolutionary struggle and not the pseudo-resistance of the Gaullists, pawns of British capitalism".<ref name="Lormier 2013 p. 1-PT138">{{cite book |last=Lormier |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZFut87E3OcC&pg=RA1-PT138 |title=La Résistance Pour les Nuls |publisher=edi8 |year=2013 |isbn=978-2-7540-5365-5 |page=1-PT138 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="Muracciole 2020 p. 19">{{cite book |last=Muracciole |first=J.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slsEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 |title=Histoire de la Résistance en France |publisher=Humensis |year=2020 |isbn=978-2-7154-0508-0 |page=19 |language=fr}}</ref> Following this logic, relations with the occupier were ambiguous. ] has described the actions of the French communists during that period as "actively collaborating in certain respects".<ref name="Tiersky 1974 p. 107">{{cite book |last=Tiersky |first=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3SI6YJA_8wC&pg=PA107 |title=French Communism, 1920–1972 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-231-51609-9 |page=107}}</ref> | |||
During the early days of the ], the clandestine edition of newspaper ] called on French workers to fraternise with German soldiers, presenting them not as enemies of the nation but as "class brothers".<ref name="Winock 2021 p. 83">{{cite book |last=Winock |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV4kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 |title=La France libérée (1944–1947) |publisher=Place des éditeurs |year=2021 |isbn=978-2-262-07989-5 |page=83 |language=fr}}</ref> In June 1940, under instructions from the party leadership, French communist leaders contacted the ]<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160">{{cite book |last1=Broche |first1=François |url=https://www.cairn.info/histoire-de-la-collaboration--9791021022645-page-117.htm |title=Histoire de la Collaboration |last2=Muracciole |first2=Jean-François |date=2017 |publisher=Tallandier |isbn=979-10-210-2264-5 |publication-place=Paris |pages=117–160 |language=fr |chapter=Chapitre III. L'engagement dans la Collaboration}}</ref> and were received by ], the German ambassador in Paris.<ref name="Pike 1993 pp. 465–485">{{cite journal |last=Pike |first=David Wingeate |year=1993 |title=Between the Junes: The French Communists from the Collapse of France to the Invasion of Russia |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/260642 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |publisher=Sage Publications, Ltd. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=465–485 |doi=10.1177/002200949302800304 |issn=0022-0094 |jstor=260642|s2cid=161622751 }}</ref> They requested the permission to republish L'Humanité, which had been suspended in August 1939 by the ] government because of its support for the ];<ref name="Ross 2022 p. 13">{{cite book |last=Ross |first=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqxhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |title=Workers and Communists in France: From Popular Front to Eurocommunism |publisher=University of California Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-520-30489-5 |page=13}}</ref> They also demanded the legalisation of the French Communist Party, dissolved in September 1939.<ref name="Pesnot Denantes Kern Billoud 2021 d786">{{cite web |last1=Pesnot |first1=Patrick |last2=Denantes |first2=Rebecca |last3=Kern |first3=Christine |last4=Billoud |first4=Michèle |last5=Fauquet |first5=Marie-Hélène |date=2021-04-04 |title=Juin 1940 : les négociations entre le PCF et les Allemands |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/rendez-vous-avec-x/juin-1940-les-negociations-entre-le-pcf-et-les-allemands-5756070 |website=France Inter |language=fr}}</ref> The negotiations were not successful due to the hostility of the German military command and the visceral anti-communism of the Pétain government.<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160" /> Throughout that summer, L'Humanité and the entire communist underground press continued to publish articles preaching "Franco-German brotherhood," denouncing "British imperialism," and depicting ] as a reactionary and war-mongering soldier.<ref name="Broche Muracciole 2017 pp. 117–160" /> | |||
===India=== | |||
The '']'', or ''Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950'' (also known as the ''Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS'') was created in August 1942, chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the ], captured by the ] in ]. Many, if not most, of the Indian volunteers who switched sides to fight with the German Army and against the British were strongly nationalistic supporters of the exiled, anti-British, former president of the ], ''Netaji'' (the Leader) ]. ''(See also the ] and ])'' | |||
Following the Wehrmacht invasion of Russia a year later, the PCF completely changed its stance and became one of the key players of the French Resistance.<ref name="Hanley Kerr Kerr Waites 2005 p. 151">{{cite book |last1=Hanley |first1=D.L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmuIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |title=Contemporary France: Politics and Society Since 1945 |last2=Kerr |first2=A.P. |last3=Kerr |first3=A.P. |last4=Waites |first4=N.H. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-134-97423-8 |page=151}}</ref><ref name="Cobb 2009 p.2">{{cite book |last=Cobb |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UImAAAAQBAJ |title=The Resistance: The French Fight Against the Nazis |publisher=Simon & Schuster UK |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84737-759-3 |page=2}}</ref> | |||
===Indonesia=== | |||
{{main|Japanese occupation of Indonesia}} | |||
{{unreferenced-section|date=January 2008}} | |||
Among Indonesians to receive Japanese imperial honours from ] in November 1943 were the ] and ]. ] actively recruited and organised Indonesian ] forced labour.<ref>, ]</ref> They succeeded respectively to become the founding ] and ] in August 1945. | |||
====French workers for Germany==== | |||
===Italy=== | |||
{{main| |
{{main|Service du travail obligatoire}} | ||
] | |||
Vichy initially agreed, for every repatriated French prisoner-of-war, to send three French volunteers to work in German factories. When this program (known as ]) didn't draw enough workers to please the Reich, Vichy began in February 1943 to conscript young Frenchmen, ages 18—20 into the '']'' (STO; English: compulsory labour service), a compulsory two-year labour draft that resulted in the deportation to German labor camps of 800,000 Frenchmen.<ref name="Murphy 1998 p. 83">{{cite book |last=Murphy |first=F.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqBkXz9WH3QC&pg=PA83 |title=Père Jacques: Resplendent in Victory |publisher=ICS Publications |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-935216-64-6 |page=83 |language=fr}}</ref> | |||
The Italian Social Republic (''Repubblica Sociale Italiana'' or RSI) was a ] of ] led by the "Leader of the Nation" (''Duce'') and "Minister of Foreign Affairs" ]. The RSI exercised official ] in ] but was largely dependent on the ] ('']'') to maintain control. The state was informally known as the "Salò Republic" (''Repubblica di Salò'') because the RSI's Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Mussolini) was headquartered in ], a small town on ]. The Italian Social Republic was the second and last incarnation of a ] Italian state. | |||
Very unpopular, the STO provoked growing hostility towards the policy of collaboration and led to a great number of young men joining the ] rather than report for it. People began to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the '']'' (rural Resistance).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ashdown |first1=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |title=The Cruel Victory |date=2014 |publisher=William Collins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-752081-7 |pages=18–19}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web |url= https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/STO/145262 |title=STO | publisher=Larousse |language=fr}}</ref> | |||
{{Expand|date=January 2007}} | |||
====Vichy collaboration in the Holocaust==== | |||
===Latvia=== | |||
{{See also |Vichy anti-Jewish legislation|Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs|Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline|Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps|Union générale des israélites de France}} | |||
Having occupied ] in summer 1941, German command has created the local voluntary troops (''Schutzmannschaft'' or ''Schuma''), to struggle against the ]s and serve as guards in ]s for Jews and ] ]. The group of the Latvian ] known as ] murdered about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.<ref>Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka — The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987</ref> | |||
] badge ]] | |||
Long before the Occupation, France had had a history of native anti-Semitism and ], as seen in the ] (from 1894 to 1906). Historians differ how much of Vichy's anti-Semitic campaigns came from native French roots, how much from willing collaboration with the German occupiers and how much from simple (and sometimes reluctant) cooperation with Nazi instructions. | |||
On ], ], 16th Latvian battalion under the command of ] was sent to the ]. At the end of December 1941, 17th Latvian ''Vidzeme'' battalion was sent to ]. On ], ], 18th ''Kurzeme'' battalion started service in Ukraine. On ], ''Liepāja'' battalion was attached to 21st to the German ], besieging ]. In May 1942, two more Latvian battalions were sent to Ukraine, one to Belarus and one to the Leningrad sector.<!----> | |||
Pierre Laval was an important decision-maker in the extermination of Jews, the ], and of other "undesirables." Following an increasingly restrictive series of anti-Semitic and ] measures, such as the ], Vichy opened a series of ] — such as one at ] — where Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and political opponents were interned.<ref>, Fontaine Thomas ''Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network'', Sciences Po, 19 November 2007. ("Laval was running the risk of having the French State sanction and participate in the success of an exclusively Nazi program, simply in order to maintain the illusion of French sovereignty")</ref> The ] directed by ], under increasing German pressure, helped to deport 76,000 Jews (both directly and via the French camps) to Nazi concentration and extermination camps.<ref>, Jean-Marc Dreyfus, Brookings Institution, December 1, 2001.</ref> | |||
Between 1942 and 1944, Latvian auxiliary police together with Lithuanian and Ukrainian Schuma-battalions participated in large punitive operations in ], ], ] and ] regions. In February and March 1943, eight Latvian Schuma-battalions took part in the anti-partisan Operation ''Winterzauber'' in the Sebezh–Osveya–Polotsk triangle in Belarus and in the Pskov region (Russia). During this operation, 158 settlements were plundered and burnt down. The inhabitants of eight villages were massacred (''Gerlach, C. "Kalkulierte Morde", Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, 1999''). | |||
In 1995, President ] officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular, the more than 13,000 victims, of whom only 2,500 survived, of the ] of July 1942, in which Laval decided, of his own volition, to deport children along with their parents.<ref> Lorraine Boissoneault, ''Smithsonian Magazine'', November 9, 2017, accessed February 18, 2023.</ref> Bousquet also organized the French police to work with the ] in the massive ] (''rafle'') that decimated a whole neighbourhood in the ]. | |||
The Latvian Volunteer SS Division (Lettische SS-Freiwilligen-Division), manned by 32,000 volunteers, was created in February 1943. The division was headed by Latvian ] Rūdolfs Bangerskis. In October 1943, the division was split up into two parts, which would ultimately come to be called the ] and the ]. | |||
Estimates of how many of France's Jews (about 300,000 at the start of the Occupation) died in the Holocaust range from about 60,000 (≅ 20%) to about 130,000 (≅ 43%).<ref>J. Noakes and G. Pridham, ''Nazism: a history in documents and eyewitness accounts'', Vol 2, ''Foreign Policy, War and Extermination'', 1st U.S. edition, ], New York, 1989, {{ISBN|0-8052-0972-7}}, Table 918, p. 1208.</ref> According to ]'s study of the records kept at the ], out of the 75,721 Jews deported from France to ], only 2,567 survived.<ref name="Lloyd 2003 p.24">{{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ |title=Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-230-50392-2 |page=29}}</ref> | |||
In November 1943, the 1st Latvian Division fought Soviet troops near ] (]). This division finished its path in April 1945, in Germany, having surrendered to ] (''Williamson, G. "The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror", Brown Packaging Limited, 1994''). The 2nd Latvian Division fought on the ] front. | |||
=== |
====Aftermath==== | ||
Prior to the Nazi invasion, some leaders in ] and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy along the lines of the status of the Slovakia protectorate. Nazi intelligence believed it had control of the Lithuanian Activist Front, a pro-Nazi organization based in the Lithuanian embassy in Berlin, and initially allowed a Lithuanian government to form without recognizing it diplomatically, although the Third Reich vetoed Lithuanian ambassador Skirpa's role as prime minister. Once German military rule in Lithuania was replaced by a German civil authority, the Lithuanian provisional government was disbanded. Rougue partisans organised by ] and led by ] ] ] started ] in ] on ], ]. <ref name="Bubnys-Hol"></ref> <ref name="Oshry"> Oshry, Ephraim, ''Annihilation of Lithuanian Jewry'', Judaica Press, Inc., New York, 1995</ref> | |||
{{Main|Épuration sauvage|Épuration légale}} | |||
In 1941 ] (''Lietuvos saugumo policija''), subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Nazi Germany's Criminal Police, was created. <ref name="Bubnys">{{lt icon}} {{cite book | author =Arūnas Bubnys | coauthors = | title =Vokiečių ir lietuvių saugumo policija (1941–1944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 1941–1944)| year =2004 | publisher =Lietuvos gyventojų genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras | location =Vilnius | url =http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/1/arunas1.htm | accessdate =2006-06-09 }}</ref> Of the 26 local police battalions formed, 10 were involved in the Holocaust (2 of them systematically). The ] in ] killed tens of thousands of Jews and Poles in ] and other places. <ref name="Bubnys"/> Lithuanian collaborators were involved in the murders of thousands of Poles. <ref name="IPN-Ponary"> {{pl icon}} (Investigation of mass murders of Poles in the years 1941–1944 in Ponary near Wilno by functionaries of German police and Lithuanian collaborating police). ] documents from 2003 on the ongoing investigation]. Last accessed on 10 February 2007.</ref><ref name="WSP-Ponary">{{pl icon}} Czesław Michalski, (Ponary — the Golgoth of Wilno Region). ''Konspekt'' nº 5, Winter 2000–2001, a publication of the ]. Last accessed on 10 February 2007.</ref> 2nd Police battalion has been organized in 1941 in ]. On ], ], the battalion started service in Belarus (], ] and ] regions) to fight against "]s". In Minsk, the battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, in Slutsk it massacred 5,000 Jews. In March of 1942 in Poland, the 2nd Lithuanian battalion carried out guard duty in the ] extermination camp. In July of 1942, the 2nd battalion participated inthe deportation of Jews from the ] to a death camp. In August–October 1942, the police battalions formed from Lithuanians were in Ukraine: the 3rd in ], the 4th in ], the 7th-в in Vinnitsa, the 11th in ], the 16th in ], the 254th in ] and the 255th in ] (Belarus). In February–March 1943, the 2nd Lithuanian battalion participated in the large anti-guerrilla action "Winterzauber" (''Winter magic'') in Belarus, cooperating with several Latvian and the 50th Ukrainian Schuma-battalions. The 3rd Lithuanian battalion took part in the "Marsh fever Southwest" anti-guerrilla operation carried out in the ], ], ], ] and ] regions of Belarus in cooperation with the 24th Latvian battalion (''Chuev S. "Damned soldiers"''). In 1942–1944, the 13th and 256th Lithuanian battalions operated against partisans in the ] and ] regions of Russia. . | |||
] (in uniform with guns) escort Resistance prisoners in July 1944]] | |||
] with Germans. ] area, August 1944.]] | |||
The ] was formed of volunteers in 1944. Its leadership was Lithuanian, whereas arms were provided by Germans. The purpose of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force was to defend Lithuania against approaching Soviet Army defend civil population in the territory of Lithuania form actions of partisans. In practice, the LTDF was primarily engaged in suppressing the Polish population and the anti-Nazi Polish resistance of ]; LTDF was disbanded after it sustained a major defeat from Polish partisans in the ]. | |||
<ref name="Piotrowski2">{{en icon}} {{cite book | author =] | coauthors = | title =Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... | year =1997 | editor = | pages =p. 165-166 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =McFarland & Company | location = | id =ISBN 0-7864-0371-3| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA166&vq=Murowana&dq=1939+Soviet+citizenship+Poland&source=gbs_search_s&sig=EJD5X62pH3DXOMvJrfvqj7lIeys | format = | accessdate =2008-03-15 }}</ref> | |||
As the ] spread across France in 1944–45, so did the so-called Wild Purges ('']''). Resistance groups took summary reprisals, especially against suspected informers and members of Vichy's ] paramilitary, the ]. ] tried and punished thousands of people accused (sometimes unjustly) of collaborating and consorting with the enemy. Estimates of the numbers of victims differ, but historians agree that the number will never be fully known.<ref>For example, Alfred Cobban, ''A History of Modern France: Volume 3: 1871–1962'', ], 1965, p. 200: "The official figure of some three or four thousand is a gross understatement which must be multiplied by at least ten."</ref> | |||
The ] resulted in the near total destruction of ]{{Ref_label|a|a|none}} living in the ] Lithuanian territories that would, from July 17, 1941, become the ''Generalbezirk Litauen'' of ]. Out of approximately 210,000<ref name="MacQueen_context"/> Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data)<ref name="Bubnys_vanished218"/> an estimated 195,000 - 196,000 perished before the end of ] (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December of 1941.<ref name="Porat161"/><ref name="MacQueen_context">Michael MacQueen, ''The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998, </ref> The events that took place in the western regions of the USSR occupied by ] in the first weeks after the ] (including Lithuania - ]) marked the sharp intensification of ].<ref name=Browning>Christopher R. Browning, with contributions by Jürgen Matthäus, "The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942", ], 2007, ISBN 0803259794, section 7 by Jürgen Matthäus, "Operation Barbarossa and the onset of the Holocaust", pp. 244-294</ref> <ref name="Porat159">Dina Porat, ''“The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects”'', in David Cesarani, ''The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation'', Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415152321, </ref><ref name="Kwiet">Konrad Kwiet, ''Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 3-26, 1998, </ref> | |||
As a formal legal order returned to France, the informal purges were replaced by ''l']'' (legal purge). The most notable, and most demanded, convictions were those of Pierre Laval, tried and executed in October 1945, and Marshal Philippe Pétain, whose 1945 death sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment in the island fortress of ] in Brittany, where he died in 1951. | |||
===Netherlands=== | |||
].]] | |||
Thousands of Dutch volunteers joined the ] (created in February 1943). The division participated in fighting against the Soviet army and was crushed in the ] in April–May 1945. | |||
Several decades later, a few surviving ex-collaborators such as ] were tried for crimes against humanity. ] was rehabilitated and regained some influence in French politics, finance and journalism, but was nonetheless investigated in 1991 for deporting Jews. He was assassinated in 1993 just before his trial would have begun. ] served as prefect of the Paris police under President de Gaulle (thus bearing ultimate responsibility for the ]) and, 20 years later, as Budget Minister under President ], before Papon's 1998 conviction and imprisonment for crimes against humanity in organizing the deportation of 1,560 Jews from the ] region to ]. | |||
This was also the case for the ]. It was involved in several major battles on the ]. | |||
Other collaborators such as ] also managed to have important roles after the war. Dewoitine was eventually named head of ], which created the ] airplane. | |||
SS-Freiwilligen Legion Niederlande, manned by Dutch volunteers and German officers, battled the Soviet army from 1941. In December 1943 it gained brigade status after fighting on the front around Leningrad. It was at Leningrad that the first European volunteer, a Dutchman, earned the ]: ]. In December 1944, it was transformed into the ] and fought in ] and ].<ref name=Williamson/> It found its end scattered across Germany. 49. SS-Freiwilligen-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 'de Ruyter' fought at the Oder and surrendered on ] ] to the Americans. 48. SS-Freiwilligen-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 'General Seyffardt' however was split up into two groups. The first of these fought with Kampfgruppe Vieweger and went under in the fighting near ]. The few remaining survivors were captured by the Soviets. The other half of 'General Seyffart' fought with Korpsgruppe Tettau and surrendered to the western Allies. | |||
=== |
=== Luxembourg === | ||
{{Main|Luxembourgish collaboration with Nazi Germany|German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II}} | |||
In ], the ] government was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime, while the true Norwegian government was in exile. Quisling encouraged ] to serve as volunteers in the Waffen SS, collaborating in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of ]. | |||
] was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and ] until early 1945. Initially, the country was governed as a distinct region as the Germans prepared to assimilate its ] into Germany itself. The '']'' (VdB) was founded in Luxembourg in 1941 under the leadership of ], a German teacher at the ].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cna.public.lu/1_FILM/EnSavoirPlus/dossier_heim_ins_reich/historique/index.html#greve |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610114800/http://www.cna.public.lu/1_FILM/EnSavoirPlus/dossier_heim_ins_reich/historique/index.html#greve |archive-date=10 June 2007 |title=Heim ins Reich: La 2e guerre mondiale au Luxembourg – quelques points de repère |website=Centre national de l'audiovisuel}}</ref> It aimed to encourage the population towards a pro-German position, prior to outright annexation, using the slogan '']''. In August 1942, Luxembourg was annexed into Nazi Germany, and Luxembourgish men were drafted into the German military. | |||
=== Monaco === | |||
In spite of this, the vast majority of Norwegians hated the Nazis, and many contributed to the resistance, including the rescue of Jews and others. However, about 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the pro-Nazi party ''Nasjonal Samling'' (National Union), and some police units helped arrest many of Norway's Jews. After the war, ]. Quisling's name has become an international ] for ]. | |||
During the Nazi occupation of ], the police arrested and turned over 42 Central European Jewish refugees to the Nazis while also protecting Monaco's own Jews.<ref name="Curtis2002">{{cite book |author=Michael Curtis |title=Verdict on Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime |url=https://boos.google.com/books?id=LPV14lGhF8gC&pg=PA231 |access-date=16 January 2016 |year=2002 |publisher=Arcade Publishing |isbn=978-1-55970-689-6 |page=231 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><!-- ref verified, El --> | |||
=== |
=== Netherlands === | ||
{{Main|Nederlandsche SS|Reichskommissariat Niederlande}} | |||
====Arabs==== | |||
{{Further|Category:Dutch collaborators with Nazi Germany}} | |||
A ] ] and a ] religious leader, the ] of ] ] worked for the Nazi Germany as a propagandist and a recruiter of Muslim volunteers for the ] and other units. | |||
] Recruiting poster urging Dutch people to join the fight against ]]] | |||
The Germans re-organized the pre-war Dutch police and established a new Communal Police, which helped Germans fight the country's resistance and to deport Jews. The ] (NSB) had militia units, whose members were transferred to other paramilitaries like the ] or the Control Commando. A small number of people greatly assisted the German in their hunt for Jews, including some policemen and the ]. Many of them were members of the NSB.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Articles/Article.aspx/21657 |title=Dutch Jew-hunters who massively helped the Nazis |date=3 February 2018 |publisher=Arutz Sheva}}</ref> The column alone was responsible for the arrest of about 900 Jews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42556350/ns/world_news-europe/t/archive-reveal-new-details-wwii-jews-arrests/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022103952/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42556350/ns/world_news-europe/t/archive-reveal-new-details-wwii-jews-arrests/|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 October 2019|title=Archive to reveal new details on WWII Jews' arrests|website=]|date=12 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/25/arts/dutch-files-accused-nazi-collaborators.html | title=Dutch to Make Public the Files on Accused Nazi Collaborators | work=The New York Times | date=25 April 2023 | last1=Siegal | first1=Nina }}</ref> | |||
On ] ], Hitler officially received al-Husayni in Berlin. Hitler made a declaration that after "...the last traces of the Jewish-Communist European hegemony had been obliterated... the German army would... gain the southern exit of Caucasus... the Führer would offer the Arab world his personal assurance that the hour of liberation had struck. Thereafter, Germany's only remaining objective in the region would be limited to the ''Vernichtung des... Judentums'' living under British protection in Arab lands.."<ref name="hitler-fleming">official transcript, trans. Fleming</ref> | |||
=== Norway === | |||
The Mufti spent the remainder of the war assisting with the formation of Muslim Waffen SS units in the ] and the formation of schools and training centers for ]s and ]s who would accompany the Muslim SS and Wehrmacht units. Beginning in 1943, al-Husayni was involved in the organization and recruitment of ] into several divisions. The largest of which was the ] of 21,065 men. | |||
] and ] inspect the ]]] | |||
In 1944, al-Husayni sponsored an unsuccessful ] assault on the Jewish community in Palestine. Five parachutists were supplied with maps of ], canisters of a German–manufactured "fine white powder," and instructions from the Mufti to dump chemicals into the Tel Aviv ]. District police commander Fayiz Bey Idrissi later recalled, "The laboratory report stated that each container held enough poison to kill 25,000 people, and there were at least ten containers."<ref> by Benyamin Korn. (The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies)</ref> | |||
In Norway, the ], headed by ], was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime ], while king ] and the ] fled into exile.<ref>, BBC, 17 April 2012</ref> Quisling encouraged Norwegians to volunteer for service ], collaborated in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of members of the ]. | |||
About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the fascist party '']'' (National Union), and about 8,500 of them enlisted in the '']'' collaborationist paramilitary organization. About 15,000 Norwegians volunteered on the Nazi side and 6,000 joined the ]. In addition, Norwegian police units like the ] helped arrest many of ]. All but 23 of the 742 Jews deported to concentration camps and death camps were murdered or died before the end of the war. ], the ] police officer most responsible for the arrest, detention and transfer of Jewish men, women and children to ] troops at ] harbour, was later acquitted during the ] in two highly publicized trials that remain controversial.<ref name=seven> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319093100/http://www2.iisg.nl/esshc/programme.asp?selyear=9&pap=6796 |date=19 March 2008}} retrieved 10 March 2008</ref> | |||
====Jews==== | |||
''Nasjonal Samling'' had very little support among the population at large<ref>{{cite book |last1=Myklebost |first1=Tor |title=Front cover image for They came as friends They came as friends |date=1943 |publisher=Doubleday, Doran & Co. |location=Garden City, NY |page=43}}</ref> and Norway was one of few countries where ] was widespread before the turning point of the war in 1942–43.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} | |||
Jewish underground ] group ], also known as the "Stern Gang" offered cooperation to the Nazis in sabotage, espionage and intelligence and up to wide military operations in the Middle East and in eastern Europe anywhere where they had Jewish cells in return for full recognition of an independent Jewish state in Palestine, an ability to emigrate to Palestine for all Jews, with no restriction of numbers. <ref>Heller, J. (1995). p. 86 ''The Stern Gang''. Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-4558-3</ref><ref>David Yisraeli, ''The Palestine Problem in German Politics, 1889–1945'', Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel, 1974. Also see Otto von Hentig, ''Mein Leiben'' (Goettingen, 1962) pp 338–339</ref> This offer of collaboration was sent in 1941 to the German Naval attache in ] and forwarded through German embassy to ] but found no response from the Nazis. <ref>A Meeting in Beirut, Habib Canaan, ''Haaretz'' (musaf), ] ] </ref> | |||
After the war, Quisling was executed by firing squad.<ref>{{cite news |title=Justice – I |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852394,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905001857/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852394,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 September 2008 |work=Time Magazine |date=5 November 1945 |access-date=28 April 2011}}</ref> His name became an international ] for "]".<ref>, James Kirchick, Politico, March 20, 2016</ref><!-- ref verified, el --> | |||
===Poland=== | |||
] | |||
==Collaboration in Eastern Europe== | |||
Unlike in most other countries ], where the Nazis sought (and found) collaborators, in ] former Polish citizens were unlikely to be given positions of any significant authority.<ref name="CT">Carla Tonini, ''The Polish underground press and the issue of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers, 1939-1944'', European Review of History: Revue Europeenne d'Histoire, Volume 15, Issue 2 April 2008 , pages 193 - 205</ref><ref name="KPF">Klaus-Peter Friedrich. ''Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.'' Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4, (Winter, 2005), pp. 711-746. </ref> This meant that in Poland was no legal collaboration at the political and economic level.<ref name="CT"/><ref name="KPF"/> | |||
=== Albania === | |||
There is general consensus among scholars that there was very little collaboration with the Nazis among the Polish citizens, compared to most other Nazi-occupied countries.<ref name="CT"/><ref name="KPF"/><ref name="JC">John Connelly, ''Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris'', Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 771-781, </ref> Depending on a definition of collaboration (and of a Polish citizen), scholars give widely different estimates of the number of "Polish collaborators", ranging from several thousands to well over a million.<ref name="KPF"/> The lower estimate is based primarily on the sentences of the ] of the ], sentencing individuals for ]; the upper include low-ranking Polish bureaucrats emplyed in German administration, members of the ], ] work battalions, ], and other Polish citizens who in some way contributed to the German plans.<ref name="JC"/> Many of the latter were forcibly drafted into service; some acted as spies for Polish resistance.<ref name="JC"/> John Connelly quoted a Polish historian (]) calling the phenomenon of Polish collaboration "marginal" and wrote that "only relatively small percentage of Polish population engaged in activities that may be described as collaboration when seen against the backdrop of European and world history".<ref name="JC"/> | |||
{{Main|Italian invasion of Albania|Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)}} | |||
After the ], the ], police and ] were amalgamated into the Italian armed forces in the newly created ]. | |||
The ] formed after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939. In the Yugoslav part of Kosovo, it established the ] (or Kosovars), a volunteer militia of ]. Vulnetari units often attacked ethnic Serbs and carried out raids against civilian targets.<ref name=Batakovic-2007-55>{{cite book|last=T. Bataković|first=Dušan|title=Kosovo and Metohija: living in the enclave|year=2007|publisher=Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Institute for Balkan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eGM_AQAAIAAJ|access-date=21 August 2012|page=55|isbn=978-86-7179-052-9|quote=In this new satellite Fascist-type state, the Italian Government set up an Albanian voluntary militia numbering 5,000 men — the Vulnetari — to help the Italian forces maintain order as well as to independently conduct surprise attacks on the Serb population.}}</ref><ref name=Vickers-Vulnetari134>{{cite book|last=Vickers|first=Miranda|title=Between Serb and Albanian: a history of Kosovo|year=1998|publisher=Hurst & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ|access-date=21 August 2012|page=134|isbn=978-1-85065-278-6|quote=the activities of numerous Albanian nationalist movements, and life consequently became increasingly difficult for Kosovo's Serb population, whose homesteads were routinely sacked by the Vulnetari.}}</ref> They burned down hundreds of Serbian and Montenegrin villages, killed many people, and plundered the ] and neighboring regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Božović|1991|p=85}}{{blockquote|Вулнетари су на Косову и Метохији, али и у суседним крајевима, спалили стотине српских и црногорских села, убили мноштво људи и извршили безброј пљачки.}}</ref> | |||
Likely the largest faction of the pre-war Polish citizens that have actively collaborated with the Nazi Germans was the ]. In 1939, before the ], 800,000 people called themselves a German minority. During the war there were about 3 millions of former Polish citizens who declared themselves ].<ref name="KPF"/> | |||
=== Baltic states === | |||
In October 1939, the Nazis ordered the ] of the pre-war ] to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face death penalty.<ref name="Hempel_2">{{pl icon}} {{cite book | first = Adam | last = Hempel | title =Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 1939–1945 | year = 1987 | pages = 83 | publisher = Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych | location = Warsaw }} </ref> ] was formed. At their peak in 1943, they numbered some 16,000.<ref name="encholo">'''' entry on the Blue Police, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York NY, 1990. ISBN 0028645278.</ref> The Blue Police primary occupation was to act as a regular ] force and to deal with criminal activities, but were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling, resistance and in measures against the Polish (and ]) population: for example, it took place in ]s and patrolled for Jewish escapees from the ]s. Nonetheless many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed German orders or even risked death acting against them.<ref name="Piotrowski"/><ref name="Paulsson">{{cite book | author = Gunnar S. Paulsson | coauthors = | title = The Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies | year = 2004 | pages =118 | chapter = The Demography of Jews in Hiding in Warsaw | publisher = Routledge | location =London | isbn = 0415275091 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7xC5wNo0edoC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&sig=BcLlPy6seaz_N6t708FM_4bOStg#PPA118,M1}}</ref><ref name="Hempel">{{pl icon}} {{cite book | first = Adam | last = Hempel | title = Pogrobowcy klęski: rzecz o policji "granatowej" w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939-1945 | year =1990 | pages = 435 | publisher = ] | location = Warsaw | isbn = 8301092912 | url =http://books.google.com/books?id=sy0iAAAAMAAJ&q=&pgis=1#search | accessdate = }}</ref> Many members of the Blue Police in fact a ]s for the ].<ref name="Paczkowski-2"> Paczkowski (op.cit., ) cites 10% of policemen and 20% of officers</ref><ref name="PWN">{{pl icon}} {{cite encyclopedia | year = 2005 | title = Policja Polska Generalnego Gubernatorstwa | encyclopedia = Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN | url= http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3959423 | publisher = ] | location = Warsaw }}</ref> Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the ] award for saving the Jews.<ref name="IAR">{{pl icon}} {{cite news | author=IAR (corporate author) | title = Sprawiedliwy Wśród Narodów Świata 2005 | url = http://www.forum-znak.org.pl/index.php?t=wydarzenia&id=3139 | work = Forum Żydzi - Chrześcijanie - Muzułmanie | publisher = Fundacja Kultury Chrześcijańskiej Znak | date = 2005-07-24 | accessdate = 2007-02-20 | language = Polish }}</ref> <ref></ref> | |||
{{See also|German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II|Wartime collaboration in the Baltic states}} | |||
From 1942 on an infamous unit was employed in anti-partisan activities in Poland and the Ukraine (]).<ref>{{pl icon}} G. Motyka, M. Wierzbicki; ''"Polski policjant na Wołyniu"'' in Kwartalnik Historyczny KARTA 24, 1998, pp.126-140, ISSN 0867-3764</ref> | |||
The three Baltic republics of ], ] and ], first invaded by the Soviet Union, were later occupied by Germany and incorporated, together with what had been the ] of the ] (], see below), into ].<ref>''Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe,'' by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), pp. 150, 154–155 ({{ISBN|978-0-14-311610-3}})</ref> | |||
In 1944 Germans clandestinely armed a few regional ] (AK) units operating in the area of ] in order to encourage them to act against the ] in the region; in ] district and to a lesser degree in Vilnius district.<ref name="zizas19421944"> {{lt icon}} Rimantas Zizas. ''Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942–1944 metais'' (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942–1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14–39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.</ref><ref name="Bubnys">{{lt icon}} {{cite book | author =] | coauthors = | title =Vokiečių ir lietuvių saugumo policija (1941–1944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 1941–1944)| year =2004 | publisher =Lietuvos gyventojų genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras | location =Vilnius | url =http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/1/arunas1.htm | accessdate =2006-06-09 }}</ref> Such arrangements were purely tactical and did not evidence the type of ideological collaboration as shown by ] in France or ] in Norway.<ref name="Piotrowski"/> The Poles main motivation was to gain intelligence on German morale and preparedness and to acquire much needed equipment.<ref name="Radzilowski"> Review by ] of ]'s '']'', ], vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York.</ref> There are no known joint Polish-German actions, and the Germans were unsuccessful in their attempt to turn the Poles toward fighting exclusively against Soviet partisans.<ref name="Piotrowski"/> Further, most of such collaboration of local commanders with the Germans was condemned by AK headquarters.<ref name="Piotrowski"/> ] quotes ] saying "The Polish Home Army was by and large untainted by collaboration" and adds that "the honor of AK as a whole is beyond reproach".<ref name="Piotrowski">], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. , , </ref> | |||
==== Estonia ==== | |||
One partisan unit of Polish extreme right-wing (anti-Nazi but also anti-communist ]), the ], eventually decided to collaborate with the Germans (it ceased its actions against the Germans, accepts logistic help and fought exclusively against the Soviets) in late stages of the war to avoid capture by the Soviet units.<ref>, ELECTRONIC MUSEUM</ref> | |||
{{See also|War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia|Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity}}In German plans, Estonia was to become an area for future German settlements, as Estonians themselves were considered high on the Nazi racial scale, with potential for Germanization.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=182–183}} Unlike the other Baltic states, the seizure of Estonian territory by German troops was relatively long, from July 7 to December 2, 1941. This period was used by the Soviets to carry out a wave of repression against Estonians. It is estimated that the ]'s subordinate ] killed some 2,000 Estonian civilians,{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|pp=64–65}} and 50–60,000 people were deported deep into the USSR.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=58}} 10,000 of them died in the GULAG system within a year.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=58}} Many Estonians fought against Soviet troops on the German side, hoping to liberate their country. Some 12,000 ] took part in the fighting.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=65}} Of great importance were the 57 ]-trained members of the ], who operated behind enemy lines.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=65}} | |||
Resistance groups were organised by Germans in August 1941 into the ] ({{Literal translation|Self-defence}}), which had between 34,000{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=66}} and 40,000 members,{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=183}} mainly based on the ], dissolved by the Soviets.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=66}} Omakaitse was in charge of clearing the German army's rear of ] soldiers, NKVD members, and Communist activists. Within a year its members killed 5,500 Estonian residents.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=95}} Later, they performed guard duty and fought Soviet partisans flown into Estonia.{{Sfn|Wnuk|2018|p=95}} From among Omakaitse members were recruited Estonian policemen, members of the ] and officers of the Estonian ].{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=184}} | |||
The Germans formed a puppet government, the ], headed by ]. This government had considerable autonomy in internal affairs, such as filling police posts.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=184}} The ] (]) had a mixed Estonian-German structure (139 Germans and 873 Estonians) and was formally under the Estonian Self-Administration.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=184–85}} Estonian police cooperated with Germans in rounding up ], ], communists and those deemed enemies of existing order or asocial elements. The police also helped to ] Estonians for ] and ] under German command.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=191–97}} Most of the small population of Estonian Jews fled before the Germans arrived, with only about a thousand remaining. All of them were arrested by Estonian police and executed by Omakaitse.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|p=187–88}} Members of the ] and ] also executed Jewish prisoners sent to concentration and labor camps established by the Germans on Estonian territory.{{Sfn|Birn|2001|pp=190–91}} | |||
Immediately after entering Estonia, the Germans began forming volunteer Estonian units the size of a battalion. By January 1942, six Security Groups (battalions No. 181-186, about 4,000 men) had been formed and were subordinate to the Wehrmacht 18th Army.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} After the one-year contract expired, some volunteers transferred to the Waffen-SS or returned to civilian life, and three Eastern Battalions (No. 658-660) were formed from those who remained.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} They fought until early 1944, after which their members transferred to the ].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} | |||
Beginning in September 1941, the SS and police command created four Infantry Defence Battalions (No. 37-40) and a reserve and sapper battalion (No. 41-42), which were operationally subordinate to the Wehrmacht. From 1943 they were called Police Battalions, with 3,000 serving in them.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} In 1944 they were transformed into two infantry battalions and evacuated to Germany in the fall of 1944, where they were incorporated into the ].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268}} | |||
In the fall of 1941, the Germans also formed eight police battalions (No. 29-36), of which only Battalion No. 36 had a typically military purpose. However, due to shortages, most of them were sent to the front near Leningrad,{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=268-269}} and were mostly disbanded in 1943. That same year, the SS and police command created five new Security and Defense Battalions (they inherited No. 29-33 and had more than 2,600 men).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|pp=269–70}} In the spring of 1943, five Defence Battalions (No. 286-290) were established as compulsory military service units. The 290th Battalion consisted of Estonian Russians. Battalions No. 286, 288 and 289 were used to fight partisans in Belarus.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=270}}]]] | |||
On Aug. 28, 1942, the Germans formed the volunteer ]. Of the approximately 1,000 volunteers, 800 were incorporated into Battalion Narva and sent to Ukraine in the spring of 1943.{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=269}} Due to the shrinking number of volunteers, in February 1943 the Germans introduced compulsory conscription in Estonia. Born between 1919 and 1924 faced the choice of going to work in Germany, joining the Waffen-SS or Estonian auxiliary battalions. 5,000 joined the Estonian Waffen-SS Legion, which was reorganized into the ].{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=270}} | |||
As the Red Army advanced, a general mobilization was announced, officially supported by Estonia's last Prime Minister ]. By April 1944, 38,000 Estonians had been drafted. Some went into the 3rd Waffen-SS Brigade, which was enlarged to division size (]: 10 battalions, more than 15,000 men in the summer of 1944) and also incorporated most of the already existing Estonian units (mostly Eastern Battalions).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|pp=271–72}} Younger men were conscripted into other Waffen-SS units. From the rest, six Border Defense Regiments and four Police Fusilier Battalions (Nos. 286, 288, 291, and 292).{{Sfn|Hiio|2011|p=271}} | |||
The Estonian Security Police and SD,{{sfn|Birn|2001|pp=181-198}} the 286th, 287th and 288th ] battalions, and 2.5–3% of the Estonian ] (Home Guard) ] units (between 1,000 and 1,200 men) took part in rounding up, guarding or killing of 400–1,000 Roma and 6,000 Jews in concentration camps in the ] of Russia and the ], ], ] and ] concentration camps in Estonia. | |||
Guarded by these units, 15,000 Soviet POWs died in Estonia: some through neglect and mistreatment and some by execution.<ref name="historycommission" /> | |||
==== Latvia ==== | |||
] assemble a group of Jews, ], July 1941.]] | |||
Deportations and murders of Latvians by the Soviet ] reached their peak in the days before the capture of Soviet-occupied ] by German forces.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} Those that the NKVD could not deport before the Germans arrived were shot at the Central Prison.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} The ]'s instructions to their agents to unleash pogroms fell on fertile ground.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} After the ] 1a and part of Einsatzkommando 2 entered the Latvian capital,{{sfn|Breitman|1991}} ]'s commander ] made contact with ] on 1 July and instructed him to set up a commando unit. It was later named ] or '']s''.{{sfn|Birn|1997}} The members, far-right students and former officers were all volunteers, and free to leave at any time.{{sfn|Birn|1997}} | |||
The next day, 2 July, Stahlecker instructed Arājs to have the Arājs Kommandos unleash ] that looked spontaneous,{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}} before the German occupation authorities were properly established.{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} Einsatzkommando-influenced{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=194}} mobs of former members of ] and other extreme right-wing groups began pillaging and making mass arrests, and killed 300 to 400 Riga Jews. Killings continued under the supervision of SS '']'' Walter Stahlecker, until more than 2,700 Jews had died.{{sfn|Angrick|Klein|2009|pp=65–70}}{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} | |||
The activities of the Einsatzkommando were constrained after the full establishment of the German occupation authority, after which the SS made use of select units of native recruits.{{sfn|Breitman|1991}} German General Wilhelm Ullersperger and ], a well known Latvian nationalist, appealed to the population in a radio address to attack "internal enemies". During the next few months, the ] primarily focused on killing Jews, Communists and Red Army stragglers in Latvia and in neighbouring Byelorussia.{{sfn|Birn|1997}} | |||
In February–March 1943, eight Latvian battalions took part in the punitive anti-partisan ] near the ], which resulted in 439 burned villages, 10,000 to 12,000 deaths, and over 7,000 taken for ] or imprisoned at the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=«Зимнее волшебство»: нацистская карательная операция в белорусско-латвийском приграничье, февраль — март 1943 г.|editor1-last=Adamushko|editor1-first=V.I.|editor2-last=Artizov|editor2-first=A.N.|editor3-last=Bubalo|editor3-first=A.F.|editor4-last=Dyukov|editor4-first=A.R.|editor5-last=Ioffe|editor5-first=M.L.|editor6-last=Kirillova|editor6-first=N.V.|series=Documents and records|publisher=Фонд «Историческая память»/ Historical Memory Foundation, Russia|year=2013|isbn=978-5-9990-0020-0|location=Minsk-Moscow|pages=2–25|language=ru|trans-title=Winterzauber: Nazi punitive operation on the Belarus-Latvia border region, February – March 1943.}}</ref> This group alone killed almost half of Latvia's Jewish population,<ref name="Ezer">Andrew Ezergailis. The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941–1944: the missing center. Historical Institute of Latvia, 1996. {{ISBN|978-9984-9054-3-3}}, pp. 182–189</ref> about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.<ref name="indianapolis" /> | |||
The creation of the Arājs Kommando was "one of the most significant inventions of the early Holocaust",<ref name="Ezer" /> and marked a transition from German-organised ''pogroms'' to systematic killing of Jews by local volunteers (former army officers, policemen, students, and ]).{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} This helped with a chronic German personnel shortage and provided the Germans with relief from the psychological stress of routinely murdering civilians.{{sfn|Haberer|2001}} By the autumn of 1941, the SS had deployed the ] battalions to Leningrad, where they were consolidated into the ].<ref name="Lumans">Valdis O. Lumans. Book Review: Symposium of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, The Hidden and Forbidden History of Latvia under Soviet and Nazi Occupations, 1940–1991: Selected Research of the Commission of the Historians of Latvia, Vol. 14, Institute of the History of Latvia Publications:European History Quarterly 2009 39: 184</ref> In 1943, this brigade, which later became the ], was consolidated with the ] to become the ].<ref name="Lumans" /> Although the Latvian Legion was a formally volunteer ] unit, it was voluntary only in name; approximately 80–85% of its men were conscripts.<ref name="legion3">{{cite book |first=Edvīns |last=Brūvelis |title=Latviešu leģionāri / Latvian legionnaires |publisher=Daugavas vanagi |date=2005 |language=lv, en |isbn=978-9984-19-762-3 |oclc=66394978 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> | |||
==== Lithuania ==== | |||
{{See also|Lithuanian collaboration with Nazi Germany}} | |||
] policeman with Jewish prisoners, ], 1941]] | |||
Prior to the German invasion, some leaders in ] and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy, as they had the ]. The German intelligence service ] believed that it controlled the ], a pro-German organization based at the Lithuanian embassy in ].<ref name="Piotrowski163">], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-7864-0371-3}}, </ref> Lithuanians formed the ] on their own initiative, but Germany did not recognize it diplomatically, or allow Lithuanian ambassador ] to become prime minister, instead actively thwarting his activities. The provisional government disbanded, since it had no power and it had become clear that the Germans came as occupiers not liberators from Soviet occupation, as initially thought. By 1943, the German opinion of Lithuanians was that they had failed to show allegiance to them.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Kroener |first=Bernhard R. |title=Germany and the Second World War |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820873-0 |volume=V/2 |pages=61}}</ref> When the Germans called-up Lithuanians for military service in spring 1943, Lithuanians protested against it by making the call-up produce dismally low numbers, which angered the German occupiers.<ref name=":5" /> | |||
Units under ] and supervised by SS ''Brigadeführer'' ] started pogroms in and around ] on 25 June 1941.<ref name="Bubnys-Hol" /><ref name="Oshry" /> Lithuanian collaborators killed hundreds of thousands of Jews, Poles and ].<ref name="Niwinski">{{cite book |title=Ponary: miejsce ludzkiej rzeźni |last=Niwiński |first=Piotr |year=2011 |publisher=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, Departament Współpracy z Polonią |location=Warszawa |pages=25–26 |url=http://www.msz.gov.pl/files/docs/komunikaty/20110721PONARY/Broszura_Ponary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205105823/http://www.msz.gov.pl/files/docs/komunikaty/20110721PONARY/Broszura_Ponary.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> According to Lithuanian-American scholar Saulius Sužiedėlis, an increasingly antisemitic atmosphere clouded Lithuanian society, and antisemitic LAF émigrés "needed little prodding from 'foreign influences{{' "}}.{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|2004|p=339}} He concluded that Lithuanian collaboration was "a significant help in facilitating all phases of the genocidal program . . . the local administration contributed, at times with zeal, to the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry".{{sfn|Sužiedėlis|2004|pp=346, 348}} Elsewhere, Sužiedėlis similarly emphasised that Lithuania's "moral and political leadership failed in 1941, and that thousands of Lithuanians participated in the Holocaust",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sužiedėlis |first=Saulius |year=2001 |title=The Burden of 1941 |url=http://www.lituanus.org/2001/01_4_04.htm |journal=Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences |volume=47 |issue=4 |access-date=21 October 2012 |archive-date=15 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120915/http://www.lituanus.org/2001/01_4_04.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> though he warned that "ntil buttressed by reliable accounts providing time, place and at least an approximate number of victims, claims of large-scale pogroms before the advent of the German forces must be treated with caution".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krapauskas |first=Virgil |year=2010 |title=Book Reviews |url=http://www.lituanus.org/2010/10_3_08%20BR%20Dickman%20plus.html |journal=Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences |volume=56 |issue=3 |access-date=21 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031958/http://www.lituanus.org/2010/10_3_08%20BR%20Dickman%20plus.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
In 1941, the ] was created, subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Criminal Police.<ref name="Bubnys" /> Of the 26 ], 10 were involved in ].{{Clarify|reason=Not all of them to the same degree – some executed Jews, while others were implicated in the Holocaust because they happened to guard the railways at the time.|date=August 2020}} On August 16, the head of the Lithuanian police, {{Interlanguage link|Vytautas Reivytis|lt}}, ordered the arrest of Jewish men and women with Bolshevik activities: "In reality, it was a sign to kill everyone."<ref> (Saulius Suziedėlis: "The Holocaust is the central event of modern Lithuanian history"), Zigma Vitkus, bernardinai, December 28, 2010</ref> The ] in ] ] and other places.<ref name="Bubnys" />{{clarify|what other places?|date=March 2023}} In ], the 2nd Battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and in ] it massacred 5,000 Jews. | |||
In March 1942, in Poland, the ] guarded the ].<ref name=Piotr165166 /> In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion participated in the deportation of Jews from the ] to ].<ref name="buffalo" /> In August–October 1942, some of the Lithuanian police battalions were in Belarus and Ukraine: the 3rd in ], the 4th in ], the 7th in ], the 11th in ], the 16th in ], the 254th in ] and the 255th in ] (Belarus).<ref name="kiev">{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaust.kiev.ua/bulletin/vip7/vip7_3.htm |script-title=ru:Хлокост на юге Украины (1941–1944): (Запорожская область) |trans-title=The Holocaust in the south of Ukraine (1941–1944): (Zaporizhia region) |language=ru |work=holocaust.kiev.ua |year=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827155850/http://holocaust.kiev.ua/bulletin/vip7/vip7_3.htm |archive-date=27 August 2006}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} One battalion was also used to put down the ] in 1943.<ref name=Piotr165166 /> | |||
The participation of the local populace was a key factor in the ]<ref name="WymanRosenzveig1996">{{cite book|author=Dov Levin|title=The World Reacts to the Holocaust|date=1996|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-4969-5|editor1=David S. Wyman|pages=325–353|chapter=Lithuania|access-date=16 January 2016|editor2=Charles H. Rosenzveig|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC&pg=PA325}}</ref> which resulted in the near total decimation of ] living in the ] Lithuanian territories that would. From 25 July 1941, participation was under the '']'' of '']''. Out of approximately 210,000<ref name="MacQueen_context" /> Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data)<ref name="Bubnys_vanished219" /> an estimated 195,000–196,000 perished before the end of World War II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December 1941.<ref name="MacQueen_context" /><ref name="Porat161" /> The events happening in the USSR's western regions occupied by ] in the first weeks after the German invasion (including Lithuania – ]) marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust.{{sfn|Browning|Matthäus|2007|pp=244–294}}<ref name="Porat159" /><ref name="Kwiet" /> | |||
=== Bulgaria === | |||
{{Main|Bulgaria during World War II}} | |||
Bulgaria was interested in acquiring ] and western Macedonia and hoped to gain the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time.<ref name=Miller/> The appearance of Greek partisans there persuaded Axis forces to allow the formation of ] collaborationist detachments.<ref name=Miller>{{cite book |title= Bulgaria During the Second World War |last= Miller |first= Marshall Lee |year= 1975|publisher= Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-0870-3|page= 129|quote= In Greece the Bulgarians reacquired their former territory, extending along the Aegean coast from the Struma (Strymon) River east of ] to ] on the Turkish border. Bulgaria looked longingly toward ] and western Macedonia, which were under German and Italian control, and established propaganda centres to secure the allegiance of the approximately 80,000 Slavs in these regions. The Bulgarian plan was to organize these Slavs militarily in the hope that Bulgaria would eventually assume the administration there. The appearance of the Greek left wing resistance in western Macedonia persuaded the Italian and German and authorities to allow the formation of Slav security battalions (Ohrana) led by Bulgarian officers.}}</ref> The organization initially recruited 1,000 to 3,000 armed men from the Slavophone community in the west of ].<ref>, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0-8108-5565-8}}, pp. 162–163.</ref> | |||
=== Czecho-Slovakia === | |||
{{Main|Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)}} | |||
==== Sudetenland ==== | |||
], a ] strongman who represented the sizable German minority of the ] border region, actively sought a Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robbins|first= Keith |title= Konrad Henlein, the Sudeten Question and British Foreign Policy| page= 675 |journal= The Historical Journal| volume= XII| issue =4|year= 1969|doi= 10.1017/S0018246X0001058X |s2cid= 159537859 }}</ref> and his efforts arguably triggered the ]<ref>{{Cite journal |page=198 |doi=10.2307/20028917 |jstor=20028917 |title=Armistice at Munich |last1=Armstrong |first1=Hamilton Fish |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=1939 |volume=17 |issue=2 }}</ref> After the invasion he administered the Nazi deportations that sent Jews to ], almost none of whom survived. For example, 42,000 people, mostly Czech Jews, were deported from Theresienstadt in 1942, of whom only 356 survivors are known.{{sfn|Kárný|1999|p=9}} Henlein also tried to expel all Czechs from the Sudetenland, but the neighbouring ] refused to accept them and he was informed that the need of the area's factories for labour outweighed such ethnic policies.{{sfn|Cornwall|2011|p=221}} | |||
====Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (the Czech lands)==== | |||
When the Germans annexed ] in 1938 and 1939, they created the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from the Czech part of pre-war Czechoslovakia<ref>{{cite book|author=Volker Ullrich|author-link=Volker Ullrich|title=]|pages=752–753}}</ref> It had its own military forces, including a 12-] ']', police and ]. Most members of the 'government army' were sent to ] in 1944 as labourers and guards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vladimír Měřínský (1934–2022) |url=https://www.memoryofnations.eu/en/merinsky-vladimir-1934 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=www.memoryofnations.eu |language=en}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=July 2023}} Whether or not the government army was a collaborationist force has been debated. Its commanding officer, ], was tried and acquitted on charges of collaboration following World War II.<ref>, Český rozhlas, July 14, 2004 (in Czech)</ref> Some members of the force engaged in active resistance operations while in the army, and, in the waning days of the conflict, elements of the army joined in the ].<ref name="mus">{{cite web |title=The Tragic Destiny of Romeo Reisinger: Death a Few Hours before Liberation | |||
|url=http://www.vhu.cz/tragicky-osud-romea-reisingera-smrt-par-hodin-pred-osvobozenim/ |language=Czech |website=vhu.cz |date=31 March 2014 |publisher=Army Museum |access-date=February 21, 2023}}</ref> | |||
====Slovak Republic==== | |||
{{See also|The Holocaust in Slovakia}} | |||
The ] (''Slovenská Republika'') was a quasi-independent ethnic ] state which existed from 14 March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and ] of ]. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day ] (except for the southern and eastern parts). It bordered Germany, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, ], and ]. | |||
=== Greece === | |||
{{Main|Hellenic State (1941–1944)|Greco-Italian War|Greek Operation of the NKVD}} | |||
Germany put a collaborationist government in place in Greece. Prime ministers ], ] and ]<ref>Mark Mazower, ''''(Greek translation), Athens: Αλεξάνδρεια, 1994(1993),125.</ref> all cooperated with Axis authorities. Greece exported agricultural products, especially tobacco, to Germany, and Greek "volunteers" worked in German factories.<ref>, Joanie Blackwell, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, June 29, 2017</ref> | |||
While efforts by Major General ] to recruit a Greek volunteer legion to fight in the Eastern Front failed,<ref>{{cite book | last = Priovolos | first = Giannis | title = Εθνικιστική «αντίδραση» και Τάγματα Ασφαλείας | trans-title = Nationalist "Reaction" and the Security Battalions | language = Greek | publisher = Patakis | location = Athens | year = 2018 | isbn = 978-960-16-7561-9 | pages = 27–28}}</ref> the collaborationist government of Ioannis Rallis created armed paramilitary forces such as the ]<ref>{{Citation | title=Greek Resistance 1941–45 : Organization, Achievements and Contributions to Allied War Efforts Against the Axis Powers | first1=Peter D. | last1=Chimbos | work= International Journal of Comparative Sociology | publisher=Brill | year=1999 | url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/ijcs/1999/00000040/f0040001/art00014}}</ref> to fight the ]/] resistance{{sfn|Hondros|1983|p=81}} Former dictator, General ], saw the Security Battalions as a way to make a political comeback, and most of the ] officers recruited in April 1943 were republicans in some way associated with Pangalos.{{sfn|Mazower|1995|p=324}} | |||
Greek National-Socialist parties like ]' ] of the ] organization, or such openly anti-semitic organisations as the ], helped German authorities fight the ], and identify and deport Greek Jews.<ref>Markos Vallianatos, The untold history of Greek collaboration with Nazi Germany (1941–1944)</ref> The BUND Organization and its leader Aginor Giannopoulos trained a battalion of Greek volunteers who fought in SS and ] units. | |||
During the Axis occupation, a number of ] set up their own administration and militia in ], Greece, under the ] organization, and ], committing a number of atrocities.<ref name="King" />{{better source needed|book is not about World War 2|date=May 2023}} In one incident on 29 September 1943, ], Albanian paramilitary leaders, instigated the mass execution of all ] in ].<ref name="Meyer2008">{{cite book |author=Hermann Frank Meyer |title=Blutiges Edelweiß: die 1. Gebirgs-Division im Zweiten Weltkrieg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Hpr-PK39UkC&pg=PA469 |access-date=16 January 2016 |year=2008 |publisher=Ch. Links Verlag |isbn=978-3-86153-447-1 |pages=469–471}}</ref> | |||
An ] political and paramilitary force, the ], led by ] ] and ], also collaborated with Italian forces.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} | |||
===Hungary=== | |||
In April 1941, in order to regain territory and under German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht across its territory in the ]. Hungarian prime minister ] wanted to maintain a pro-Allies neutral stance,<ref name="tel">, Cornelius, Deborah S., in ''Hungary in World War II: Caught in the Cauldron, World War II: The Global, Human, and Ethical Dimension'', (New York, NY, 2011; online edn, Fordham Scholarship Online, 19 Jan. 2012), }}, accessed 18 Feb. 2023</ref> but could no longer stay out of the war. British Foreign Secretary ] threatened to break diplomatic relations if Hungary did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory. General ], chief of the Hungarian General Staff, made a private arrangement with the ], unsanctioned by the Hungarian government, to transport German troops across Hungary. Teleki, unable to stop these events, committed suicide on April 3, 1941.<ref name=tel /> After the war the ] sentenced Werth to death for war crimes.<ref>Kursietis, Andris J., and Antonio J. Munoz. ''The Hungarian Army and Its Military Leadership in World War II.'' Bayside, NY: Axis Europa & Magazines, 1999. Print.</ref> | |||
Hungary joined the war on April 11, after the proclamation of the ].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} | |||
It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They, and about 20,000 people who could not prove legal residency since 1850, were deported to southern Poland. According to Nazi German reports, a total of 23,600 Jews were murdered, including 16,000 who had earlier been expelled from Hungary<ref name=RLB>{{cite book |title=The Politics of Genocide |author=Randolph L. Braham |author-link=Randolph L. Braham |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpHs6fgr_YC|isbn=0-8143-2691-9 |page=34}}</ref> between July 15 and August 12, 1941, and either abandoned there or handed over to the Germans. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority (16,000) of those deported were massacred in the ] at the end of August.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |title=degob.org |publisher=degob.org |date=August 28, 1941 |access-date=February 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309073956/http://degob.org/index.php?showarticle=2019 |archive-date=March 9, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|"A few thousand of the deportees were simply abandoned by their captors in the areas surrounding Kaminets-Podolsk. Most subsequently perished with Jewish residents of the area as a result of transports or ''{{lang|de|aktions}}'' in the many ghettos, but a handful survived.<ref name=TSn>{{cite book |title=] |author=Timothy Snyder |author-link=Timothy Snyder |publisher=Basic Books |year=2010 |pages= |isbn=978-0-465-00239-9}}</ref> The killings were conducted on August 27 and August 28, 1941, in the Soviet city of ] (now Ukraine), occupied by German troops in the previous month on July 11, 1941.<ref name=MDav>{{cite web |title=Kamyanets-Podilskyy |author=Martin Davis |url=http://www.blankgenealogy.com/histories/Location%20histories/Ukraine/Kamenets%20.pdf |at=pp. 11–14 / 24 in PDF |via=direct download}} ''Also in:'' {{cite web |author=Martin Davis |year=2010 |title=The Nazi Invasion of Kamenets |publisher=JewishGen |url=http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/Kamyanets-Podilskyy/Kamianets-Podilskyi%20%201939-1945.htm}}</ref> The number of people deported over the Carpathians was 19,426, according to a document found in 2012<ref>{{cite web |author=Betekintő |url=http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |title=A few thousand of the deportees ... |publisher=Betekinto.hu |access-date=February 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517122642/http://www.betekinto.hu/2012_2_gellert_gellert |archive-date=May 17, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} | |||
In the ] in Újvidék (]) and nearby villages, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, ], {{Interlanguage link|Márton Zöldy|hu}}, ], ] and others, were later tried in Budapest in December 1943 and were sentenced, but some escaped to Germany.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} | |||
During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "]" (''{{lang|hu|munkaszolgálat}}'') units which repaired bombed railroads, built airports or cleaned up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed on the Soviet front in 1942–43, of whom about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of ]. But ], prime minister beginning on March 9, 1942, and Regent ] refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to German ] in occupied Poland. This lasted until German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} | |||
Following the ] on March 19, 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the ]; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=408}} | |||
=== Poland === | |||
{{Main|Collaboration in German-occupied Poland}} | |||
] poster announcing the execution of several Polish and Ukrainian collaborators and blackmailers ('']s''), September 1943]] | |||
Unlike some other German-occupied European countries, ] did not have a government that collaborated with the Nazis.{{sfn|Weinberg |2005|pp=48–121}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cherry |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUp7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |title=Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future |last2=Orla-Bukowska |first2=Annamaria |date=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4616-4308-1 |language=en |quote=During the war, while in most European countries the Germans found collaborators that set up puppet governments, Poland had no such collaborationist governments. The Germans arrested masses of Polish intellectuals, whom they perceived as a threat. As a result, thousands of Poles lost their lives during that occupation.}}</ref> The Polish government did not ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Eyal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3kDy1H5xbjcC|title=National Resilience during War: Refining the Decision-Making Model |date=2012 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-7459-3 |page=12 |language=en |quote=the Polish government had never surrendered}}</ref> but instead went into ], first in France, then in London, while evacuating the armed forces via ] and ] and by sea to allied France and Great Britain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lane |first=T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqOHDAAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PA138 |title=Victims of Stalin and Hitler: The Exodus of Poles and Balts to Britain |date=2004|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-51137-8 |page=138 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koskodan |first=Kenneth K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1ObCwAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PA43 |title=No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78096-241-2 |page=43 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrPvCwAAQBAJ&dq=1939+Poland+evacuated+Hungary+Romania+France&pg=PT47 |title=Warsaw Pact Ground Forces |date=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78200-447-9 |page=47 |language=en |quote=After suffering a devastating defeat in 1939 at the hands of the Germans, many Polish troops escaped to Hungary and Romania and subsequently to France}}</ref> ] was either ] or placed under German administration as the ].<ref name="Service2013">{{cite book |author=Hugo Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqoaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing After the Second World War |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-67148-5 |page=17 |quote=At the start of October 1939, the German occupiers divided in two the area of Poland they had occupied... annexing to Germany the western territories and designating central Poland a colonial territory which they labeled the 'General Government...}}</ref> | |||
Shortly after the German ] in September 1939, the Nazi authorities ordered the ] of prewar Polish officials and Polish police (]), who were ordered to report for duty under threat of severe penalties.<ref name="Hempel_2" />{{Sfn| Grabowski|2016|p=1}}<ref>Higher SS- and Police Leader (HSSPF) for the Generalgouvernement ] (October 30, 1939). .</ref> Apart from serving as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, the Blue Police was used by the Germans also to combat smuggling and resistance, to round up '']'', random civilians, for ], and to apprehend Jews (German: '']'', "hunting Jews")<ref name="Grabowski2014">{{cite book |author=Grabowski, Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVmSAAAAQBAJ |title=Hunt for the Jews:Betrayal and Murder in German-Occupied Poland |publisher=] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-253-01074-2 |page=52}}</ref> and participate in their extermination. Polish policemen were instrumental in implementing the Nazi policy of centralising Jews in ghettos and, from 1942 onwards, liquidating the ghettos.{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|pp=7–11}} In the late autumn and early winter of 1941, shooting Jews, including women and children, became one of their many activities at the orders of the German occupiers.{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|p=7}} After an initial phase of hesitation, Polish policemen became familiar with Nazi brutality and, according to ], sometimes "surpassed their German teachers."{{Sfn|Grabowski|2016|p=8}} While many officials and police followed German orders, some acted as agents for the ].<ref name="Paulsson">{{cite book |author=Gunnar S. Paulsson |title=The Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies |year=2004 |chapter=The Demography of Jews in Hiding in Warsaw |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-27509-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xC5wNo0edoC&pg=PA118 |page=118}}</ref><ref name="Hempel">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hempel |title=Pogrobowcy klęski: rzecz o policji "granatowej" w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939–1945 |year=1990 |publisher=] |location=Warsaw |isbn=978-83-01-09291-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sy0iAAAAMAAJ |page=435 |language=pl}}</ref> | |||
Some of the collaborators – '']s'' – blackmailed Jews and their Polish rescuers and acted as informers, turning in Jews and Poles who hid them, and reporting on the Polish resistance.<ref>{{cite web |author=Marci Shore |url=http://www.aapjstudies.org/index.php?id=36 |title=Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945 |publisher=The American Association for Polish-Jewish Studies |access-date=17 February 2014|author-link = Marci Shore}}</ref> Many prewar ] voluntarily declared themselves '']'' ("ethnic Germans"), and some of them committed atrocities against the Polish population and organized large-scale looting of property.<ref>Maria Wardzyńska, ''Był rok 1939: Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce Intelligenzaktion'', ], 2009, {{ISBN|978-83-7629-063-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Browning|Matthäus|2007|p=32}} | |||
The Germans set up Jewish-run governing bodies in Jewish communities and ] – '']'' (Jewish councils) that served as self-enforcing intermediaries to manage Jewish communities and ghettos; and ] (''Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst''), which functioned as ] to maintaining order and combating crime.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tJvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT394 |title=Notes From The Warsaw Ghetto: The Journal Of Emmanuel Ringelblum |last=Ringelblum |first=Emmanuel |year= 2015 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78625-716-1 |language=en |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318120646/https://books.google.ca/books?id=4tJvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT394 |archive-date=18 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The ]'s wartime ]s investigated 17,000 Poles who collaborated with the Germans; about 3,500 were sentenced to death.<ref name="KPF 2005">{{cite journal |first=Klaus-Peter |last=Friedrich |title=Collaboration in a 'Land without a Quisling': Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II |journal=] |volume=64 |issue=4 |date=Winter 2005 |pages=711–746 |doi=10.2307/3649910|jstor=3649910 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Connelly 2005">{{cite journal |first=John |last=Connelly |title=Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris |journal=Slavic Review |volume=64 |number=4 |year=2005 |pages=771–781 |jstor=3649912 |doi=10.2307/3649912 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
===Romania=== | ===Romania=== | ||
{{Main article|The Holocaust in Romania}} | |||
] became a military ally of the ] and thus it is sometimes considered that those who cooperated with the Romanian government during World War II were Nazi collaborators. | |||
:''See also ], ]'', '']''. | |||
] temple in ] after it was plundered and torched in 1941]] | |||
According to an ] released by the Romanian government in 2004, between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews died on Romanian soil, in the war zones of ], ], and in territories formerly occupied by Soviets that came under Romanian control (]). Of the 25,000 ] deported to concentration camps in Transnistria, 11,000 died.<ref name="Commission">{{cite web|author=International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania|title=Executive Summary: Historical Findings and Recommendations|work=Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania|publisher=Yad Vashem (The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority)|date=November 11, 2004|url=https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/pdf-drupal/en/report/english/EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.pdf|access-date=2023-03-28|author-link=Wiesel Commission}}</ref> | |||
A ] released in 2004 by a panel commissioned by the Romanian government assessed that a total of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews were murdered or perished in Romania as a direct result of the policies or actions of the World War II Romanian regime led by ]. Approximately 200,000 Jews were killed in the ] region, often called Transnistria (occupied from the USSR) at the end of 1941 and during 1942 by the Romanian Army and the ] D. The District Commissioner Col. Modest Isopesco and the German advisor to the Romanian administration Fleisher took decision to murder all the inmates at the ] ] after several cases of typhus were discovered in the camp. Romanian soldiers and gendarmes, together with Ukrainian police and civilians, and local ethnic Germans under the commander of the Ukrainian regular police, Kazachievici, participated in the massacres.<ref></ref> | |||
Though much of the killing was committed in the war zone by Romanian and German troops, in the ] of June 1941 over 13,000 Jews died in trains traveling back and forth across the countryside.<ref>, Nadia Bletry, Thierry Trelluyer, Ruth Michaelson. France24, March 23, 2022</ref> | |||
Additionally, 25,000 ] were sent to concentration camps, of which an estimated 11,000 died. The Romanian government had a program of deportation of the Romanian Jews to camps in Transnistria, implemented especially in the ] region. However, this was terminated in 1943, 16 months before Romania ended its alliance with Nazi Germany and 340,000 Romanian Jews survived the war. | |||
Half of the estimated 270,000 to 320,000 Jews living in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and ] were murdered or died between June 1941 and the spring of 1944. Of these, between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews were killed in Bessarabia and Bukovina by Romanian and German troops<ref>, Rochester studies in Central Europe, {{ISSN|1528-4808}} | |||
===Russia=== | |||
Editors Alex J. Kay, Jeff Rutherford, David Stahel | |||
Cooperation among the Soviet people with Nazis existed in various places of ] including ]. Fascist Russians were for instance allowed to govern the ], an autonomous sector in Nazi-occupied Russia, which was governed by ethnic Russians themselves. | |||
Publisher University Rochester Press, 2012 {{ISBN|978-1-58046-407-9}}</ref><ref>, US Department of State</ref> within months of the entry of the country into the war during 1941. Even after the initial killings, Jews in ], Bukovina and Bessarabia were subject to frequent ], and were concentrated into ] from which they were sent to camps in Transnistria built and run by the Romanian authorities.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} | |||
Romanian soldiers and gendarmes also worked with the '']s'', German killing squads, tasked with massacring Jews and Roma in conquered territories, the local Ukrainian militia, and the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans (] and ]). Romanian troops were in large part responsible for the ], in which from October 18, 1941, to mid-March 1942 Romanian soldiers, gendarmes and police, killed up to 25,000 Jews and deported more than 35,000.<ref name="Commission"/> | |||
Many ethnic Russians enlisted into the German auxiliary police. Local civilians and Russian ]s, as well as ] defectors were encouraged to join the ] as "]". Some of them also served in so-called ]s which, in particular, defended the French coastline against the expected Allied invasion. | |||
The lowest respectable mortality estimates run to about 250,000 Jews and 11,000 Roma in these eastern regions.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} | |||
A number of divisions were formed manned by Russian collaborators. These included the notorious ], infamous because of its involvlemennt in atrocities in Belarus and Poland, and the ]. <ref></ref> | |||
Nonetheless, half of the Jews living within the pre-Barbarossa borders survived the war, although they were subject to a wide range of harsh conditions, including forced labor, financial penalties, and discriminatory laws. All Jewish property was ]. | |||
In May 1943 German General ] was given authorization to create a first ] Division consisting of two brigades primarilly from ] and ], including former exiled ] commanders such as ] and ]. The division however was then not sent to fight the Red Army, but was ordered, in September 1943, to proceed to ] and fight ]'s ]. During the summer of 1944 the two brigades were upgraded to become the ] and 2nd Cossack Cavalry Division. From the beginning of 1945 these divisions were combined to become ]. | |||
A report commissioned and accepted by the Romanian government in 2004 on the Holocaust concluded:<ref name="Commission"/> | |||
Pro-German Russian forces also included the anti-communist ] (POA, {{lang-ru|Русская Освободительная Армия}}), which saw action alongside the ]. On May 1st, 1945, however, POA turned against the SS and fought on the side of ] ] during the ]. | |||
<blockquote>Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The murders committed in <!--don't change spelling on "Iasi", it's a direct quote-->], ], ], ], and ], for example, were among the most hideous murders committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust. Romania committed ] against the Jews. The survival of Jews in some parts of the country does not alter this reality.</blockquote> | |||
=== |
=== Yugoslavia === | ||
{{See also|World War II in Yugoslavia}} | |||
Prior to being invaded by ], Serbian army general ] was known to be ] advocate and was working on striking a pact with Germany. That pact was rejected by ] who demonstrated on ], ] and forced the government to withdraw. Angered by what he perceived a treason by Serbian people, Hitler invaded ] without warning on ], 1941. 11 days later Yugoslavia capitulated and a Nazi supporting government led by Milan Nedić was formed. Many Serbian organizations such as ], ], ], ] had tens of thousands of members and helped guard and run the concentration camps. By ] ] was the first city to be declared ']' ('cleansed of Jews'). | |||
On 25 March 1941, under considerable pressure, the Yugoslav government agreed to the signing of the ] with Nazi Germany, guaranteeing Yugoslavia's neutrality. The agreement was extremely unpopular in Serbia and led to massive street demonstrations.<ref name="Ridley 1994 p. 159">{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=J.G. |title=Tito: A Biography |publisher=Constable |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-09-471260-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IX5pAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Two days later, on 27 March, Serb military officers led by general ] overthrew the regency and placed 17-year-old ] on the throne.<ref name="Đonlagić Atanachovic Plenča Edwards 1967 p. 29">{{cite book |last1=Đonlagić |first1=A. |last2=Atanachovic |first2=Z. |last3=Plenča |first3=D. |last4=Edwards |first4=L.F. |last5=Milić |first5=S. |title=Yugoslavia in the Second World War |publisher=Books on Demand |series=Medunarodna štampa |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-598-52382-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhdnAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Furious at the temerity of the Serbs, Hitler ordered the ].<ref name="Goeschel 2018 p. 209">{{cite book |last=Goeschel |first=C. |title=Mussolini and Hitler: The Forging of the Fascist Alliance |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-17883-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |page=209}}</ref> On 6 April 1941, without a declaration of war, combined German and Italian military armies invaded. Eleven days later Yugoslavia capitulated and was subsequently partitioned among the Axis states.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}} | |||
[[File:Map of the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia.svg|thumb| | |||
] also collaborated with the Fascists. | |||
alt=map of Axis-held Yugoslavia|400px|Map of the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia]] | |||
The ] region and the ] were subjected to German military occupation in the ], Italian forces occupied the ] and ]; ] annexed the Kosovo region and part of ]; ] received ] (today's ]); ] occupied and annexed the ] and ] regions as well as ] and ]; the rest of ] (roughly present-day ]) was divided between ] and ]; ], ] and ] were combined into the ], a ] under the direction of Croatian fascist ].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=612}} | |||
===Slovakia=== | |||
{{main|Slovak Republic (1939–1945)}} | |||
==== Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia ==== | |||
The Slovak Republic (''Slovenská republika'') was an independent national ] state which existed from ] ] to ] ] as an ally and ] of ]. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day ] (with the exception of the southern and eastern parts of present-day Slovakia). The Republic bordered Germany, the ], ], and ]. | |||
{{See also|Axis occupation of Serbia|Government of National Salvation|Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia}}]]] | |||
Under German military occupation Serbia was at first directly administered by Nazis, then by a ] led by General ].<ref name="Lemkin 2008 p. 48">{{cite book|last=Lemkin|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0in2wOY-W0C|title=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress|publisher=Lawbook Exchange, Limited|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58477-901-8|series=Foundations of the Laws of War Publications of the Carnegie|page=248}}</ref> The main function of the government was to maintain internal order under the authority of the German Command with the use of local paramilitary units.<ref name="McDonald United States. Department of the Army 1973 p. 51">{{cite book|last=McDonald|first=G.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAWfoIgnOKAC&pg=PA51|title=Area Handbook for Yugoslavia|author2=United States. Department of the Army|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1973|series=Area handbook series|page=51}}</ref> The ] never considered raising a unit to serve in the German armed forces.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} By mid 1943, the collaborationist forces in Serbia, (Serbian and ethnic Russian units), numbered between 25,000 and 30,000.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}}<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 36">{{cite book | last1=Cohen | first1=P.J. | last2=Riesman | first2=D. | title=Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History | publisher=Texas A & M University Press | series=Eastern European studies | year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89096-760-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz1PW_wnHYMC&pg=PA37|page=37}}</ref> | |||
===== Serbian units ===== | |||
{{Expand|date=January 2007}} | |||
Serbian collaborationist organizations the ] (SDS) and the Serbian Border Guard (SGS) reached a combined 21,000 men at their peak. The ] (SDK), the party militia of the fascist ] led by ], reached 9,886 men; its members helped guard and run concentration camps and fought the ] and the ] alongside the Germans. In October 1941, the Serbian Volunteer Corps participated in the ], arresting and delivering hostages to the Wehrmacht.<ref name="Hayes Diefendorf Horowitz Herzog 2012 p. 18">{{cite book | last1=Hayes | first1=P. | last2=Diefendorf | first2=J.M. | last3=Horowitz | first3=S.R. | last4=Herzog | first4=D. | last5=Smelser | first5=R.M. | last6=Lower | first6=W. | author7=Holocaust Educational Foundation | last8=Rossi | first8=L.F. | title=Lessons and Legacies X: Back to the Sources: Reexamining Perpetrators, Victims, and Bystanders | publisher=Northwestern University Press | series=Lessons & Legacies | year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8101-2862-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYJS1xt5SPoC&pg=PT35 | page=35}}</ref> The members of the Serbian Volunteer Corps had to take an oath stating that they would fight to death against both Communists and Chetniks.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} | |||
Collaborationist ] helped German units round up Jewish citizens for deportation to concentration camps. By the summer of 1942, most Serbian Jews had been exterminated.<ref>{{cite book|author=Barry M. Lituchy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvAhAQAAIAAJ|title=Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia: analyses and survivor testimonies|publisher=Jasenovac Research Institute|year=2006|isbn=978-0-9753432-0-3|page=xxxiii}}</ref> By the end of 1942 the Special Police had 240 agents and 878 police guards under the command of the ].<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 36"/> After the liberation of the country in October 1944, the collaborationist forces retreated with the German army and were later absorbed into the ].<ref name="Dolbeau 2006 p.255">{{cite book|last=Dolbeau|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGUjAQAAIAAJ|title=Face au bolchevisme: petit dictionnaire des résistances nationales à l'Est de l'Europe (1917–1989)|trans-title=In the face of Bolshevism: Little dictionary of national resistance movements in Eastern Europe (1917–1989)| publisher=Arctic | year=2006|isbn=978-2-916713-00-7|language=fr}}</ref> | |||
===Slovenia=== | |||
] | |||
{{main|Slovensko domobranstvo}} | |||
Almost from the start, two rival guerrilla movements, the Chetniks and the Partisans, engaged in a bloody civil war with each other, in addition to fighting against the occupying forces. Some Chetniks ] with the ] occupation to fight the rival Partisan resistance, whom they viewed as their primary enemy, by establishing ''modus vivendi'' or operating as "legalised" auxiliary forces under Axis control.<ref name="Ramet 2006 p. 1472">{{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=147}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|pp=223–225}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|MacDonald|2002|pp=140–142}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pavlowitch|2007|pp=65–67}}</ref> | |||
In August 1941 ] put himself and his ] at the disposal of ]'s government, becoming the occupation regime's 'legal Chetniks'.{{sfn|Glenny|2000|p=489}} At the peak of their strength in mid-May 1942, the two legal Chetnik auxiliary forces numbered 13,400 men; these detachments were dissolved by the end of 1942.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} Pećanac was captured and executed by forces loyal to his Chetnik rival ] in 1944. As no single Chetnik organization existed,{{sfn|Glenny|2000|p=489}} other Chetnik units engaged independently in marginal<ref name="Milazzo p1822">{{harvnb|Milazzo|1975|p=182}}</ref> resistance activities and avoided accommodations with the enemy.<ref name="Ramet 2006 p. 1472" /><ref>{{harvnb|Milazzo|1975|p=21}}</ref> Over a period of time, and in different parts of the country, some Chetnik groups were drawn progressively<ref name="Milazzo p1822" /><ref>{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p={{page needed|date=November 2022}}}}</ref> into opportunist agreements: first with the Nedić forces in Serbia, then with the Italians in occupied ] and ], with some of the ] forces in northern ], and after the Italian capitulation, also with the ] directly.<ref name="Tomasevich p1962">{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p=169}}</ref> In some regions Chetniks collaborated "extensively and systematically", which they called "using the enemy".<ref name="Tomasevich p1962" /><ref name="Tomasevich p2462">{{harvnb|Tomasevich|1975|p=246}}</ref><ref name="Ramet p1452">{{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=145}} "Both the Chetniks' political program and the extent of their collaboration have been amply, even voluminously, documented; it is more than a bit disappointing, thus, that people can still be found who believe that the Chetniks were doing anything besides attempting to realize a vision of an ethnically homogeneous Greater Serbian state, which they intended to advance, in the short run, by a policy of collaboration with the Axis forces. The Chetniks collaborated extensively and systematically with the Italian occupation forces until the Italian capitulation in September 1943, and beginning in 1944, portions of the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović collaborated openly with the Germans and Ustaša forces in Serbia and Croatia."</ref> | |||
'''Slovensko domobranstvo''' (German: ''Slowenische Landeswehr'', English: ''Slovene Home Guard'') or SD for short, was a collaborationist force, formed in September 1943 in the area of present day ] (then a part of ]). An individual member was a 'Domobranec', the plural of which was 'Domobranci'. | |||
SD functioned like most collaborationist forces in ]-occupied Europe during World War II, but had limited autonomy, and at first functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in anti-] actions. Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-Partisan operations in the Slovenian area. | |||
===== Ethnic Russian units ===== | |||
Much of the SD's equipment was ] (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war. | |||
The Auxiliary Police Troop and the ] were paramilitary units raised in the German-occupied territory of Serbia, composed exclusively of anti-communist ]s or Volksdeutsche from Russia, under the command of General ] (around 400 and 7,500 men respectively by December 1942).{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=192}} The force reached a peak size of 11,197 by September 1944.<ref name="Cohen Riesman 1996 p. 100">{{cite book | last1=Cohen | first1=P.J. | last2=Riesman | first2=D. | title=Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History | publisher=Texas A & M University Press | series=Eastern European studies | year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89096-760-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz1PW_wnHYMC&pg=PA37}}</ref> Unlike the Serbian units, the Russian Protective Corps was part of the German armed forces and its members took the ].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=189}} | |||
=== |
===== Banat ===== | ||
{{See also|Banat (1941–1944)|Axis occupation of Vojvodina}}] manned by ] (ethnic Germans) primarily from the Serbian ] ]] | |||
] | |||
Between April 1941 and October 1944, the Serbian half of the ] was under German military occupation as an administrative unit of the ]. Its daily administration and security were left up to its 120,000 ], who represented 20% of the local population. In the Banat, ], ] warfare, and border patrols, were exclusively carried out by the Volksdeutsche in the Deutsche Mannschaft. In 1941, the Banat Auxiliary Police force was created to serve in ]. It had 1,552 members by February 1943.<ref name="Zakić 2017 p. 152">{{cite book|last=Zakić|first=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I81WDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152|title=Ethnic Germans and National Socialism in Yugoslavia in World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-316-77306-2|page=152}}</ref><!-- with this correction, source is verified -Elinruby --> It was affiliated with the ] and included some 400 ]. The ] in the Banat employed local ethnic Germans as agents. Banat Jews were deported and exterminated with the full participation of the Banat German leadership, the Banat Police and many ethnic German civilians.<ref name="Zakić 2017 p. 152" /> | |||
{{main|Ukrainian-German collaboration during World War II}} | |||
] was split during the Second World War between the ] of the ] and the ], in addition to minor regions being in ] and ]. Although only the former recognised the Ukrainian autonomy, and most of the Ukrainians did fight for the ], the negative impacts of Soviet policies such as the ] of 1933 and the persecution of many intellectuals during the ] of 1937, as well as after the annexation of ] from Poland in 1939 and the ] and repressions in the region in 1939–1941 meant that many towns, cities and villages, greeted the Germans as liberators with a traditional welcome "]". Under the German administration ethnic Ukrainians were allowed to work in administrative positions such as in the auxiliary police, post office, government structures, something that was denied to them under the previous Polish <!--and Soviet - PLEASE REFRENCE THIS!--> regime. | |||
According to German sources, as of 28 December 1943, the Volksdeutsche minority of the Banat had contributed 21,516 men to the Waffen SS, the auxiliary police, and the Banat police.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}} | |||
There is evidence of Ukrainian participation in the ].<ref>]: '''' p.14. Accessed January 14, 2006."</ref> The Ukrainian auxiliary police participated in rounding up of Jews who were headed to the ] massacre near ]<ref> While Kaminski Brigade was convicted in that crimes and he was shoot by Germans for war crimes. | |||
The 700,000 Volksdeutsche who lived in Yugoslavia<ref name="Schiessl 2016 p. 2">{{cite book | last=Schiessl | first=C. | title=Alleged Nazi Collaborators in the United States after World War II | publisher=Lexington Books | year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4985-2941-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CYqUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2PAGE}}</ref> were the basis for the ], which towards the war's end included other ethnicities. The division's soldiers brutally punished civilians accused of working with partisans in both occupied Serbia and the ], going so far as to raze entire villages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://znaci.org/00001/84.htm|title="TEROR" I "ZLOČINI" NACISTIČKE NEMAČKE U SRBIJI 1941–1945|last=Glišić|first=Venceslav|date=1970|website=znaci.net|archive-url=https://archive.today/20190122134017/http://www.znaci.net/00001/84.htm|archive-date=22 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=May 2023}} | |||
"The implementation to kill ]an Jews was entrusted to Sonderkommando 4a. This unit consisted of SD (Sicherheitsdienst; Security Service) and Sicherheitspolizei (Security Police; Sipo) men; the third company of the Special Duties Waffen-SS battalion; and a platoon of the No. 9 police battalion. The unit was reinforced by police battalions Nos. 45 and 305 and aided by units of the Ukrainian auxiliary police." (, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Israel Gutman, editor in Chief, ], Sifriat Hapoalim, MacMillan Publishing Company,1990)</ref><ref>"The Ukrainians led them past a number of different places where one after the other they had to remove their luggage, then their coats, shoes and overgarments and also underwear. They also had to leave their valuables in a designated place. There was a special pile for each article of clothing. It all happened very quickly and anyone who hesitated was kicked or pushed by the Ukrainians to keep them moving." ()</ref><ref> (Ukraine Christian News, May 3, 2006) Accessed January 14, 2006</ref> | |||
and in other Ukrainian cities and towns, such as ], <ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
],<ref></ref> | |||
and ].<ref></ref> | |||
==== Montenegro ==== | |||
Soviet POWs of various ethnic origin trained in ] training camp served as guards of the ] killing centers and concentration camps in Poland. | |||
The ] was established as an Italian protectorate with the support of Montenegrin separatists known as ]. The ], the militia of the Greens, collaborated with the Italians. Other collaborationist units included local Chetniks, police, gendarmerie and ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&pg=PA143&dq=%22war+and+revolution+in+yugoslavia%22+%22gendarmerie%22+%22montenegro%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DnHeU6VE76HsBpnWgdAE&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22war%20and%20revolution%20in%20yugoslavia%22%20%22gendarmerie%22%20%22montenegro%22&f=false|date=15 January 2016}} by Jozo Tomasevich. Google Books.</ref> | |||
==== Kosovo ==== | |||
The Germans attempted to recruit Soviet people (and to a lesser extent other Eastern Europeans) voluntarily for the ] or Eastern worker program; originally this worked, but the news of the terrible conditions they faced dried up the volunteers and the program became forcible.<ref name=Gregorovich></ref> | |||
{{Further|German_occupation_of_Albania#Collaboration|Greater Albania}} | |||
Most of Kosovo and the western part of southern Serbia ({{Lang|sr|Juzna Srbija}}, included in ]) was annexed to Albania by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.<ref name="Littlejohn 1994 p. 8">{{cite book|last=Littlejohn|first=D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwRvjgEACAAJ|title=Foreign Legions of the Third Reich|publisher=R. James Bender Publishing|year=1994|isbn=978-0-912138-29-9|issue=v. 3|page=8}}</ref> Kosovar Albanians were recruited into Albanian paramilitary groups known as the ], set up to assist Italian fascists maintain order,<ref name="Bishop 2012 p. 136">{{cite book|last=Bishop|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j43fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT136|title=SS Hitler's Foreign Divisions: Foreign Volunteers in the Waffen-SS 1940–45|publisher=Amber Books Ltd|year=2012|isbn=978-1-908273-99-4|series=Military Classics|page=136}}</ref> many Serbs and Jews were expelled from Kosovo and sent to internment camps in Albania.<ref name="World Jewish Congress 2008 p. 34">{{cite book|author=World Jewish Congress|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbAvAQAAIAAJ|title=The Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs|publisher=Israel Council on Foreign Relations|year=2008|issue=v. 2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}} | |||
The ] militias, or Ballistas, were volunteer Albanian nationalistic groups that started as a resistance movement, then collaborated with the Axis Powers in hopes of seeing ] created.<ref name="Bishop 2005 p. 190">{{cite book | last=Bishop | first=C. | title=Hitler's Foreign Divisions: Foreign Volunteers in the Waffen-SS, 1940–1945 | publisher=Amber Books | series=Armenian Research Center collection | year=2005 |isbn=978-1-904687-37-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6glAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> Military units were formed within the militias, among them the ], raised in ] as a Nazi auxiliary military unit after Italian capitulation.<ref name="Elsie 1997 p. 36">{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4BpAAAAMAAJ|title=Kosovo: In the Heart of the Powder Keg|publisher=East European Monographs|year=1997|isbn=978-0-88033-375-7|series=East European monographs}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}} | |||
During the period of occupation, various articles in some Ukrainian language newspapers reflected the German stance regarding the Jewish population, with one commenting, "The element that settled our cities (Jews)... must disappear completely from our cities. The Jewish problem is already in the process of being solved."<ref>''Volhyn'' on September 1, 1941 </ref> | |||
According to German reports, in early 1944 some 20,000 Albanian guerrillas led by ] fought the Partisans alongside the ] in Albania and Kosovo.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=47}} | |||
==== Macedonia ==== | |||
Ukrainian forces participated in crushing the ] of 1943<ref> (])</ref> | |||
In Bulgaria-annexed ], the occupation authority organized the ] into auxiliary security forces. On 11 March 1943, ]'s entire Jewish population was deported to the gas chambers of ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Expulsion of the Jews: Five Hundred Years of Exodus |author=Yale Strom |publisher=SP Books |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-56171-081-2 |page=17}}</ref> | |||
and also later the ] of 1944 where a mixed force of German SS troops, Russians, Cossacks, Azeris and Ukrainians, backed by German regular army units - committed countless atrocities - killing up to 40,000 civilians in the first two days alone.<ref> Excerpts from: German Crimes in Poland. Howard Fertig, New York, 1982. </ref><ref> (BBC) 2 August 2004</ref> | |||
==== Slovene Lands ==== | |||
By April 28, 1943 German Command created the ] manned by 14,000 volunteers. <ref>Williamson, G: ''The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror''</ref> Atrocities and massacres were committed by the SS Galizien division against various ethnic minorities, during the course of WW2 <ref>{{cite book | author=Litman, Sol | title=Pure Soldiers or Bloodthirsty Murderers?: The Ukrainian 14th Waffen-SS Galicia Division | edition=Hardcover | publisher=Black Rose Books | year=2003| id=ISBN 1551642190}}</ref>. | |||
{{Main|World War II in the Slovene Lands|Slovene Home Guard}} | |||
NOTE: For a more balanced view of the history of the 'Galicia' Division, follow the link at the beginning of this paragraph. | |||
] | |||
The Axis powers divided the ] into three zones. Germany occupied the largest, northern part. Italy annexed the southern part, and Hungary annexed the northeast part, ].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}} As in the rest of Yugoslavia, the Nazis used the Slovene ] to further their aims, in groups like the Deutsche Jugend (German Youth) which was used as an auxiliary military force for guard duty and fighting the partisans, and the ].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}} | |||
The ] ({{Lang|sl|Domobranci}}) was a collaborationist force formed in September 1943 in the ] (then a part of ]). It was led by former general ] but had limited autonomy, and at first, functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in ] actions.<ref name="Gow Carmichael 2000 p. 49">{{cite book | last1=Gow | first1=J. | last2=Carmichael | first2=C. | title=Slovenia and the Slovenes: A Small State and the New Europe | publisher=Hurst | series=Reprint Due July Series | year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85065-428-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktEZsky0DPQC| page=49}}</ref> Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-partisan operations in Ljubljana. Much of the Guard's equipment was Italian (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war. Similar, but much smaller units, were also formed in the ] (''Primorska'') and ] (''Gorenjska''). The ], also known as the Slovene Chetniks, was an anti-communist militia led by ] and ].<ref name="Kranjc 2013 p. 85">{{cite book | last=Kranjc | first=G.J. | title=To Walk with the Devil: Slovene Collaboration and Axis Occupation, 1941–1945 | publisher=University of Toronto Press | year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4426-1330-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1nVurhv7wwMC&pg=PA85| page=85}}</ref> | |||
Other examples are Zhitomir on September 18, 1941, in the Ukraine where 3,145 Jews were murdered with the assistance of Ukrainian militia (Operational Report 106) and Korosten where Ukrainian militia rounded up 238 Jews for liquidation (Operational Report 80). At times the assistance was more active. Operational Report 88, for example, reports that on September 6, 1941, 1,107 Jewish adults were shot while the Ukrainian militia unit assisting them liquidated 561 Jewish children and youths. <ref>Accessed January 14, 2006 /</ref> | |||
The ] (MVAC), was under Italian authority. One of the biggest components of the MVAC was the Civic Guards ({{Interlanguage link|Vaške Straže|sl}}),<ref name="Gow Carmichael 2000 p. 49"/> a Slovene volunteer military organization formed by the Italian Fascist authorities to fight the partisans, as well as some collaborationist Chetniks units. The ] ({{Lang|sl|Legija Smrti}}), was another Slovene anti-partisan armed unit formed after the Blue Guard joined the MVAC.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=83}} | |||
===United Kingdom=== | |||
The ] were the only territory in the British Isles occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. Local police collaborated with the Nazis in rounding up Jews for deportation and murder. The issue was never addressed by British law-enforcement authorities following World War II. "In Britain the administrators and the police in the Channel Islands (the only part of the United Kingdom occupied by the Germans) who had helped with the deportation of Jews continued to work in their old positions, and some of them even received the Order of the British Empire for the bravery they had shown in the war years." <ref>Laqueur, Walter: ''Holocaust Encyclopedia'', Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2001</ref> | |||
=== |
==== Independent State of Croatia ==== | ||
{{Main|Independent State of Croatia|Croatian Armed Forces (Independent State of Croatia)|Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia}} | |||
In the European theatre several countries signed or adhered to the ] particularly in ] and ]. | |||
On 10 April 1941, a few days before Yugoslavia's capitulation, ]'s ] (NDH) was established as an Axis-affiliated state, with ] as capital.<ref name="Yeomans 2012 p. 8">{{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC|title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-8229-7793-3|series=Pitt series in Russian and East European studies}}</ref> Between 1941 and 1945, the fascist ] regime collaborated with Nazi Germany, and engaged in independent persecution. According to the ], this resulted in the deaths of approximately 30,000 Jews, between 25,000 and 30,000 Roma, and between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs from Croatia and Bosnia,<ref name="Holocaust Encyclopedia 1943">{{cite web|date=1943-03-11|title=Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-invasion-of-yugoslavia|website=Holocaust Encyclopedia}}</ref> in camps like the infamous ].<ref name="The Holocaust Encyclopedia 1941">{{cite web|date=1941-04-10|title=Jasenovac|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jasenovac|website=The Holocaust Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref name="JUSP">{{cite web|title=List of Individual Victims of Jasenovac Concentration Camp|url=http://www.jusp-jasenovac.hr/Default.aspx?sid=6711|access-date=10 May 2016|work=Official website of the Jasenovac Memorial Site}}</ref> | |||
*Slovakia entered into a treaty of protection with Germany on ], ]. | |||
*Albania joined Italy in "personal union" on ], ]. | |||
*Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact on ], ] | |||
*Bulgaria signed the Tripartite Pact on ], ]. | |||
*Romania signed the Tripartite Pact on ], ]. | |||
*Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on ], ], but ] as a consequence, and therefore cannot be considered as part of the Pact. | |||
The ], created in February 1943, and the ], created in January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as well as local Germans. Earlier in the war, Pavelić formed a ] for the Eastern Front and attached it to the Wehrmacht. Volunteer pilots joined the ] as Pavelić did not want to get his army directly involved for both propaganda reasons (Domobrans/Home Guards were a "chieftain of Croatian values, never attacking and only defending") and due to a safeguarding need for political flexibility with the Soviet Union.] gives the ] while reviewing ] in 1943 with ''Waffen-SS'' General ].]]Pavelić proclaimed that Croats were the descendants of ], to eliminate the leadership's ] and be better viewed by the Germans. The ] stated that "Croats are not ], but ] by ] and ]".{{sfn|Беляков|2009|p=146}} Nazi German leadership was indifferent to this claim.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} | |||
The tripartite signatories can best be described as a whole as the "Axis Powers" which in a sense was a collaborationist effort or alliance much like the Allies. Collaboration within the Axis alliance is detailed in ], this article will deal mostly with significant collaboration by governments or civilians in occupied territories. | |||
=== |
====Bosnia==== | ||
In 1941 Bosnia became an integral part of the Independent State of Croatia. Bosnian Muslims were considered Croats of Islamic confession.<ref name="Pinson Mottahedeh 1996 p. 141">{{cite book|last1=Pinson|first1=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yl3TAkJmztYC|title=The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia|last2=Mottahedeh|first2=R.P.|publisher=Center for Middle Eastern Studies of Harvard University|year=1996|isbn=978-0-932885-12-8|series=Harvard Middle Eastern monographs}}</ref> | |||
Material support was the direct government sanctioned involvement in the war effort in support of the Axis powers politically, economically and materially. | |||
== Soviet Union == | |||
The most significant support of Germany came from the European tripartite signatories of the Balkans. ] declared war on the Allies along with the ] in 1940 and later that year ] declared war on ] and the ]. Slovakian, Albanian and Hungarian national units and armies fought with the German forces against the Soviet Union on the eastern front throughout the war. | |||
] and ] parade in ] at end of ]. ''Center:'' Maj. Gen. ]. ''Right:'' ] ].]] | |||
{{main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union}} | |||
] began on 22 June 1941 and, by November 1942, Nazi Germany had occupied around {{Convert|750,000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} of the Soviet Union.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Nigel |title=Hitler's Russian & Cossack Allies 1941–45 |publisher=] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4728-0687-1 |series=Men-at-Arms |location=Oxford |pages=3–5}}</ref> By November 1944, the German forces had been forced out of the pre-World War II Soviet territory.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
According to the American historian Jeffrey Burds, out of the three million armed collaborators with Nazi Germany in Europe, as many as 2.5 million originated from the Soviet Union, and by 1945, every eighth German soldier had previously been a pre-war Soviet citizen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burds |first=Jeffrey |date=2007 |title=The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942-4 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036445 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=42 |issue=2 |page=308 |doi=10.1177/0022009407075545 |jstor=30036445 |s2cid=159523593 |issn=0022-0094}}</ref> ] writes that 1 to 1.5 million men from the territory of the USSR served militarily under the Germans.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |title=The Fall of Berlin 1945 |pages=113–114}}</ref> Regardless, the precise number will never be known.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Jurado |first=Carlos Caballero |title=Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941-1945 |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=0-85045-524-3 |series=Men-at-Arms |page=12}}</ref>{{dubious|date=February 2024}} The people from the Soviet Union served in the Wehrmacht under a wide array of units: ], Security units, ] (ROA), ], ], various independent Russian units ({{Ill|1st Russian National SS Brigade "Druzhina"|lt=SS-Verband Drushina|ru|1-я русская национальная бригада СС «Дружина»}}, ], ], ]) and the ].<ref name=":0" /> | |||
However, significant support was also given by many countries initially at war with Germany but which subsequently elected to adopt a policy of co-operation. | |||
Toward's the war's end, the ] and the ] began conflicting over the Eastern Legions and Cossack units.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Drobyazko |first1=S. |title=Восточные легионы и казачьи части в Вермахте |last2=Karashchuk |first2=A. |year=2001 |location=Moscow |pages=3–4 |language=ru |trans-title=Eastern legions and Cossack units in the Wehrmacht}}</ref> The former tried to control all non-German troops fighting in the Wehrmacht, while the latter had its own policy towards the military units, which was helped by the national committees whose patron it was.<ref name=":6" /> Most national committees refused to subordinate themselves and the associated military units to ]'s ] (KONR) and its ] (ROA), instead choosing to declare national armies, e.g. Caucasian Liberation Army and National Army of Turkestan.<ref name=":6" /> However, through the help of his patrons in the SS Main Office, Vlasov became their ostensibly leader by April 1945 and all national committees and related troops were nominally subordinated to him.<ref name=":6" />] (centre), accompanied by a German general, inspects a detachment of the Russian Liberation Army. ]]According to Antony Beevor, those serving under the Germans were "often extraordinarily naïve and ill-informed."<ref name=":1" /> Many viewed their service under the Germans as just serving in another military service and a way to ensure food for themselves, which they preferred to being maltreated and starved in a prisoner-of-war camp.<ref name=":1" /> | |||
The ] recruited from many nationalities living in the Soviet Union, and the German government attempted to enroll Soviet citizens voluntarily for the '']'' program. Originally this effort worked well, but the news of the terrible conditions faced by workers dried up the flow of new volunteers and the program became forcible.<ref name="Gregorovich" /> | |||
The ] government in France is one of the best known and most significant examples of collaboration between former enemies of Germany and Germany itself. When the French Vichy government emerged at the same time of the ] in ] there was much confusion regarding the loyalty of French overseas colonies and more importantly their overseas armies and naval fleet. The reluctance of Vichy France to either disarm or surrender their naval fleet resulted in the British ] on ] ]. Later in the war French colonies were frequently used as staging areas for invasions or airbases for the Axis powers both in ] and ]. This resulted in the invasion of Syria and ] with the capture of ] on ] and later the ] against Vichy French forces which lasted for 7 months until November the same year. | |||
=== Hiwis === | |||
Many other countries cooperated to some extend and in much different ways. Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943 and actively helped recruit members for the ''Nordland'' and ''Wiking'' Waffen SS divisions and helped organize trade and sale of industrial and agricultural products to Germany. In Greece, the three quisling prime ministers (], ] and ]) cooperated with the Axis authorities. Agricultural products (especially tobacco) were sent to Germany, Greek "volunteers" were sent to work to German factories, and special armed forces (such as the ] were created to fight along German soldiers against the Allies and the Resistance movement. In Norway the government successfully managed to escape to ] but ] established a puppet regime in its absence—albeit with little support from the local population. | |||
Already from the very first days, individual deserters and prisoners from the ] were offering their help to the Germans in auxiliary duties such as, but not limited to, cooking, driving, and medical assistance.<ref name=":4" /> There were also Soviet civilians that joined supply units and construction battalions.<ref name=":0" /> Both military and civilian auxiliaries were called ] (German abbreviation for auxiliary volunteer) with the former Soviets soldiers frequently wearing their Red Army uniforms without any Soviet insignia.<ref name=":0" /> After two months service, they were permitted to wear German uniforms with insignia and ranks, which made veteran Hiwis almost indistinguishable from the regular German soldiers, although their promotion up the ranks was very limited.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
Hitler reluctantly gave permission in September 1941 to recruit people from the Soviet Union as unarmed voluntary assistants, but in practice this was frequently ignored and many of them served in frontline units.<ref name=":0" /> Sometimes many of the men of German units consisted of the Hiwis, for example, half of the ] and a quarter of the ] consisted of Hiwis in late 1942.<ref name=":0" /> The Red Army authorities estimated that more than a million served in the Wehrmacht as Hiwis.<ref name=":1" />]'' troops of the ] in France, 1943|left]] | |||
=== Volunteers === | |||
Volunteers joined the ], the auxiliary police (''Schutzmannschaft'') and the ] from most occupied countries and even a small number from some ] countries (]). Overall, almost 600.000 of Waffen-SS members were non-German with some countries as Belgium and the Netherlands contributing thousands of volunteers. | |||
=== Eastern Legions === | |||
Various collaborationalist parties in occupied ] and the ] government assisted in establishing the ]. This volunteer army initially counted some 10,000 volunteers and would later become the 33rd Waffen SS division and one of the first SS divisions comprising mostly foreigners. | |||
{{See also|Ostlegionen|Turkic, Caucasian, Cossack, and Crimean collaborationism with the Axis powers}} | |||
The failure of the Axis powers to immediately defeat the Soviet Union in late 1941 led the Wehrmacht to resort to new sources of manpower necessary for a protracted war.<ref name=":6" /> In November–December 1941, Hitler ordered the formation of four ]: ], ], ] and ].<ref name=":6" /> In August 1942, the "Regulations on Local Auxiliary Formations in the East" singled out the ] and the ] as "equal allies fighting shoulder to shoulder with German soldiers against Bolshevism in composition of special combat units."<ref name=":6" /> The incorporation of eastern battalions into German divisions guarding the ] in Western Europe caused problems as they were totally unfit to fight against the ] and the battalions were actually a burden on the weakened divisions that they were supposed to replenish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kroener |first=Bernhard R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAlNsmScl3AC&dq=Order+on+Local+Auxiliary+Formations+in+the+East&pg=PA1057 |title=Germany and the Second World War |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820873-0 |volume=V/2 |page=1057 |language=en}}</ref> Between 275,000 and 350,000 "Muslim and Caucasian" volunteers and conscripts served in the Wehrmacht.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Altstadt |first=Audrey L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7eyoAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT187 |title=The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule |date=2013 |publisher=Hoover Press |isbn=978-0-8179-9183-8 |page=187 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
Following is a list of the 21 largest Waffen SS division composed mostly or totally of members from foreign countries. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
|+ | |||
{{col-3}} | |||
!Ethnic groups from the USSR | |||
*] | |||
!Estimates of people that served in the Wehrmacht | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|], ], ] and other ] | |||
*] | |||
|~70,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
*] | |||
|<40,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
*] | |||
|<30,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
*] | |||
|25,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
{{col-break}} | |||
|20,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
*] | |||
|12,500<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
*] | |||
|] | |||
*] | |||
|10,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
*] | |||
|- | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
|] | |||
|7,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|70,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
|- | |||
!Total | |||
!280,000<ref name=":6" /> | |||
|} | |||
Between early 1942 and late 1943, the {{Lang|de|Kommando der Ostlegionen in Polen}} formed a total of 54 battalions, but this was not the only place where such units were being created:<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Jurado |first=Carlos Caballero |title=Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941–1945 |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=0-85045-524-3 |series=Men-at-Arms |page=19}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Eastern Legion Battalions formed | |||
by {{Lang|de|Kommando der Ostlegionen in Polen}}<ref name=":7" /> | |||
!Legion | |||
!No. of battalions formed | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|15 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|9 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|8 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|8 | |||
|- | |||
|] (Volga Finns and Tartars) | |||
|7 | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|7 | |||
|- | |||
!Total | |||
!54 | |||
|} | |||
=== Russia === | |||
Apart from frontline units volunteers played another important role notably in the large ‘’Schutzmannschaft’’ units in the German occupied territories in Eastern Europe. After ] recruitment of local forces began almost immediately mostly by initiative of ]. These forces were not members of the regular armed forces and were not intended for frontline duty but were instead used for rear echelon activities including maintaining peace, fighting ], acting as police and organizing supplies for the front lines. In the later years of the war these units numbered almost 200.000. | |||
{{Main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union#Russian collaborationism}} | |||
]'s ] ("РОА"), 1944]] | |||
In Russia proper, ethnic ] governed the semi-autonomous ] in Nazi-occupied Russia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzdIEAAAQBAJ|title=Fighting Hunger, Dealing with Shortage (2 vols): Everyday Life under Occupation in World War II Europe: A Source Edition |page=775|publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-46184-0 |editor-last=Haslinger |editor-first=Peter |editor-last2=Tönsmeyer |editor-first2=Tatjana}}</ref> On 22 June 1943, a parade of the Wehrmacht and Russian collaborationist forces was welcomed and positively received in ]. The entry of Germans into Pskov was labelled "Liberation day" by occupying authorities, and the old Russian tricolor flag was included in the parade.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Enstad|first=Johannes Due|title=Soviet Russians under Nazi Occupation|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-36770-7|doi=10.1017/9781108367707|s2cid=158890368|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4T4twEACAAJ}}</ref> | |||
==== Kalmykians ==== | |||
== Collaboration with the Empire of Japan == | |||
The ] was composed of about 5,000 ] who chose to join the retreating Germans in 1942 rather than remain in ] as the German Army retreated before the ].<ref name="Pohl1999">{{cite book|author=J. Otto Pohl|title=Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b9VoAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-30921-2|pages=61–65}}</ref> ] subsequently declared the Kalmyk population as a whole to be German collaborators in 1943 and ] to ], causing great loss of life.<ref>, J. Otto Pohl, pp. 267–293 03 Aug 2010 {{doi|10.1080/713677598}} Journal of Genocide Research | |||
During World War II the ] occupied all or parts (often territories) of at least 9 countries: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (]), ] and ]. | |||
Volume 2, 2000 – Issue 2</ref> | |||
=== Belarus === | |||
The Japanese set up several puppet regimes in occupied Chinese territories. The first of which was ] in 1932, followed by the ] in 1935. Similar to ] in its supposed ethnic identity, ] (Mengkukuo) was set up in late 1936. ]'s collaborationist ] was set up in 1937 following the start of full-scale military operations between China and Japan, and it became the ] in 1938. The ], established in 1940, "consolidated" these regimes, though in reality neither Wang's government nor the constituent governments had any autonomy. | |||
{{Main|Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi Germany}} | |||
In ], local pro-independence politicians attempted to use the Nazis to re-establish an ], which was conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1919. A Belarusian representative body, the ], was created under German control in 1943 but had no real power and concentrated mainly on managing social issues and education. Belarusian national military units (the ]) were only created a few months before the end of the German occupation. | |||
Many Belarusian collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red Army advance. In January 1945, the ] was formed from the remains of Belarusian military units. The division participated in a small number of battles in France but demonstrated active disloyalty to the Nazis and saw mass desertion.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} | |||
The military forces of these puppet regimes, known collectively as the Collaborationist Army (伪军), numbered more than a million at their height, and a total of some 2 million were ever conscripted. Although certain collaborationist forces had limited battlefield presence during the ], most were relegated to behind-the-line duties. | |||
== |
=== Transcaucasia === | ||
{{Main|Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union#Other}} | |||
*60% of the ] comprised non-Germans <ref>. ''By the end of the war, 60% of the Waffen-SS consisted of volunteers from other countries; some of the soldiers at Dachau that day were Hungarian''. Accessed ] ].</ref> | |||
] | |||
] in combat gear. The unit helped suppress the ] in August 1944]] | |||
Ethnic Armenian, Georgian, Turkic and Caucasian forces deployed by the Germans consisted primarily of Soviet Red Army POWs assembled into ill-trained legions.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} Among these battalions were 18,000 Armenians, 13,000 Azerbaijanis, 14,000 Georgians, and 10,000 men from the "North Caucasus."{{sfn|Ailsby|2004|pp=123–124}} American historian ] notes that the ] and ] Legions were sent to the Netherlands as a result of Hitler's distrust of them, and ] later deserted.<ref name="alexander" /> Author Christopher Ailsby called the Turkic and Caucasian forces formed by the Germans "poorly armed, trained and motivated", and "unreliable and next to useless".{{sfn|Ailsby|2004|pp=123–124}} | |||
*The predominantly Scandinavian '']'' division along with remnants of ] and ] volunteers were last defenders of the ] in ]. | |||
The ] (the Dashnaks) was suppressed in ] when the ] was conquered by the Russian ] in the 1920 ] and thus ceased to exist. During World War II, some of the Dashnaks saw an opportunity to regain Armenia's independence. The ] under ] participated in the occupation of the ] and the ].{{sfn|Auron|2003|p=238}} On 15 December 1942, the Armenian National Council was granted official recognition by ], the ]. The president of the Council was ], its vice-president was ], and it numbered among its members ] and ]. Until the end of 1944, the organization published a weekly journal, ''Armenian'', edited by Viken Shantn, who also broadcast on Radio Berlin with the aid of Dr. ].<ref name="christopher" /> | |||
*The Waffen-SS maintained several "Foreign Legions" made up of personnel from conquered territories and countries allied to Germany. The majority of such personnel wore distinctive a ] and preceded their ] titles with the prefix ''Waffen'' instead of SS. The racial restrictions were relaxed for these soldiers to the extent that ] ]s, ] from ], and ] ]' units were recruited. The Ukrainians and the Tatars had both suffered persecution under ] and their motive appeared to be hatred of ] rather than belief in National Socialism. The Kosovo Albanians were likely motivated by the chance to exterminate ]. One year of ] occupation of ] at the beginning of World War II produced enough volunteers to form ]n and ]n SS formations.<ref>, ]</ref> | |||
== Collaboration beyond Europe with the European Axis powers == | |||
{{further|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}} | |||
{{See also|Afrika Korps|Italian colonization of Libya}} | |||
===Egypt and the Palestine mandate=== | |||
The well-publicized ] in ] from 1936 to 1939, and the rise of Nazi Germany, began to affect Jewish relations with Egyptian society, despite the fact that the number of active ] was small.<ref>Joel Beinin, Introduction</ref> Local militant and nationalistic societies, like the ] and the ], circulated false reports claiming that Jews and the British were destroying ], and other reports that hundreds of Arab women and children were being killed.<ref name="Küntzel 1–2">{{cite journal|last=Küntzel|first=Matthias|title=National Socialism and Anti-Semitism in the Arab World|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|date=Spring 2005|volume=17|issue=1/2 |pages=99–118|jstor=25834622 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25834622 }}</ref>{{undue weight inline|Was this connected to collaboration with Axis powers?|date=March 2023}} Some of this antisemitism was fueled by an association between Hitler's regime and anti-imperialist Arab activists. One activist, ], received Nazi funds for the Muslim Brotherhood to print and distribute thousands of anti-Semitic propaganda pamphlets.<ref name="Küntzel 1–2"/> | |||
In the 1940s the situation worsened. Sporadic pogroms began in 1942.{{undue weight inline|Was this connected to collaboration with Axis powers?|date=March 2023}}{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} | |||
===French colonial empire=== | |||
France retained its ], and the terms of the ] shifted the ] of France's reduced military resources away from ] and towards its overseas possessions, especially ]. Although in 1940, most French colonies except for the ] had rallied to ], this changed during the war. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled ], were under the control of the Free French.{{Sfn|Thomas|2007}} ] in particular played a key role.{{Sfn|Jennings|2015}} | |||
==== French North Africa ==== | |||
Concerned that the French fleet might fall into German hands, the British ] sank or disabled most of it in the July 1940 ], which poisoned Anglo-French relations and led to Vichy reprisals.<ref>See, for example, Winston S. Churchill, ''The Second World War'', Volume 2: ''Their Finest Hour'', London & New York, 1949, Book One, chapter 11, "Admiral Darlan and the French Fleet: Oran"</ref> When ], the Allied invasion of French North Africa, began on 8 November 1942 with landings in Morocco and Algeria, Vichy forces initially resisted, killing 479 and wounding 720. Admiral ] appointed himself High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa, then ordered Vichy forces there to stop resisting and co-operate with the Allies, which they did.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Funk |first=Arthur L. |date=April 1973 |title=Negotiating the 'Deal with Darlan' |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=81–117 |jstor=259995|doi=10.1177/002200947300800205 |s2cid=159589846}}</ref>{{Sfn|Funk|1974}}{{Page needed|date=March 2023}} | |||
] | |||
Most Vichy figures were arrested, including Darlan and General ],<ref>, ''Chemins de mémoire'', Ministère des Armées (Ministry of Armies), Republic of France</ref> chief commander in North Africa. Both were released, and US General ] accepted Darlan's self-appointment. This infuriated {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, who refused to recognise Darlan. Darlan was assassinated on Christmas Eve 1942 by a French monarchist. German ] forces in North Africa established the ''Kommando Deutsch-Arabische Truppen'', composed of two battalions of Arab volunteers of Tunisian origin, an Algerian battalion and a Moroccan battalion.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((Paterson, L.)), ((Higgins, D. R.)) | date=2018 | title=Hitler's Brandenburgers: The Third Reich Elite Special Forces | publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1-78438-231-5 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tZJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref> The four units had total of 3,000 men; with German cadres.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Torres |first1=Carlos Canales |last2=Vicente |first2=Miguel del Rey |title=La palmera y la esvástica: La odisea del Afrika Korps |page=267 |date=2012 |publisher=EDAF |isbn=978-84-414-3173-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfgVAAAAQBAJ |language=es}}</ref> | |||
===== Morocco===== | |||
In 1940, ''Résident Général'' ] implemented antisemitic decrees coming from Vichy excluding ] from working as doctors, lawyers or teachers.<ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Miller|2013|p=45}} <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k46914843|title=Le Petit Marocain|date=1945-06-24|website=Gallica|language=EN|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref> All Jews living elsewhere were required to move to the Jewish quarters, called ''{{lang|fr|]}}'',<ref name=":3">Kenbib, Mohammed (2014-08-08). "Moroccan Jews and the Vichy regime, 1940–42". ''The Journal of North African Studies''. 19 (4): 540–553. }} {{ISSN|1362-9387}}</ref> Vichy anti-semitic propaganda encouraged boycotting Jews,<ref name=":3" /> and pamphlets were pinned to Jewish shops.<ref name=":3" /> These laws put Moroccan Jews in an uncomfortable position "between an indifferent Muslim majority and an antisemitic settler class."{{sfn|Miller|2013|p=45}} Sultan ] reportedly refused to sign off on "Vichy's plan to ghettoize and deport Morocco's quarter of a million Jews to the killing factories of Europe," and, in an act of defiance, insisted on inviting all the rabbis of Morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations.<ref name="haaretz.com">. Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-04.</ref> | |||
===== Tunisia===== | |||
{{further|Tunisia Campaign|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}} | |||
Many Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940,{{sfn|Perkins|2004|p=105}} but little else. Despite his commitment to ending the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader ] abhorred the Axis state ideologies.{{sfn|Perkins|1986|p=180}} and feared any short-term benefit would come at the cost of long-term tragedy.{{sfn|Perkins|1986|p=180}} After the ], Pétain sent a new Resident-General to Tunis, Admiral ]. Arrests followed of {{Interlanguage link|Taieb Slim|fr}} and {{Interlanguage link|Habib Thameur|fr}}, central figures in the ] party. Bey ] moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when the ] forced out the ] in 1943, they accused him of collaborating with Vichy and deposed him. | |||
====French Equatorial Africa==== | |||
The federation of colonies in ] (''AEF'' or ''Afrique-Équatoriale française'') rallied to the cause of {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} after ] of ] joined him in August 1940. The exception was ], which remained Vichy French until 12 November 1940, when it surrendered to the invading ]. The federation became the strategic centre of Free French activities in Africa. | |||
====Syria and the Lebanon (League of Nations mandates)==== | |||
{{see also|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syria–Lebanon campaign}} | |||
] at Aleppo 1941}}]] | |||
The Vichy government's ''Armée du Levant'' (]) under General ] had regular metropolitan colonial troops and ''troupes spéciales'' (special troops, indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers).{{sfn|Mollo|1981|p=144}} Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal, and eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry in horsed and motorized units, two artillery groups and supporting units.{{sfn|Mollo|1981|p=144}} The French had {{nowrap|90 tanks}} (according to British estimates), the ] had {{nowrap|90 aircraft}} (increasing to {{nowrap|289 aircraft}} after reinforcement) and the ''Marine nationale'' (]) had two ],a sloop and three submarines.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=200, 206}}{{sfn|Long|1953|pp=333–334, 36}} | |||
The ] attacked the airfield at ], in central Syria, on 14 May 1941, after a reconnaissance mission spotted German and Italian aircraft. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued: Vichy French forces shot down a ] on 28 May, killing the crew, and forced down another on 2 June.<ref name=Sutherland43>Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 43.</ref> French ] fighters also escorted German ] aircraft into Iraq on 28 May.<ref name=Sutherland43/> Germany permitted French aircraft ''en route'' from ] to Syria to fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel at the German-controlled ] air base in ].<ref>Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 30.</ref> | |||
After the ], on 14 July 1941, 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war survived, who mostly chose to be repatriated rather than join the Free French. | |||
== Foreign volunteers == | |||
{{Main|Wehrmacht foreign volunteers and conscripts|Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts|Europäische Freiwillige|Schutzmannschaft|Selbstschutz|Hiwi (volunteer)}} | |||
===French military volunteers=== | |||
] recruiting center in Calais, Northern France photographed shortly after liberation by the Allies.]] | |||
]'' fighting with the ] on the Russian front.]] | |||
French volunteers formed the ] (LVF), ], SS-Sturmbrigade Frankreich and finally in 1945 the ] (1st French), which was among the final defenders of ].{{sfn|Felton|2014|pp=145, 152, 154}}{{sfn|Weale|2012|p=407}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2020|pp=349, 386}} | |||
===Volunteers from British India=== | |||
{{Main|India in World War II|Azad Hind|Indian National Army|Indian Independence League|Indian National Council|Collaboration with Imperial Japan}} | |||
The ] (''Legion Freies Indien, {{Lang|de|Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950}}'' or ''Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS'') was created in August 1942, recruiting chiefly from disaffected ] prisoners of war captured by Axis forces in the ]. Most were supporters of the exiled ] and former president of the ] ]. The ] formed a similar unit of Indian prisoners of war, the '']''. (A Japanese-supported puppet state, ], was also established in far-eastern India with the ] as its military force.)<ref>{{cite book | last=Dunphy | first=J.J. | title=Unsung Heroes of the Dachau Trials: The Investigative Work of the U.S. Army 7708 War Crimes Group, 1945–1947 | publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers | year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4766-3337-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tt8DwAAQBAJ | page=116|quote=Imperial Japan in 1943 had established a puppet state known as the Provisional Government of Free India}}</ref><ref name=Fayp212to213>{{cite book |last1=Fay |first1=Peter W. |year=1993 |title=The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ysA8RNT224oC|publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-08342-2 |pages=212–213}}</ref> | |||
===Non-German units of the ''Waffen-SS''=== | |||
] | |||
By the end of World War II, 60% of the Waffen-SS was made up of non-German volunteers from occupied countries.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} The predominantly Scandinavian '']'' along with remnants of ], ], ] and ] volunteers were the last defenders of the ] in ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Robert |title=For Europe : the French volunteers of the Waffen-SS |date=2010 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |isbn=978-0-8117-3581-0 |page=425}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beevor |first1=Antony |title=The fall of Berlin, 1945 |date=2002 |publisher=Viking-Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-03041-5 |pages=321, 323, 351–352}}</ref> | |||
The ], in declaring the Waffen-SS a criminal organisation explicitly excluded ], who had committed no crimes.<ref name="yale" /> In 1950, The ] and the ] clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waffen-SS Units, considering them distinct from the German SS in purpose, ideology, activities and qualifications for membership. | |||
== Business collaboration == | |||
{{See also|Forced labour under German rule during World War II|List of companies involved in the Holocaust|Nazi Billionaires|Category:Companies involved in the Holocaust}} | |||
] (German ] subsidiary) D11 ], used by Germany in implementing the ]]] | |||
], claiming that "the men of the ] sold the country to Hitler," and urging that their wealth be confiscated and their businesses ]; however, only ] was nationalised.]] | |||
A number of international companies have been accused of having collaborated with Nazi Germany before their home countries' entry into World War II, though it has been debated whether the term "collaboration" is applicable to business dealings outside the context of overt war.<ref name=hollnyt />{{who|date=April 2023}} | |||
American companies that had dealings with Nazi Germany included ],<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1445822/Ford-used-slave-labour-in-Nazi-German-plants.html |title=Ford 'used slave labour' in Nazi German plants |last=English |first=Simon |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=2003-11-03 |access-date=2018-03-20 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320174850/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1445822/Ford-used-slave-labour-in-Nazi-German-plants.html |archive-date=2018-03-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> ],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/node/159812 |title=Mark Thomas discovers Coca-Cola's Nazi links |website=New Statesman |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320170646/https://www.newstatesman.com/node/159812 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timeline.com/fanta-coca-cola-nazi-845ee7e513af |title=Coca-Cola collaborated with the Nazis in the 1930s, and Fanta is the proof |date=2 August 2017 |work=Timeline |access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/edwin-black/ibm-holocaust_b_1301691.html |title=IBM's Role in the Holocaust – What the New Documents Reveal |last=Black |first=Edwin | author-link = Edwin Black |date=27 February 2012 |website=HuffPost |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029193420/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/edwin-black/ibm-holocaust_b_1301691.html |archive-date=29 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2023}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://gizmodo.com/5812025/how-ibm-technology-jump-started-the-holocaust |title=How IBM Technology Jump Started the Holocaust |last=Black |first=Edwin |work=Gizmodo |access-date=21 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321130530/https://gizmodo.com/5812025/how-ibm-technology-jump-started-the-holocaust |archive-date=21 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/The-business-of-making-the-trains-to-Auschwitz-2821685.php |title=The business of making the trains to Auschwitz run on time |last=Black |first=Edwin |date=19 May 2002 |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231743/https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/The-business-of-making-the-trains-to-Auschwitz-2821685.php |archive-date=28 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
] acted for German tycoon ], who helped finance Hitler's rise to power.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar |title=How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power |last=Campbell |first=Duncan |date=25 September 2004 |website=The Guardian |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315001703/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/sep/25/usa.secondworldwar |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] (AP) supplied images for a propaganda book called ''The Jews in the USA'', and another titled ''The Subhuman''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/236248/ap-collaboration-nazis-reporting-news |title=What the AP's Collaboration With the Nazis Should Teach Us About Reporting the News |work=Tablet Magazine |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320170531/http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/236248/ap-collaboration-nazis-reporting-news |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In December 1941, when the United States entered the war against Germany, 250 American firms owned more than $450 million of German assets.{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} Major American companies with investments in Germany included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], Coca-Cola, ], ], and ].{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} Many major Hollywood studios have also been accused of collaboration, in making or adjusting films to Nazi tastes prior to the U.S. entry into the war.<ref name=hollnyt>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/26/books/scholar-asserts-that-hollywood-avidly-aided-nazis.html |title=Scholar Asserts That Hollywood Avidly Aided Nazis |last=Schuessler |first=Jennifer |date=25 June 2013 |work=The New York Times |access-date=20 March 2018 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203183016/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/26/books/scholar-asserts-that-hollywood-avidly-aided-nazis.html |archive-date=3 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
German financial operations worldwide were facilitated by banks such as the ], ], and ].{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} | |||
] writes: "American companies had every reason to know that the Nazi regime was using ] and other cartels as weapons of economic warfare"; and he noted that<blockquote>"as the US entered the war, it found that some technologies or resources could not be procured, because they were forfeited by American companies as part of business deals with their German counterparts."<ref name="Rosenbaum2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx27AHzby8YC&pg=PA121 |title=Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 |author=Robert A. Rosenbaum |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-38503-2 |pages=121–}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
After the war, some of those companies reabsorbed their temporarily detached German subsidiaries, and even received compensation for war damages from the Allied governments.{{sfn|Stone|Kuznick|2013|p=82}} | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* '']'' | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== Notes == | |||
*] | |||
{{notelist|30em}} | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
== |
== References == | ||
{{reflist| |
{{reflist|refs= | ||
* | |||
*Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, ''Treblinka — The Operation Reinhard Death Camps'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987 | |||
*Peter Suppli Benson, Bjørn Lamnek and Stig Ørskov: ''Mærsk · manden og magten'', Politiken Bøger, 2004 (''"Maersk · The Man and Power"'', in Danish) | |||
*Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: ''Krigens købmænd'', Gyldendal, 2000 (''"The Merchants of War"'', in Danish) | |||
<ref name="Bubnys">{{cite book |author=Arūnas Bubnys |title=Vokiečių ir lietuvių saugumo policija (1941–1944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 1941–1944) |year=2004 |publisher=] |location=Vilnius |url=http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/1/arunas1.htm |access-date=9 June 2006 |language=lt}}</ref> | |||
==Further reading== | |||
* Chuev S.: ''Damned soldiers'' ISBN 978-5-699-05970-6, M, 2005 | |||
* Williamson, Gordon: ''The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror'', Brown Packaging Limited, 1994 | |||
* Gerlach, Christian: ''Kalkulierte Morde'', Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, 1999 | |||
* Klaus-Peter Friedrich ''Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II'' — '']'' Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746 | |||
* Jeffrey W. Jones ''"Every Family Has Its Freak": Perceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, 1943–1948'' — ] Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747–770 | |||
* Birn, Ruth Bettina, Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. ''Contemporary European History'' 2001, 10.2, 181–198. | |||
* Simon Kitson, ''The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting Espionage in Vichy France'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008. | |||
<ref name="Bubnys-Hol">{{cite web |url=http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/13/bubnys.htm |publisher=genocid.lt |title=Arūnas Bubnys. Lietuvių saugumo policija ir holokaustas (1941–1944) | ''Lithuanian Security Police and the Holocaust (1941–1944)'' |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Bubnys_vanished219">Arūnas Bubnys, ''Holocaust in Lithuania: An Outline of the Major Stages and Their Results'' in Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas, ''The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews'', Rodopi, 2004, {{ISBN|90-420-0850-4}}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=mdXRKbcyi5oC&pg=PA219&vq=is+the+worst+tragedy+of+Lithuania's&dq=Holocaust+1941+Lithuania&as_brr=3&source=gbs_search_s&sig=ZtduokysVV6MqLWS7I9uw7tMUFE |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref> | |||
<!--ref name="CT">Carla Tonini, ''The Polish underground press and the issue of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers, 1939–1944'', European Review of History: Revue Européenne d'Histoire, Volume 15, Issue 2 April 2008, pages 193–205</ref--> | |||
<ref name="Gregorovich">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoukes.com/history/ww2/page-12.html |publisher=infoukes.com |title=InfoUkes: Ukrainian History – World War II in Ukraine <!-- |author=Gerald William Kokodyniak--> |author=Andrew Gregorovich |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Hempel_2">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hempel |title=Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 1939–1945 |year=1987 |publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych |location=Warsaw |page=83 |language=pl}}</ref> | |||
<!-- <ref name="IPN-Ponary">{{cite web |url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal.php?serwis=pl&dzial=194&id=3327 |title=Śledztwo w sprawie masowych zabójstw Polaków w latach 1941–1944 w Ponarach koło Wilna dokonanych przez funkcjonariuszy policji niemieckiej i kolaboracyjnej policji litewskiej |trans-title=Investigation of mass murders of Poles in the years 1941–1944 in Ponary near Wilno by functionaries of German police and Lithuanian collaborating police |language=pl |work=] documents from 2003 on the ongoing investigation |access-date=10 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922030921/http://ipn.gov.pl/portal.php?serwis=pl |archive-date=22 September 2008}}</ref> --> | |||
<ref name="King">Russell King, Nicola Mai, and Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. ''The New Albanian Migration''. Sussex Academic Press, 2005</ref> | |||
<ref name="Kwiet">Konrad Kwiet, ''Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 3–26, 1998, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212062951/http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/3 |date=12 February 2009 }}</ref> | |||
<ref name="MacQueen_context">Michael MacQueen, ''The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27–48, 1998, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821195810/http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/27 |date=21 August 2008 }}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Oshry">Oshry, Ephraim, ''Annihilation of Lithuanian Jewry'', Judaica Press, Inc., New York, 1995</ref> | |||
<ref name="Piotr165166">{{cite book |author=Tadeusz Piotrowski |title=Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... |year=1997 |pages=165–166 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-0371-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=15 March 2008|author-link=Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist) }}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Porat159">Dina Porat, ''"The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects"'', in David Cesarani, ''The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-15232-1}}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA159&dq=%22The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects%22&ei=GV_ZR7zhEba4igGM06zRAQ&sig=BC8nnQzADrvUtKwXXJ53qMJo480 |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Porat161">Dina Porat, ''"The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects"'', in David Cesarani, ''The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-15232-1}}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C&pg=PA161&vq=most+of+the+lithuanian+jews&dq=%22The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects%22&source=gbs_search_s&sig=Q51GxOA40aEQ_rhazg2g7VJpPWE |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref> | |||
<!-- ref name="WSP-Ponary">{{in lang|pl}} Czesław Michalski, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207041704/http://www.wsp.krakow.pl/konspekt/konspekt5/ponary.html |date=7 February 2007 }} (Ponary – the Golgoth of Wilno Region). ''Konspekt'' nº 5, Winter 2000–2001, a publication of the ]. Retrieved 10 February 2007.</ref> --> | |||
<ref name="alexander">Dallin, Alexander. ''German Rule in Russia: 1941–1945.'' Octagon Books: 1990.</ref> | |||
<!-- unused | |||
<ref name="auron238">Auron. ''The Banality of Denial'', p. 238.</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- <ref name="bbc"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813004926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3527848.stm |date=13 August 2008 }} (BBC) 2 August 2004</ref> --> | |||
<!-- unused | |||
<ref name="bubnys">{{cite book |last=Bubnys |first=Arūnas |author-link=Arūnas Bubnys |title=Vokiečių okupuota Lietuva (1941–1944) |publisher=] |year=1998 |location=Vilnius |isbn=978-9986-757-12-2}}</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<ref name="buffalo">{{cite web |author=Peter Gessner |url=http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto2/exit.html |title=Life and Death in the German-established Warsaw Ghetto |publisher=Info-poland.buffalo.edu |date=29 July 1942 |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818045638/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto2/exit.html |archive-date=18 August 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
<!-- unused | |||
<ref name="cambridge"> {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121220121124/http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=81766 |date=20 December 2012 }} (2001), Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. '']'' 10.2, 181–198</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<ref name="christopher">Christopher J. Walker's "Armenia —The Survival of a Nation," p. 357</ref> | |||
<ref name="collaboration">Phil Giltner, "The Success of Collaboration: Denmark's Self-Assessment of its Economic Position after Five Years of Nazi Occupation," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 36:3 (2001) p. 486.</ref> | |||
<ref name="cruickshank">''The German Occupation of the Channel Islands,'' Cruickshank, London 1975 {{ISBN|0-19-285087-3}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="danskerne">Henning Poulsen, "Hvad mente Danskerne?" ''Historie'' 2 (2000) p. 320.</ref> | |||
<ref name="guernsey">War Profits (Guernsey) Law 1945</ref> | |||
<ref name="hansard">] (Commons), vol. 430, col. 138</ref> | |||
<ref name="historie">Poulsen, Historie, 320.</ref> | |||
<ref name="historycommission">{{cite web |url=http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf |title=Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Phase II – The German Occupation of Estonia, 1941–1944 |access-date=29 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720125412/http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
<!--<ref name="holocaust-history"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613041850/http://www.holocaust-history.org/intro-einsatz/ |date=13 June 2008 }} Accessed 14 January 2006 /</ref> | |||
<ref name="holocausttaskforce">]: '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024195021/http://www.holocausttaskforce.org/speeches/details/2006-07-04/document.pdf |date=24 October 2006 }}'' p. 14. Retrieved 14 January 2006."</ref> --> | |||
<!-- Not in use | |||
<ref name="hondromatidis">Hondromatidis, Iakovos ''I Mavri Skia Stin Ellada'' ("The Black Shadow Over Greece"), Athens 2004 (in Greek)</ref> | |||
Not in use--> | |||
<ref name="indianapolis">Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka – The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987</ref> | |||
<!--ref name="jerseyheritagetrust">{{cite web |url=http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/collections/collections.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000510190452/http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/collections/collections.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 May 2000 |publisher=jerseyheritagetrust.org |title=Jersey Heritage Trust archive* |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref--> | |||
<!-- <ref name="neveragain">''Volhyn'' on 1 September 1941 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124065034/http://www.neveragain.org/1941.htm |date=24 January 2012}}</ref> --> | |||
<!-- unused | |||
<ref name="occupation">Bunting, Madelaine (1995) ''The Model Occupation: the Channel Islands under German rule, 1940–1945'', London: Harper Collins, {{ISBN|0-00-255242-6}}</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<ref name="occupation9">''Occupation Diary,'' Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1945</ref> | |||
<!-- <ref name="panzer-reich">{{cite web |url=http://www.panzer-reich.co.uk/30th-waffen-grenadier-division-of-the-ss-2nd-russian.htm |title=30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Russian) |work=panzer-reich.co.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319024827/http://www.panzer-reich.co.uk/30th-waffen-grenadier-division-of-the-ss-2nd-russian.htm |archive-date=19 March 2007}}</ref> --> | |||
<ref name="profits">War Profits Levy (Jersey) Law 1945</ref> | |||
<ref name="resistance">Jørgen Hæstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940–45. Odense, 1976. p. 9.</ref> | |||
<!--,ref name="ukrainische">Rolf Michaelis: Ukrainer in der Waffen-SS. Die 14. Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (ukrainische Nr. 1). Winkelried-Verlag, Dresden 2006, {{ISBN|978-3-938392-23-2}}</ref> --> | |||
<!-- Unused citations | |||
<ref name="Hempel" /> | |||
<ref name="IAR">{{cite news |author=IAR (corporate author) |title=Sprawiedliwy Wśród Narodów Świata 2005 |url=http://www.forum-znak.org.pl/index.php?t=wydarzenia&id=3139 |work=Forum Żydzi – Chrześcijanie – Muzułmanie |publisher=Fundacja Kultury Chrześcijańskiej Znak |date=24 July 2005 |access-date=20 February 2007 |language=pl}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Lidegaard2003_p461">Bo Lidegaard (ed.) (2003): ''Dansk Udenrigspolitiks historie'', vol. 4, p. 461</ref> | |||
<ref name="PWN">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Policja Polska Generalnego Gubernatorstwa |encyclopedia=Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN |url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3959423 |publisher=] |location=Warsaw |access-date=10 August 2013 |language=pl}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Paczkowski-2">Paczkowski (op.cit., ) cites 10% of policemen and 20% of officers</ref> | |||
<ref name="Radzilowski">Review by ] of ]'s '']'', ], vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York.</ref> | |||
<ref name="blogspot">{{cite web |url=http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_FKUpGU_Jbp0/TRlhS6uhMyI/AAAAAAAAFm8/_McZEbvYa0o/s1600/Zionist%2BNazi%2Bcoin.jpg |title=image of Angriff commemorative medallion}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="flender">Harold Flender, Rescue in Denmark, (New York: 1963) p. 30.</ref> | |||
<ref name="grundtvigian">Andrew Buckser, "Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of Danish Jews", ''Shofar'' 19:2 (2001) p. 10.</ref> | |||
<ref name="hitler-fleming">official transcript, trans. Fleming</ref> | |||
<ref name="korn"> by Benyamin Korn. (The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies)</ref> | |||
<ref name="marxists">David Yisraeli, ''The Palestine Problem in German Politics, 1889–1945'', Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel, 1974. Verified web copies: . Also see Otto von Hentig, ''Mein Leben'' (Goettingen, 1962) pp. 338–339</ref> | |||
<ref name="pbs">] – </ref> | |||
<ref name="underground">Stefan Korbonski, "The Polish Underground State", pg. 7</ref> | |||
<ref name="university">"Stern Gang" ''The Oxford Companion to World War II''. Ed. I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref> | |||
<ref name="yadvashem3">{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206755.pdf |title=The Righteous Among The Nations – Polish rescuer Waclaw Nowinski}}</ref> | |||
--> | |||
<!-- <ref name="warsawuprising"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210170552/http://www.warsawuprising.com/witness/atrocities10.htm |date=10 February 2007}} Excerpts from: German Crimes in Poland. Howard Fertig, New York, 1982.</ref> --> | |||
<!-- <ref name="williamson">The Waffen-SS (3): 11. to 23. Divisions By Gordon Williamson, Stephen Andrew</ref> --> | |||
<!-- <ref name="williamson8">Williamson, G: ''The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror''</ref> --> | |||
<ref name="yale">] Proceedings, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221033105/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/09-30-46.htm |date=21 February 2007}}</ref> | |||
<ref name=Moore46-7>{{cite book|editor-last=Moore|editor-first=Bob |title=Resistance in Western Europe|year=2000|publisher=Berg|location=Oxford|isbn=1-85973-274-7|pages=46–47|edition=}}</ref> | |||
<!-- The following references appeared in the reflist but were not used in the prior text. Please return them to the reflist once they have been correctly cited in the main article. | |||
<ref name="stalinswars82">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=82}}</ref> | |||
--> | |||
}} | |||
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* {{cite book |last1=Perkins |first1=Kenneth J. |title=Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European World |year=1986 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=0-7099-4050-5}} | |||
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Playfair|2004}} | |||
|last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I.S.O. |first2=Captain F.C. |last2=Flynn |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last3=Molony |first4=Air Vice-Marshal S. E. |last4=Toomer |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941) |volume=II |publisher=Naval & Military Press |year=2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/mediterranean-middle-east-vol-2|orig-year=1st. pub. HMSO 1956 |isbn=978-1-84574-066-5 |display-authors=1}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Ramet |first=Sabrina P. |author-link=Sabrina P. Ramet |year=2006 |title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0-253-34656-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Sužiedėlis |first=Saulius |year=2004 |editor1-last=Gaunt |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Levine |editor2-first=Paul A. |editor3-last=Palosuo |editor3-first=Laura |title=Collaboration and Resistance During the Holocaust: Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania |location=Frankfurt am Main, Bern, New York |publisher=Peter Lang, and Oxford}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=Oliver |last2=Kuznick|first2=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZlFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=The Untold History of the United States |year=2013 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4516-1352-0 }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Martin |title=The French Empire at War, 1940–1945 |publisher=] |year=2007}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Tomasevich |first=Jozo |year=1975 |title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-0857-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoCaAAAAIAAJ}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Tomasevich | first=J. | title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration | publisher=Stanford University Press | series=ACLS Humanities E-Book | year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8047-7924-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Voorhis |first1=Jerry L. |title=Germany and Denmark 1940–1943 |journal=Scandinavian Studies |date=1972 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=171–185 |jstor=40917223 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40917223 |issn=0036-5637}} | |||
* {{cite book | last = Weale | first = Adrian | title = Army of Evil: A History of the SS | year = 2012 | place = New York | publisher = Caliber Printing |isbn=978-0-451-23791-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lisILwEACAAJ}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Weinberg |first1=Gerhard L. |title=A World at Arms A Global History of World War II |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=28 March 2005 |isbn=9780511818639 |edition=2nd |language=en |chapter=From the German and Soviet Invasions of Poland to the German Attack in the West, September I, 1939 to May 10, 1940|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511818639}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Wnuk |first=Rafał |title=Leśni bracia. Podziemie antykomunistyczne na Litwie, Łotwie i w Estonii 1944–1956 |year=2018 |location=Lublin |trans-title=Forest Brothers. Anti-communist underground in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia 1944–1956 |author-link=Rafał Wnuk}} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
{{See also|Bibliography of Poland during World War II|Bibliography of the Soviet Union during World War II|Bibliography of Ukrainian history#World War II}} | |||
* Birn, Ruth Bettina, . ''Contemporary European History'' 2001, 10.2, 181–198. | |||
* Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: ''Krigens købmænd'', Gyldendal, 2000 (''"The Merchants of War"'', in Danish) | |||
* ]: '''' Berg Publishers, 1988 | |||
* Jeffrey W. Jones '''' – ] Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747–770 | |||
* Kitson, Simon (2008). ''''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. | |||
* Klaus-Peter Friedrich '''' – '']'' Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746 | |||
* Rafaël Lemkin, , Legal classics library, | |||
* ''World constitutions'', Volume 56 of Publications of the ], Division of International Law, 1944 | |||
* '','' by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), Chapter 14, "Eastern Helpers", pp. 446–47 ({{ISBN|978-0-14-311610-3}}) | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Philip |title=Hitler's Collaborators: Choosing Between Bad and Worse in Nazi-occupied Western Europe |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923973-3 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThJbDwAAQBAJ}} | |||
* ''Nazism, a history in documents and eyewitness accounts, 1919–1945'', Volume II: Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination, edited by J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Schocken Books (paperback), 1988, {{ISBN|0-8052-0972-7}} | |||
<!-- The following moved from Works cited, but had no citations.--> | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |title=Rethinking the Holocaust |publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhvShlTeqesC|year=2001|isbn=0-300-09300-4 }} | |||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Blum |first1=Alain |last2=Chopard |first2=Thomas |last3=Koustova |first3=Emilia |date=2020 |title=Survivors, Collaborators and Partisans? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27011586 |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=222–255|doi=10.25162/jgo-2020-0008 |jstor=27011586 |s2cid=234169545 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Fay |first1=Peter W. |year=1993 |title=The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-08342-2}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Evgeny |title=Ordinary Jews. Choice and Survival during the Holocaust |year=2017}} | |||
* {{Cite journal |last=Grabowski |first=Jan |date=2008 |title=Szantażowanie Żydów: casus Warszawy 1939–1945 |trans-title=Blackmailing the Jews: The Case Warsaw 1939–1945 |journal=Przegląd Historyczny |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=583–602}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Julian T.|title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820706-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli |access-date=15 August 2020}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=de Wailly |first=H. |title=Invasion Syria, 1941: Churchill and De Gaulle's Forgotten War |trans-title=Syrie 1941: la guerre occultée: Vichystes contre gaullistes |others=trans. W. Land |year=2016 |orig-year=2006 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London |edition=2nd English trans. |isbn=978-1-78453-449-3}} | |||
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Lidegaard |editor-first1=Bo |title=Dansk udenrigspolitiks historie |url=https://pure.kb.dk/en/publications/dansk-udenrigspolitiks-historie-overleveren-1914-1945 |volume=4 Overleveren |date=2003 |publisher=Danmarks Nationalleksikon |location=København |isbn=978-87-7789-093-2}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Compton |author-link=Compton Mackenzie |title=Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943, Defence |volume=I |location=London |year=1951 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |oclc=1412578}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Maravigna |first=General Pietro |year=1949 |title=Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia |language=it |trans-title=How We Lost the War in Africa: Our First Colonies in Africa, the World Conflict and Operations in East Africa and Libya |location=Roma |publisher=Tosi |oclc=643646990}} | |||
* {{Cite journal |last=Mędykowski |first=Witold |date=2006 |title=Przeciw swoim: Wzorce kolaboracji żydowskiej w Krakowie i okolicy |trans-title=Against Their Own: Patterns of Jewish Collaboration in and around Kraków |url=https://www.zagladazydow.pl/index.php/zz/article/view/187 |journal=Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=202–220|doi=10.32927/ZZSiM.187 |doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Raugh |first=H. E. |title=Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bob1Oq72K-EC|year=1993 |publisher=Brassey's |location=London |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-08-040983-2}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Rovighi |first=Alberto |year=1988 |orig-year=1952 |title=Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) |language=it |trans-title=Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941) |location=Roma |publisher=Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico |oclc=848471066 |url=https://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/amp/product/BIT/9788896260784}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Shores |first=Christopher F. |author2=Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques |title=L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin – 14 juillet 1941 |language=fr |trans-title=Vichy Air Combat: Syria Campaign, 8 June – 14 July 1941 |volume=2 |location=Paris |publisher=Lavauzelle |year=1987 |isbn=978-2-7025-0171-9}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Sutherland |first1=Jon |last2=Canwell |first2=Diane |title=Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II |date=2011 |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84884-336-3 |pages=53–67}} | |||
=== Estonia === | |||
* {{Cite journal |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |date=2003 |title=Extermination of the Gypsies in Estonia during World War II: Popular Images and Official Policies |url=http://romagenocide.com.ua/data/files/bibliography/Weiss-Wendt_Gypsies_in_Estonia.pdf |journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies |volume=17 |issue=1|pages=31–61 |doi=10.1093/hgs/17.1.31 |pmid=20684093 }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |title=On the Margins: Essays on the History of Jews in Estonia |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Of4OEAAAQBAJ|location=New York|isbn=978-963-386-166-0 }} | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Commons category|Collaborators with Axis occupation}} | |||
{{National Socialism in Greece}} | |||
{{Greece during World War II}} | |||
{{Collaboration with Axis Powers by country}} | |||
{{The Holocaust}} | |||
{{World War II}} | {{World War II}} | ||
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Latest revision as of 03:25, 5 January 2025
Stance in occupied countries in World War II This article is about collaboration with Germany and Italy, the founding members of the Axis in Europe during World War II. For collaboration in Asia with Japan before October 1945, see Collaboration with Imperial Japan.
Timelines of World War II |
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Chronological |
Prelude |
By topic |
By theatre |
In World War II, many governments, organizations and individuals collaborated with the Axis powers, "out of conviction, desperation, or under coercion." Nationalists sometimes welcomed German or Italian troops they believed would liberate their countries from colonization. The Danish, Belgian and Vichy French governments attempted to appease and bargain with the invaders in hopes of mitigating harm to their citizens and economies.
Some countries' leaders cooperated with Italy and Germany because they wanted to regain territories lost during and after the First World War, or which their nationalist citizens simply coveted. Others such as France already had their own burgeoning fascist movements and/or antisemitic sentiment, and the invaders validated and empowered this. Individuals such as Hendrik Seyffardt in the Netherlands and Theodoros Pangalos in Greece saw collaboration as a path to personal power in the politics of their country. Others believed that Germany would prevail, and either wanted to be on the winning side, or feared being on the losing one.
Axis military forces recruited many volunteers, sometimes at gunpoint, more often with promises that they later broke, or from among POWs trying to escape appalling and frequently lethal conditions in their detention camps. Other volunteers willingly enlisted because they shared Nazi or fascist ideologies.
Terminology
Stanley Hoffman in 1968 used the term collaborationist to describe those who collaborated for ideological reasons. Bertram Gordon, a professor of modern history, also used the terms collaborationist and collaborator for ideological and non-ideological collaboration. Collaboration described cooperation, sometimes passive, with a victorious power.
Stanley Hoffmann saw collaboration as either involuntary, a reluctant recognition of necessity, or voluntary, opportunistic, or greedy. He also categorized collaborationism as "servile", attempting to be useful, or "ideological", full-throated advocacy of the occupier's ideology.
Collaboration in Western Europe
Belgium
Main article: German occupation of Belgium during World War II § CollaborationBelgium was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and occupied until the end of 1944.
Political collaboration took separate forms across the Belgian language divide. In Dutch-speaking Flanders, the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond (Flemish National Union or VNV), clearly authoritarian, anti-democratic and influenced by fascist ideas, became a major player in the German occupation strategy as part of the pre-war Flemish Movement. VNV politicians were promoted to positions in the Belgian civil administration. VNV and its comparatively moderate stance was increasingly eclipsed later in the war by the more radical and pro-German DeVlag movement.
In French-speaking Wallonia, Léon Degrelle's Rexist Party, a pre-war authoritarian and Catholic Fascist political party, became the VNV's Walloon equivalent, although Rex's Belgian nationalism put it at odds with the Flemish nationalism of VNV and the German Flamenpolitik. Rex became increasingly radical after 1941 and declared itself part of the Waffen-SS.
Although the pre-war Belgian government went into exile in 1940, the Belgian civil service remained in place for much of the occupation. The Committee of Secretaries-General, an administrative panel of civil servants, although conceived as a purely technocratic institution, has been accused of helping to implement German occupation policies. Despite its intention of mitigating harm to Belgians, it enabled but could not moderate German policies such as the persecution of Jews and deportation of workers to Germany. It did manage to delay the latter to October 1942. Encouraging the Germans to delegate tasks to the Committee made their implementation much more efficient than the Germans could have achieved by force. Belgium depended on Germany for food imports, so the committee was always at a disadvantage in negotiations.
The Belgian government in exile criticized the committee for helping the Germans. The Secretaries-General were also unpopular in Belgium itself. In 1942, journalist Paul Struye described them as "the object of growing and almost unanimous unpopularity." As the face of the German occupation authority, they became unpopular with the public, which blamed them for the German demands they implemented.
After the war, several of the Secretaries-General were tried for collaboration. Most were quickly acquitted. Gérard Romsée [fr], the former secretary-general for internal affairs, was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment, and Gaston Schuind, Judicial Police of Brussels, was sentenced to five. Many former secretaries-general had careers in politics after the war. Victor Leemans served as a senator from the centre-right Christian Social Party (PSC-CVP) and became president of the European Parliament.
Belgian police have also been accused of collaborating, especially in the Holocaust.
Towards the end of the war, militias of collaborationist parties actively carried out reprisals for resistance attacks or even assassinations. Those assassinations included leading figures suspected of resistance involvement or sympathy, such as Alexandre Galopin, head of the Société Générale, assassinated in February 1944. Among the retaliatory massacres of civilians were the Courcelles massacre, in which 20 civilians were killed by the Rexist paramilitary for the assassination of a Burgomaster, and a massacre at Meensel-Kiezegem, where 67 were killed.
British Channel Islands
Main article: Civilian life under the German occupation of the Channel IslandsThe Channel Islands were the only British territory in Europe occupied by Nazi Germany. The policy of the islands' governments was what they called "correct relations" with the German occupiers. There was no armed or violent resistance by islanders to the occupation. After 1945 allegations of collaboration were investigated. In November 1946, the UK Home Secretary informed the UK House of Commons that most allegations lacked substance. Only twelve cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, and the Director of Public Prosecutions ruled them out for insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed the occupying authorities against their fellow citizens.
On the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, laws were passed to retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by war profiteers and black marketeers.
After liberation, British soldiers had to intervene to prevent revenge attacks on women thought to have fraternized with German soldiers.
Denmark
Main article: German occupation of DenmarkWhen on 9 April 1940, German forces invaded neutral Denmark, they violated a treaty of non-aggression signed the year before, but claimed they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, and neutrality." The Danish government quickly surrendered and remained intact. The parliament maintained control over domestic policy. Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the Fall of France in June 1940.
Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943, and helped organize sales of industrial and agricultural products to Germany. The Danish government enacted a number of policies to satisfy Germany and retain the social order. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed and on 25 November 1941, Denmark joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. The Danish government and King Christian X repeatedly discouraged sabotage and encouraged informing on the resistance movement. Resistance fighters were imprisoned or executed; after the war informants were sentenced to death.
Prior to, during and after the war, Denmark enforced a restrictive refugee policy; it handed over to German authorities at least 21 Jewish refugees who managed to cross the border; 18 of them died in concentration camps, including a woman and her three children. In 2005 prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen officially apologized for these policies.
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, German authorities demanded the arrest of Danish communists. The Danish government complied, directing the police to arrest 339 communists listed on secret registers. Of these, 246, including the three communist members of the Danish parliament, were imprisoned in the Horserød camp, in violation of the Danish constitution. On 22 August 1941, the Danish parliament passed the Communist Law, outlawing the Communist Party of Denmark and also communist activities, in another violation of the Danish constitution. In 1943, about half of the imprisoned communists were transferred to Stutthof concentration camp, where 22 of them died.
Industrial production and trade were, partly due to geopolitical reality and economic necessity, redirected towards Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark and feared that higher unemployment and poverty could lead to civil unrest, resulting in a crackdown by the Germans. Unemployment benefits could be denied if jobs were available in Germany, so an average of 20,000 Danes worked in German factories through the five years of the war.
The Danish cabinet, however, rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands for a death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were demands to give German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens and for the transfer of Danish army units to the German military.
France
Vichy France
Main article: Vichy FranceWorld War I hero Marshal Philippe Pétain became the head of the post-democratic French State (État Français), governed not from Paris but from Vichy, when the French Third Republic collapsed after the Battle of France. Prime minister Paul Reynaud resigned rather than sign the resulting armistice agreement. The National Assembly then gave Pétain absolute power to call a constituent assembly (constitutional convention) to write a new constitution. Instead Pétain used his plenary powers to establish the authoritarian French State.
Pierre Laval and other Vichy ministers initially prioritized saving French lives and repatriating French prisoners of war. The illusion of autonomy was important to Vichy, which wanted to avoid direct rule by the German military government.
German authorities implicitly threatened to replace the Vichy administration with unreservedly pro-Nazi leaders such as Marcel Déat, Joseph Darnand and Jacques Doriot, who were permitted to operate, to publish and to criticise Vichy for insufficiently cooperating with Nazi Germany.
Collaborationist movements
The four main political factions which emerged as leading proponents of radical collaborationism in France were Marcel Déat's National Popular Rally (Rassemblement National Populaire, RNP), Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party (Parti Populaire Français, PPF), Eugène Deloncle's Social Revolutionary Movement (Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire, MSR), and Pierre Costantini's French League (Ligue Française). These groups were small in size, between 1940 and 1944 fewer than 220,000 French people (including in North Africa) joined collaborationist movements. In the last six months of the occupation, Déat, Darnand and Doriot became members of the government.
Uniformed collaboration
See also: Milice, Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism, and Charlemagne Division of the Waffen-SSThe collaboration of the French police was decisive for the implementation of the Holocaust in occupied France. Germany used French police to maintain order and repress the resistance. The French police were responsible for the census of Jews, their arrest and their assembly in camps from where they were sent abroad to extermination camps. To do this the police requisitioned buses and used the rail network of SNCF trains. In January 1943, Laval established the Milice, a paramilitary police force led by Joseph Darnand that assisted the Gestapo in fighting the Resistance and persecuting Jews, it counted 30,000 members both male and female.
In July 1941, the collaborationist parties cooperated in organising and recruiting the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (LVF), to fight alongside German forces on the Eastern Front. From July 1941, a total of 5,800 French volunteers served with the LVF until its disbanding in November 1944. In February 1945, French volunteers, either from the LVF or the Milice, were incorporated into the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne, which had a strength of 7,340 men at the time of its deployment in eastern Europe and Berlin. According to French historian Pierre Giolitto about 30,000 Frenchmen served in German military units (including non-combatants), during the course of the war.
Communist party
Until the German invasion of Russia on 21 June 1941, the national leadership of the French Communist Party (PCF) remained close to the line defined by the Comintern and the Soviet Union, claiming that "the only legitimate struggle is the revolutionary struggle and not the pseudo-resistance of the Gaullists, pawns of British capitalism". Following this logic, relations with the occupier were ambiguous. Ronald Tiersky has described the actions of the French communists during that period as "actively collaborating in certain respects".
During the early days of the German occupation, the clandestine edition of newspaper L'Humanité called on French workers to fraternise with German soldiers, presenting them not as enemies of the nation but as "class brothers". In June 1940, under instructions from the party leadership, French communist leaders contacted the German authorities and were received by Otto Abetz, the German ambassador in Paris. They requested the permission to republish L'Humanité, which had been suspended in August 1939 by the Daladier government because of its support for the German-Soviet Pact; They also demanded the legalisation of the French Communist Party, dissolved in September 1939. The negotiations were not successful due to the hostility of the German military command and the visceral anti-communism of the Pétain government. Throughout that summer, L'Humanité and the entire communist underground press continued to publish articles preaching "Franco-German brotherhood," denouncing "British imperialism," and depicting de Gaulle as a reactionary and war-mongering soldier.
Following the Wehrmacht invasion of Russia a year later, the PCF completely changed its stance and became one of the key players of the French Resistance.
French workers for Germany
Main article: Service du travail obligatoireVichy initially agreed, for every repatriated French prisoner-of-war, to send three French volunteers to work in German factories. When this program (known as la relève) didn't draw enough workers to please the Reich, Vichy began in February 1943 to conscript young Frenchmen, ages 18—20 into the Service du travail obligatoire (STO; English: compulsory labour service), a compulsory two-year labour draft that resulted in the deportation to German labor camps of 800,000 Frenchmen.
Very unpopular, the STO provoked growing hostility towards the policy of collaboration and led to a great number of young men joining the French Resistance rather than report for it. People began to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the maquis (rural Resistance).
Vichy collaboration in the Holocaust
See also: Vichy anti-Jewish legislation, Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs, Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline, Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps, and Union générale des israélites de FranceLong before the Occupation, France had had a history of native anti-Semitism and philo-Semitism, as seen in the controversy over the guilt of Alfred Dreyfus (from 1894 to 1906). Historians differ how much of Vichy's anti-Semitic campaigns came from native French roots, how much from willing collaboration with the German occupiers and how much from simple (and sometimes reluctant) cooperation with Nazi instructions.
Pierre Laval was an important decision-maker in the extermination of Jews, the Romani Holocaust, and of other "undesirables." Following an increasingly restrictive series of anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic measures, such as the Second law on the status of Jews, Vichy opened a series of internment camps in France — such as one at Drancy — where Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and political opponents were interned. The French police directed by René Bousquet, under increasing German pressure, helped to deport 76,000 Jews (both directly and via the French camps) to Nazi concentration and extermination camps.
In 1995, President Jacques Chirac officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular, the more than 13,000 victims, of whom only 2,500 survived, of the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July 1942, in which Laval decided, of his own volition, to deport children along with their parents. Bousquet also organized the French police to work with the Gestapo in the massive Marseille roundup (rafle) that decimated a whole neighbourhood in the Old Port.
Estimates of how many of France's Jews (about 300,000 at the start of the Occupation) died in the Holocaust range from about 60,000 (≅ 20%) to about 130,000 (≅ 43%). According to Serge Klarsfeld's study of the records kept at the Drancy internment camp, out of the 75,721 Jews deported from France to death camps in Poland, only 2,567 survived.
Aftermath
Main articles: Épuration sauvage and Épuration légaleAs the Liberation spread across France in 1944–45, so did the so-called Wild Purges (Épuration sauvage). Resistance groups took summary reprisals, especially against suspected informers and members of Vichy's anti-partisan paramilitary, the Milice. Unofficial courts tried and punished thousands of people accused (sometimes unjustly) of collaborating and consorting with the enemy. Estimates of the numbers of victims differ, but historians agree that the number will never be fully known.
As a formal legal order returned to France, the informal purges were replaced by l'Épuration légale (legal purge). The most notable, and most demanded, convictions were those of Pierre Laval, tried and executed in October 1945, and Marshal Philippe Pétain, whose 1945 death sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment in the island fortress of Yeu in Brittany, where he died in 1951.
Several decades later, a few surviving ex-collaborators such as Paul Touvier were tried for crimes against humanity. René Bousquet was rehabilitated and regained some influence in French politics, finance and journalism, but was nonetheless investigated in 1991 for deporting Jews. He was assassinated in 1993 just before his trial would have begun. Maurice Papon served as prefect of the Paris police under President de Gaulle (thus bearing ultimate responsibility for the Paris massacre of 1961) and, 20 years later, as Budget Minister under President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, before Papon's 1998 conviction and imprisonment for crimes against humanity in organizing the deportation of 1,560 Jews from the Bordeaux region to the French internment camp at Drancy.
Other collaborators such as Émile Dewoitine also managed to have important roles after the war. Dewoitine was eventually named head of Aérospatiale, which created the Concorde airplane.
Luxembourg
Main articles: Luxembourgish collaboration with Nazi Germany and German occupation of Luxembourg during World War IILuxembourg was invaded by Nazi Germany in May 1940 and remained under German occupation until early 1945. Initially, the country was governed as a distinct region as the Germans prepared to assimilate its Germanic population into Germany itself. The Volksdeutsche Bewegung (VdB) was founded in Luxembourg in 1941 under the leadership of Damian Kratzenberg, a German teacher at the Athénée de Luxembourg. It aimed to encourage the population towards a pro-German position, prior to outright annexation, using the slogan Heim ins Reich. In August 1942, Luxembourg was annexed into Nazi Germany, and Luxembourgish men were drafted into the German military.
Monaco
During the Nazi occupation of Monaco, the police arrested and turned over 42 Central European Jewish refugees to the Nazis while also protecting Monaco's own Jews.
Netherlands
Main articles: Nederlandsche SS and Reichskommissariat Niederlande Further information: Category:Dutch collaborators with Nazi GermanyThe Germans re-organized the pre-war Dutch police and established a new Communal Police, which helped Germans fight the country's resistance and to deport Jews. The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (NSB) had militia units, whose members were transferred to other paramilitaries like the Netherlands Landstorm or the Control Commando. A small number of people greatly assisted the German in their hunt for Jews, including some policemen and the Henneicke Column. Many of them were members of the NSB. The column alone was responsible for the arrest of about 900 Jews.
Norway
In Norway, the national government, headed by Vidkun Quisling, was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime during the German occupation, while king Haakon VII and the legally elected Norwegian government fled into exile. Quisling encouraged Norwegians to volunteer for service in the Waffen-SS, collaborated in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of members of the Norwegian resistance movement.
About 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the fascist party Nasjonal Samling (National Union), and about 8,500 of them enlisted in the Hirden collaborationist paramilitary organization. About 15,000 Norwegians volunteered on the Nazi side and 6,000 joined the Germanic SS. In addition, Norwegian police units like the Statspolitiet helped arrest many of Jews in Norway. All but 23 of the 742 Jews deported to concentration camps and death camps were murdered or died before the end of the war. Knut Rød, the Norwegian police officer most responsible for the arrest, detention and transfer of Jewish men, women and children to SS troops at Oslo harbour, was later acquitted during the legal purge in Norway after World War II in two highly publicized trials that remain controversial.
Nasjonal Samling had very little support among the population at large and Norway was one of few countries where resistance during World War II was widespread before the turning point of the war in 1942–43.
After the war, Quisling was executed by firing squad. His name became an international eponym for "traitor".
Collaboration in Eastern Europe
Albania
Main articles: Italian invasion of Albania and Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)After the Italian invasion of Albania, the Royal Albanian Army, police and gendarmerie were amalgamated into the Italian armed forces in the newly created Italian protectorate of Albania.
The Albanian Fascist Militia formed after the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939. In the Yugoslav part of Kosovo, it established the Vulnetari (or Kosovars), a volunteer militia of Kosovo Albanians. Vulnetari units often attacked ethnic Serbs and carried out raids against civilian targets. They burned down hundreds of Serbian and Montenegrin villages, killed many people, and plundered the Kosovo and neighboring regions.
Baltic states
See also: German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II and Wartime collaboration in the Baltic statesThe three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, first invaded by the Soviet Union, were later occupied by Germany and incorporated, together with what had been the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R. (Belarus, see below), into Reichskommissariat Ostland.
Estonia
See also: War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia and Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against HumanityIn German plans, Estonia was to become an area for future German settlements, as Estonians themselves were considered high on the Nazi racial scale, with potential for Germanization. Unlike the other Baltic states, the seizure of Estonian territory by German troops was relatively long, from July 7 to December 2, 1941. This period was used by the Soviets to carry out a wave of repression against Estonians. It is estimated that the NKVD's subordinate Destruction battalions killed some 2,000 Estonian civilians, and 50–60,000 people were deported deep into the USSR. 10,000 of them died in the GULAG system within a year. Many Estonians fought against Soviet troops on the German side, hoping to liberate their country. Some 12,000 Estonian partisans took part in the fighting. Of great importance were the 57 Finnish-trained members of the Erna group, who operated behind enemy lines.
Resistance groups were organised by Germans in August 1941 into the Omakaitse (lit. 'Self-defence'), which had between 34,000 and 40,000 members, mainly based on the Kaitseliit, dissolved by the Soviets. Omakaitse was in charge of clearing the German army's rear of Red Army soldiers, NKVD members, and Communist activists. Within a year its members killed 5,500 Estonian residents. Later, they performed guard duty and fought Soviet partisans flown into Estonia. From among Omakaitse members were recruited Estonian policemen, members of the Estonian Auxiliary Police and officers of the Estonian 20th Waffen-SS Division.
The Germans formed a puppet government, the Estonian Self-Administration, headed by Hjalmar Mäe. This government had considerable autonomy in internal affairs, such as filling police posts. The Security Police in Estonia (SiPo) had a mixed Estonian-German structure (139 Germans and 873 Estonians) and was formally under the Estonian Self-Administration. Estonian police cooperated with Germans in rounding up Jews, Roma, communists and those deemed enemies of existing order or asocial elements. The police also helped to conscript Estonians for forced labor and military service under German command. Most of the small population of Estonian Jews fled before the Germans arrived, with only about a thousand remaining. All of them were arrested by Estonian police and executed by Omakaitse. Members of the Estonian Auxiliary Police and 20th Waffen-SS Division also executed Jewish prisoners sent to concentration and labor camps established by the Germans on Estonian territory.
Immediately after entering Estonia, the Germans began forming volunteer Estonian units the size of a battalion. By January 1942, six Security Groups (battalions No. 181-186, about 4,000 men) had been formed and were subordinate to the Wehrmacht 18th Army. After the one-year contract expired, some volunteers transferred to the Waffen-SS or returned to civilian life, and three Eastern Battalions (No. 658-660) were formed from those who remained. They fought until early 1944, after which their members transferred to the 20th Waffen-SS Division.
Beginning in September 1941, the SS and police command created four Infantry Defence Battalions (No. 37-40) and a reserve and sapper battalion (No. 41-42), which were operationally subordinate to the Wehrmacht. From 1943 they were called Police Battalions, with 3,000 serving in them. In 1944 they were transformed into two infantry battalions and evacuated to Germany in the fall of 1944, where they were incorporated into the 20th Waffen-SS Division.
In the fall of 1941, the Germans also formed eight police battalions (No. 29-36), of which only Battalion No. 36 had a typically military purpose. However, due to shortages, most of them were sent to the front near Leningrad, and were mostly disbanded in 1943. That same year, the SS and police command created five new Security and Defense Battalions (they inherited No. 29-33 and had more than 2,600 men). In the spring of 1943, five Defence Battalions (No. 286-290) were established as compulsory military service units. The 290th Battalion consisted of Estonian Russians. Battalions No. 286, 288 and 289 were used to fight partisans in Belarus.
On Aug. 28, 1942, the Germans formed the volunteer Estonian Waffen-SS Legion. Of the approximately 1,000 volunteers, 800 were incorporated into Battalion Narva and sent to Ukraine in the spring of 1943. Due to the shrinking number of volunteers, in February 1943 the Germans introduced compulsory conscription in Estonia. Born between 1919 and 1924 faced the choice of going to work in Germany, joining the Waffen-SS or Estonian auxiliary battalions. 5,000 joined the Estonian Waffen-SS Legion, which was reorganized into the 3rd Estonian Waffen-SS Brigade.
As the Red Army advanced, a general mobilization was announced, officially supported by Estonia's last Prime Minister Jüri Uluots. By April 1944, 38,000 Estonians had been drafted. Some went into the 3rd Waffen-SS Brigade, which was enlarged to division size (20th Waffen-SS Division: 10 battalions, more than 15,000 men in the summer of 1944) and also incorporated most of the already existing Estonian units (mostly Eastern Battalions). Younger men were conscripted into other Waffen-SS units. From the rest, six Border Defense Regiments and four Police Fusilier Battalions (Nos. 286, 288, 291, and 292).
The Estonian Security Police and SD, the 286th, 287th and 288th Estonian Auxiliary Police battalions, and 2.5–3% of the Estonian Omakaitse (Home Guard) militia units (between 1,000 and 1,200 men) took part in rounding up, guarding or killing of 400–1,000 Roma and 6,000 Jews in concentration camps in the Pskov region of Russia and the Jägala, Vaivara, Klooga and Lagedi concentration camps in Estonia.
Guarded by these units, 15,000 Soviet POWs died in Estonia: some through neglect and mistreatment and some by execution.
Latvia
Deportations and murders of Latvians by the Soviet NKVD reached their peak in the days before the capture of Soviet-occupied Riga by German forces. Those that the NKVD could not deport before the Germans arrived were shot at the Central Prison. The RSHA's instructions to their agents to unleash pogroms fell on fertile ground. After the Einsatzkommando 1a and part of Einsatzkommando 2 entered the Latvian capital, Einsatzgruppe A's commander Franz Walter Stahlecker made contact with Viktors Arājs on 1 July and instructed him to set up a commando unit. It was later named Latvian Auxiliary Police or Arajs Kommandos. The members, far-right students and former officers were all volunteers, and free to leave at any time.
The next day, 2 July, Stahlecker instructed Arājs to have the Arājs Kommandos unleash pogroms that looked spontaneous, before the German occupation authorities were properly established. Einsatzkommando-influenced mobs of former members of Pērkonkrusts and other extreme right-wing groups began pillaging and making mass arrests, and killed 300 to 400 Riga Jews. Killings continued under the supervision of SS Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker, until more than 2,700 Jews had died.
The activities of the Einsatzkommando were constrained after the full establishment of the German occupation authority, after which the SS made use of select units of native recruits. German General Wilhelm Ullersperger and Voldemārs Veiss, a well known Latvian nationalist, appealed to the population in a radio address to attack "internal enemies". During the next few months, the Latvian Auxiliary Security Police primarily focused on killing Jews, Communists and Red Army stragglers in Latvia and in neighbouring Byelorussia.
In February–March 1943, eight Latvian battalions took part in the punitive anti-partisan Operation Winterzauber near the Belarus–Latvia border, which resulted in 439 burned villages, 10,000 to 12,000 deaths, and over 7,000 taken for forced labor or imprisoned at the Salaspils concentration camp. This group alone killed almost half of Latvia's Jewish population, about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.
The creation of the Arājs Kommando was "one of the most significant inventions of the early Holocaust", and marked a transition from German-organised pogroms to systematic killing of Jews by local volunteers (former army officers, policemen, students, and Aizsargi). This helped with a chronic German personnel shortage and provided the Germans with relief from the psychological stress of routinely murdering civilians. By the autumn of 1941, the SS had deployed the Latvian Auxiliary Police battalions to Leningrad, where they were consolidated into the 2nd Latvian SS Infantry Brigade. In 1943, this brigade, which later became the 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian), was consolidated with the 15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Latvian) to become the Latvian Legion. Although the Latvian Legion was a formally volunteer Waffen-SS unit, it was voluntary only in name; approximately 80–85% of its men were conscripts.
Lithuania
See also: Lithuanian collaboration with Nazi GermanyPrior to the German invasion, some leaders in Lithuania and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy, as they had the Slovak Republic. The German intelligence service Abwehr believed that it controlled the Lithuanian Activist Front, a pro-German organization based at the Lithuanian embassy in Berlin. Lithuanians formed the Provisional Government of Lithuania on their own initiative, but Germany did not recognize it diplomatically, or allow Lithuanian ambassador Kazys Škirpa to become prime minister, instead actively thwarting his activities. The provisional government disbanded, since it had no power and it had become clear that the Germans came as occupiers not liberators from Soviet occupation, as initially thought. By 1943, the German opinion of Lithuanians was that they had failed to show allegiance to them. When the Germans called-up Lithuanians for military service in spring 1943, Lithuanians protested against it by making the call-up produce dismally low numbers, which angered the German occupiers.
Units under Algirdas Klimaitis and supervised by SS Brigadeführer Walter Stahlecker started pogroms in and around Kaunas on 25 June 1941. Lithuanian collaborators killed hundreds of thousands of Jews, Poles and Gypsies. According to Lithuanian-American scholar Saulius Sužiedėlis, an increasingly antisemitic atmosphere clouded Lithuanian society, and antisemitic LAF émigrés "needed little prodding from 'foreign influences'". He concluded that Lithuanian collaboration was "a significant help in facilitating all phases of the genocidal program . . . the local administration contributed, at times with zeal, to the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry". Elsewhere, Sužiedėlis similarly emphasised that Lithuania's "moral and political leadership failed in 1941, and that thousands of Lithuanians participated in the Holocaust", though he warned that "ntil buttressed by reliable accounts providing time, place and at least an approximate number of victims, claims of large-scale pogroms before the advent of the German forces must be treated with caution".
In 1941, the Lithuanian Security Police was created, subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Criminal Police. Of the 26 Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions, 10 were involved in the Holocaust. On August 16, the head of the Lithuanian police, Vytautas Reivytis [lt], ordered the arrest of Jewish men and women with Bolshevik activities: "In reality, it was a sign to kill everyone." The Special SD and German Security Police Squad in Vilnius killed 70,000 Jews in Paneriai and other places. In Minsk, the 2nd Battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and in Slutsk it massacred 5,000 Jews.
In March 1942, in Poland, the 2nd Lithuanian Battalion guarded the Majdanek concentration camp. In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion participated in the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka extermination camp. In August–October 1942, some of the Lithuanian police battalions were in Belarus and Ukraine: the 3rd in Molodechno, the 4th in Donetsk, the 7th in Vinnytsa, the 11th in Korosten, the 16th in Dnepropetrovsk, the 254th in Poltava and the 255th in Mogilev (Belarus). One battalion was also used to put down the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943.
The participation of the local populace was a key factor in the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania which resulted in the near total decimation of Lithuanian Jews living in the Nazi-occupied Lithuanian territories that would. From 25 July 1941, participation was under the Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Out of approximately 210,000 Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data) an estimated 195,000–196,000 perished before the end of World War II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December 1941. The events happening in the USSR's western regions occupied by Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German invasion (including Lithuania – see map) marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust.
Bulgaria
Main article: Bulgaria during World War IIBulgaria was interested in acquiring Thessalonica and western Macedonia and hoped to gain the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time. The appearance of Greek partisans there persuaded Axis forces to allow the formation of Ohrana collaborationist detachments. The organization initially recruited 1,000 to 3,000 armed men from the Slavophone community in the west of Greek Macedonia.
Czecho-Slovakia
Main article: Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)Sudetenland
Konrad Henlein, a populist strongman who represented the sizable German minority of the Sudetenland border region, actively sought a Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia. and his efforts arguably triggered the Munich Agreement After the invasion he administered the Nazi deportations that sent Jews to Theresienstadt Ghetto, almost none of whom survived. For example, 42,000 people, mostly Czech Jews, were deported from Theresienstadt in 1942, of whom only 356 survivors are known. Henlein also tried to expel all Czechs from the Sudetenland, but the neighbouring Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia refused to accept them and he was informed that the need of the area's factories for labour outweighed such ethnic policies.
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (the Czech lands)
When the Germans annexed Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939, they created the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from the Czech part of pre-war Czechoslovakia It had its own military forces, including a 12-battalion 'government army', police and gendarmerie. Most members of the 'government army' were sent to Northern Italy in 1944 as labourers and guards. Whether or not the government army was a collaborationist force has been debated. Its commanding officer, Jaroslav Eminger, was tried and acquitted on charges of collaboration following World War II. Some members of the force engaged in active resistance operations while in the army, and, in the waning days of the conflict, elements of the army joined in the Prague uprising.
Slovak Republic
See also: The Holocaust in SlovakiaThe Slovak Republic (Slovenská Republika) was a quasi-independent ethnic Slovak state which existed from 14 March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and client state of Nazi Germany. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day Slovakia (except for the southern and eastern parts). It bordered Germany, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, German-occupied Poland, and Hungary.
Greece
Main articles: Hellenic State (1941–1944), Greco-Italian War, and Greek Operation of the NKVDGermany put a collaborationist government in place in Greece. Prime ministers Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis all cooperated with Axis authorities. Greece exported agricultural products, especially tobacco, to Germany, and Greek "volunteers" worked in German factories.
While efforts by Major General Georgios Bakos to recruit a Greek volunteer legion to fight in the Eastern Front failed, the collaborationist government of Ioannis Rallis created armed paramilitary forces such as the Security Battalions to fight the EAM/ELAS resistance Former dictator, General Theodoros Pangalos, saw the Security Battalions as a way to make a political comeback, and most of the Hellenic Army officers recruited in April 1943 were republicans in some way associated with Pangalos.
Greek National-Socialist parties like George S. Mercouris' Greek National Socialist Party of the ESPO organization, or such openly anti-semitic organisations as the National Union of Greece, helped German authorities fight the Greek resistance, and identify and deport Greek Jews. The BUND Organization and its leader Aginor Giannopoulos trained a battalion of Greek volunteers who fought in SS and Brandenburgers units.
During the Axis occupation, a number of Cham Albanians set up their own administration and militia in Thesprotia, Greece, under the Balli Kombëtar organization, and actively collaborated with first Italian and then German occupation forces, committing a number of atrocities. In one incident on 29 September 1943, Nuri and Mazzar Dino, Albanian paramilitary leaders, instigated the mass execution of all Greek officials and notables in Paramythia.
An Aromanian political and paramilitary force, the Roman Legion, led by Aromanian nationalists Alcibiades Diamandi and Nicolaos Matussis, also collaborated with Italian forces.
Hungary
In April 1941, in order to regain territory and under German pressure, Hungary allowed the Wehrmacht across its territory in the invasion of Yugoslavia. Hungarian prime minister Pál Teleki wanted to maintain a pro-Allies neutral stance, but could no longer stay out of the war. British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden threatened to break diplomatic relations if Hungary did not actively resist the passage of German troops across its territory. General Henrik Werth, chief of the Hungarian General Staff, made a private arrangement with the German High Command, unsanctioned by the Hungarian government, to transport German troops across Hungary. Teleki, unable to stop these events, committed suicide on April 3, 1941. After the war the Hungarian People's Court sentenced Werth to death for war crimes.
Hungary joined the war on April 11, after the proclamation of the Independent State of Croatia.
It is not clear whether the 10,000–20,000 Jewish refugees (from Poland and elsewhere) were counted in the January 1941 census. They, and about 20,000 people who could not prove legal residency since 1850, were deported to southern Poland. According to Nazi German reports, a total of 23,600 Jews were murdered, including 16,000 who had earlier been expelled from Hungary between July 15 and August 12, 1941, and either abandoned there or handed over to the Germans. In practice, the Hungarians deported many people whose families had lived in the area for generations. In some cases, applications for residency permits were allowed to pile up without action by Hungarian officials until after the deportations had been carried out. The vast majority (16,000) of those deported were massacred in the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre at the end of August.
In the massacres in Újvidék (Novi Sad) and nearby villages, 2,550–2,850 Serbs, 700–1,250 Jews and 60–130 others were murdered by the Hungarian Army and "Csendőrség" (gendarmerie) in January 1942. Those responsible, Ferenc Feketehalmy-Czeydner, Márton Zöldy [hu], József Grassy, László Deák and others, were later tried in Budapest in December 1943 and were sentenced, but some escaped to Germany.
During the war, Jews were called up to serve in unarmed "labour service" (munkaszolgálat) units which repaired bombed railroads, built airports or cleaned up minefields at the front barehanded. Approximately 42,000 Jewish labour service troops were killed on the Soviet front in 1942–43, of whom about 40% perished in Soviet POW camps. Many died as a result of harsh conditions on the Eastern Front and cruel treatment by their Hungarian sergeants and officers. Another 4,000 forced laborers died in the copper mine of Bor, Serbia. But Miklós Kállay, prime minister beginning on March 9, 1942, and Regent Miklós Horthy refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews to German extermination camps in occupied Poland. This lasted until German troops occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to oust Kállay.
Following the German occupation of Hungary on March 19, 1944, Jews from the provinces were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp; between May and July that year, 437,000 Jews were sent there from Hungary, most of them gassed on arrival.
Poland
Main article: Collaboration in German-occupied PolandUnlike some other German-occupied European countries, occupied Poland did not have a government that collaborated with the Nazis. The Polish government did not surrender, but instead went into exile, first in France, then in London, while evacuating the armed forces via Romania and Hungary and by sea to allied France and Great Britain. German-occupied Polish territory was either annexed outright by Nazi Germany or placed under German administration as the General Government.
Shortly after the German Invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of prewar Polish officials and Polish police (Blue Police), who were ordered to report for duty under threat of severe penalties. Apart from serving as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, the Blue Police was used by the Germans also to combat smuggling and resistance, to round up łapanka, random civilians, for forced labor, and to apprehend Jews (German: Judenjagd, "hunting Jews") and participate in their extermination. Polish policemen were instrumental in implementing the Nazi policy of centralising Jews in ghettos and, from 1942 onwards, liquidating the ghettos. In the late autumn and early winter of 1941, shooting Jews, including women and children, became one of their many activities at the orders of the German occupiers. After an initial phase of hesitation, Polish policemen became familiar with Nazi brutality and, according to Jan Grabowski, sometimes "surpassed their German teachers." While many officials and police followed German orders, some acted as agents for the Polish resistance.
Some of the collaborators – szmalcowniks – blackmailed Jews and their Polish rescuers and acted as informers, turning in Jews and Poles who hid them, and reporting on the Polish resistance. Many prewar Polish citizens of German descent voluntarily declared themselves Volksdeutsche ("ethnic Germans"), and some of them committed atrocities against the Polish population and organized large-scale looting of property.
The Germans set up Jewish-run governing bodies in Jewish communities and ghettos – Judenrāte (Jewish councils) that served as self-enforcing intermediaries to manage Jewish communities and ghettos; and Jewish Ghetto Police (Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst), which functioned as auxiliary police to maintaining order and combating crime.
The Polish Underground State's wartime underground courts investigated 17,000 Poles who collaborated with the Germans; about 3,500 were sentenced to death.
Romania
Main article: The Holocaust in Romania- See also Responsibility for the Holocaust (Romania), Antonescu and the Holocaust, Porajmos#Persecution in other Axis countries.
According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews died on Romanian soil, in the war zones of Bessarabia, Bukovina, and in territories formerly occupied by Soviets that came under Romanian control (Transnistria Governorate). Of the 25,000 Romani deported to concentration camps in Transnistria, 11,000 died.
Though much of the killing was committed in the war zone by Romanian and German troops, in the Iaşi pogrom of June 1941 over 13,000 Jews died in trains traveling back and forth across the countryside.
Half of the estimated 270,000 to 320,000 Jews living in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Dorohoi County were murdered or died between June 1941 and the spring of 1944. Of these, between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews were killed in Bessarabia and Bukovina by Romanian and German troops within months of the entry of the country into the war during 1941. Even after the initial killings, Jews in Moldavia, Bukovina and Bessarabia were subject to frequent pogroms, and were concentrated into ghettos from which they were sent to camps in Transnistria built and run by the Romanian authorities.
Romanian soldiers and gendarmes also worked with the Einsatzkommandos, German killing squads, tasked with massacring Jews and Roma in conquered territories, the local Ukrainian militia, and the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans (Sonderkommando Russland and Selbstschutz). Romanian troops were in large part responsible for the 1941 Odessa massacre, in which from October 18, 1941, to mid-March 1942 Romanian soldiers, gendarmes and police, killed up to 25,000 Jews and deported more than 35,000.
The lowest respectable mortality estimates run to about 250,000 Jews and 11,000 Roma in these eastern regions.
Nonetheless, half of the Jews living within the pre-Barbarossa borders survived the war, although they were subject to a wide range of harsh conditions, including forced labor, financial penalties, and discriminatory laws. All Jewish property was nationalized.
A report commissioned and accepted by the Romanian government in 2004 on the Holocaust concluded:
Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The murders committed in Iasi, Odessa, Bogdanovka, Domanovka, and Peciora, for example, were among the most hideous murders committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust. Romania committed genocide against the Jews. The survival of Jews in some parts of the country does not alter this reality.
Yugoslavia
See also: World War II in YugoslaviaOn 25 March 1941, under considerable pressure, the Yugoslav government agreed to the signing of the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany, guaranteeing Yugoslavia's neutrality. The agreement was extremely unpopular in Serbia and led to massive street demonstrations. Two days later, on 27 March, Serb military officers led by general Dušan Simović overthrew the regency and placed 17-year-old King Peter on the throne. Furious at the temerity of the Serbs, Hitler ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia. On 6 April 1941, without a declaration of war, combined German and Italian military armies invaded. Eleven days later Yugoslavia capitulated and was subsequently partitioned among the Axis states.
The Central Serbia region and the Banat were subjected to German military occupation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, Italian forces occupied the Dalmatian coast and Montenegro; Albania annexed the Kosovo region and part of Macedonia; Bulgaria received Vardar Macedonia (today's North Macedonia); Hungary occupied and annexed the Bačka and Baranya regions as well as Međimurje and Prekmurje; the rest of Drava Banovina (roughly present-day Slovenia) was divided between Germany and Italy; Croatia, Syrmia and Bosnia were combined into the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state under the direction of Croatian fascist Ante Pavelić.
Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia
See also: Axis occupation of Serbia, Government of National Salvation, and Territory of the Military Commander in SerbiaUnder German military occupation Serbia was at first directly administered by Nazis, then by a puppet government led by General Milan Nedić. The main function of the government was to maintain internal order under the authority of the German Command with the use of local paramilitary units. The Wehrmacht Operations Staff never considered raising a unit to serve in the German armed forces. By mid 1943, the collaborationist forces in Serbia, (Serbian and ethnic Russian units), numbered between 25,000 and 30,000.
Serbian units
Serbian collaborationist organizations the Serbian State Guard (SDS) and the Serbian Border Guard (SGS) reached a combined 21,000 men at their peak. The Serbian Volunteers Corps (SDK), the party militia of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement led by Dimitrije Ljotić, reached 9,886 men; its members helped guard and run concentration camps and fought the Yugoslav Partisans and the Chetniks alongside the Germans. In October 1941, the Serbian Volunteer Corps participated in the Kragujevac massacre, arresting and delivering hostages to the Wehrmacht. The members of the Serbian Volunteer Corps had to take an oath stating that they would fight to death against both Communists and Chetniks.
Collaborationist Belgrade Special Police helped German units round up Jewish citizens for deportation to concentration camps. By the summer of 1942, most Serbian Jews had been exterminated. By the end of 1942 the Special Police had 240 agents and 878 police guards under the command of the Gestapo. After the liberation of the country in October 1944, the collaborationist forces retreated with the German army and were later absorbed into the Waffen-SS.
Almost from the start, two rival guerrilla movements, the Chetniks and the Partisans, engaged in a bloody civil war with each other, in addition to fighting against the occupying forces. Some Chetniks collaborated with the Axis occupation to fight the rival Partisan resistance, whom they viewed as their primary enemy, by establishing modus vivendi or operating as "legalised" auxiliary forces under Axis control.
In August 1941 Kosta Pećanac put himself and his Chetniks at the disposal of Milan Nedić's government, becoming the occupation regime's 'legal Chetniks'. At the peak of their strength in mid-May 1942, the two legal Chetnik auxiliary forces numbered 13,400 men; these detachments were dissolved by the end of 1942. Pećanac was captured and executed by forces loyal to his Chetnik rival Draža Mihailović in 1944. As no single Chetnik organization existed, other Chetnik units engaged independently in marginal resistance activities and avoided accommodations with the enemy. Over a period of time, and in different parts of the country, some Chetnik groups were drawn progressively into opportunist agreements: first with the Nedić forces in Serbia, then with the Italians in occupied Dalmatia and Montenegro, with some of the Ustaše forces in northern Bosnia, and after the Italian capitulation, also with the Germans directly. In some regions Chetniks collaborated "extensively and systematically", which they called "using the enemy".
Ethnic Russian units
The Auxiliary Police Troop and the Russian Protective Corps were paramilitary units raised in the German-occupied territory of Serbia, composed exclusively of anti-communist White émigrés or Volksdeutsche from Russia, under the command of General Mikhail Skorodumov (around 400 and 7,500 men respectively by December 1942). The force reached a peak size of 11,197 by September 1944. Unlike the Serbian units, the Russian Protective Corps was part of the German armed forces and its members took the Hitler Oath.
Banat
See also: Banat (1941–1944) and Axis occupation of VojvodinaBetween April 1941 and October 1944, the Serbian half of the Banat was under German military occupation as an administrative unit of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. Its daily administration and security were left up to its 120,000 Volksdeutsche, who represented 20% of the local population. In the Banat, security, anti-partisan warfare, and border patrols, were exclusively carried out by the Volksdeutsche in the Deutsche Mannschaft. In 1941, the Banat Auxiliary Police force was created to serve in concentration camps. It had 1,552 members by February 1943. It was affiliated with the Ordnungspolizei and included some 400 Hungarians. The Gestapo in the Banat employed local ethnic Germans as agents. Banat Jews were deported and exterminated with the full participation of the Banat German leadership, the Banat Police and many ethnic German civilians.
According to German sources, as of 28 December 1943, the Volksdeutsche minority of the Banat had contributed 21,516 men to the Waffen SS, the auxiliary police, and the Banat police.
The 700,000 Volksdeutsche who lived in Yugoslavia were the basis for the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, which towards the war's end included other ethnicities. The division's soldiers brutally punished civilians accused of working with partisans in both occupied Serbia and the Independent State of Croatia, going so far as to raze entire villages.
Montenegro
The Italian governorate of Montenegro was established as an Italian protectorate with the support of Montenegrin separatists known as Greens. The Lovćen Brigade, the militia of the Greens, collaborated with the Italians. Other collaborationist units included local Chetniks, police, gendarmerie and Sandžak Muslim militia.
Kosovo
Further information: German_occupation_of_Albania § Collaboration, and Greater AlbaniaMost of Kosovo and the western part of southern Serbia (Juzna Srbija, included in Zeta Banovina) was annexed to Albania by fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Kosovar Albanians were recruited into Albanian paramilitary groups known as the Vulnetari, set up to assist Italian fascists maintain order, many Serbs and Jews were expelled from Kosovo and sent to internment camps in Albania.
The Balli Kombëtar militias, or Ballistas, were volunteer Albanian nationalistic groups that started as a resistance movement, then collaborated with the Axis Powers in hopes of seeing Greater Albania created. Military units were formed within the militias, among them the Kosovo Regiment, raised in Kosovska Mitrovica as a Nazi auxiliary military unit after Italian capitulation. According to German reports, in early 1944 some 20,000 Albanian guerrillas led by Xhafer Deva fought the Partisans alongside the Wehrmacht in Albania and Kosovo.
Macedonia
In Bulgaria-annexed Vardar Macedonia, the occupation authority organized the Ohrana into auxiliary security forces. On 11 March 1943, Skopje's entire Jewish population was deported to the gas chambers of Treblinka concentration camp.
Slovene Lands
Main articles: World War II in the Slovene Lands and Slovene Home GuardThe Axis powers divided the Slovene Lands into three zones. Germany occupied the largest, northern part. Italy annexed the southern part, and Hungary annexed the northeast part, Prekmurje. As in the rest of Yugoslavia, the Nazis used the Slovene Volksdeutsche to further their aims, in groups like the Deutsche Jugend (German Youth) which was used as an auxiliary military force for guard duty and fighting the partisans, and the Slovenian National Defense Corps.
The Slovene Home Guard (Domobranci) was a collaborationist force formed in September 1943 in the Province of Ljubljana (then a part of Italy). It was led by former general Leon Rupnik but had limited autonomy, and at first, functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in anti-partisan actions. Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-partisan operations in Ljubljana. Much of the Guard's equipment was Italian (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war. Similar, but much smaller units, were also formed in the Littoral (Primorska) and Upper Carniola (Gorenjska). The Blue Guard, also known as the Slovene Chetniks, was an anti-communist militia led by Karl Novak and Ivan Prezelj.
The Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia (MVAC), was under Italian authority. One of the biggest components of the MVAC was the Civic Guards (Vaške Straže [sl]), a Slovene volunteer military organization formed by the Italian Fascist authorities to fight the partisans, as well as some collaborationist Chetniks units. The Legion of Death (Legija Smrti), was another Slovene anti-partisan armed unit formed after the Blue Guard joined the MVAC.
Independent State of Croatia
Main articles: Independent State of Croatia, Croatian Armed Forces (Independent State of Croatia), and Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of CroatiaOn 10 April 1941, a few days before Yugoslavia's capitulation, Ante Pavelić's Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established as an Axis-affiliated state, with Zagreb as capital. Between 1941 and 1945, the fascist Ustaše regime collaborated with Nazi Germany, and engaged in independent persecution. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, this resulted in the deaths of approximately 30,000 Jews, between 25,000 and 30,000 Roma, and between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs from Croatia and Bosnia, in camps like the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp.
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), created in February 1943, and the 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama (2nd Croatian), created in January 1944, were manned by Croats and Bosniaks as well as local Germans. Earlier in the war, Pavelić formed a Croatian Legion for the Eastern Front and attached it to the Wehrmacht. Volunteer pilots joined the Luftwaffe as Pavelić did not want to get his army directly involved for both propaganda reasons (Domobrans/Home Guards were a "chieftain of Croatian values, never attacking and only defending") and due to a safeguarding need for political flexibility with the Soviet Union.
Pavelić proclaimed that Croats were the descendants of Goths, to eliminate the leadership's inferiority complex and be better viewed by the Germans. The Poglavnik stated that "Croats are not Slavs, but Germanic by blood and race". Nazi German leadership was indifferent to this claim.
Bosnia
In 1941 Bosnia became an integral part of the Independent State of Croatia. Bosnian Muslims were considered Croats of Islamic confession.
Soviet Union
Main article: Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet UnionOperation Barbarossa began on 22 June 1941 and, by November 1942, Nazi Germany had occupied around 750,000 sq mi (1,900,000 km) of the Soviet Union. By November 1944, the German forces had been forced out of the pre-World War II Soviet territory.
According to the American historian Jeffrey Burds, out of the three million armed collaborators with Nazi Germany in Europe, as many as 2.5 million originated from the Soviet Union, and by 1945, every eighth German soldier had previously been a pre-war Soviet citizen. Antony Beevor writes that 1 to 1.5 million men from the territory of the USSR served militarily under the Germans. Regardless, the precise number will never be known. The people from the Soviet Union served in the Wehrmacht under a wide array of units: Hiwi, Security units, Russian Liberation Army (ROA), KONR, Ukrainian Liberation Army, various independent Russian units (SS-Verband Drushina [ru], RNNA, RONA, 1st Russian National Army) and the Eastern Legions.
Toward's the war's end, the SS Main Office and the Ostministerium began conflicting over the Eastern Legions and Cossack units. The former tried to control all non-German troops fighting in the Wehrmacht, while the latter had its own policy towards the military units, which was helped by the national committees whose patron it was. Most national committees refused to subordinate themselves and the associated military units to Andrey Vlasov's Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (KONR) and its armed forces (ROA), instead choosing to declare national armies, e.g. Caucasian Liberation Army and National Army of Turkestan. However, through the help of his patrons in the SS Main Office, Vlasov became their ostensibly leader by April 1945 and all national committees and related troops were nominally subordinated to him.
According to Antony Beevor, those serving under the Germans were "often extraordinarily naïve and ill-informed." Many viewed their service under the Germans as just serving in another military service and a way to ensure food for themselves, which they preferred to being maltreated and starved in a prisoner-of-war camp.
The Waffen-SS recruited from many nationalities living in the Soviet Union, and the German government attempted to enroll Soviet citizens voluntarily for the Ostarbeiter program. Originally this effort worked well, but the news of the terrible conditions faced by workers dried up the flow of new volunteers and the program became forcible.
Hiwis
Already from the very first days, individual deserters and prisoners from the Red Army were offering their help to the Germans in auxiliary duties such as, but not limited to, cooking, driving, and medical assistance. There were also Soviet civilians that joined supply units and construction battalions. Both military and civilian auxiliaries were called Hiwis (German abbreviation for auxiliary volunteer) with the former Soviets soldiers frequently wearing their Red Army uniforms without any Soviet insignia. After two months service, they were permitted to wear German uniforms with insignia and ranks, which made veteran Hiwis almost indistinguishable from the regular German soldiers, although their promotion up the ranks was very limited.
Hitler reluctantly gave permission in September 1941 to recruit people from the Soviet Union as unarmed voluntary assistants, but in practice this was frequently ignored and many of them served in frontline units. Sometimes many of the men of German units consisted of the Hiwis, for example, half of the 134th Infantry Division and a quarter of the 6th Army consisted of Hiwis in late 1942. The Red Army authorities estimated that more than a million served in the Wehrmacht as Hiwis.
Eastern Legions
See also: Ostlegionen and Turkic, Caucasian, Cossack, and Crimean collaborationism with the Axis powersThe failure of the Axis powers to immediately defeat the Soviet Union in late 1941 led the Wehrmacht to resort to new sources of manpower necessary for a protracted war. In November–December 1941, Hitler ordered the formation of four Eastern Legions: Turkestan, Georgian, Armenian and Caucasian Mohammedan. In August 1942, the "Regulations on Local Auxiliary Formations in the East" singled out the Turkic peoples and the Cossacks as "equal allies fighting shoulder to shoulder with German soldiers against Bolshevism in composition of special combat units." The incorporation of eastern battalions into German divisions guarding the Atlantic Wall in Western Europe caused problems as they were totally unfit to fight against the Western Allies and the battalions were actually a burden on the weakened divisions that they were supposed to replenish. Between 275,000 and 350,000 "Muslim and Caucasian" volunteers and conscripts served in the Wehrmacht.
Ethnic groups from the USSR | Estimates of people that served in the Wehrmacht |
---|---|
Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkmens and other ethnic groups of Central Asia | ~70,000 |
Azerbaijanis | <40,000 |
North Caucasians | <30,000 |
Georgians | 25,000 |
Armenians | 20,000 |
Volga Tatars | 12,500 |
Crimean Tatars | 10,000 |
Kalmyks | 7,000 |
Cossacks | 70,000 |
Total | 280,000 |
Between early 1942 and late 1943, the Kommando der Ostlegionen in Polen formed a total of 54 battalions, but this was not the only place where such units were being created:
Legion | No. of battalions formed |
---|---|
Turkestan | 15 |
Armenian | 9 |
Georgian | 8 |
Azerbaijani | 8 |
Idel-Ural (Volga Finns and Tartars) | 7 |
North Caucasian | 7 |
Total | 54 |
Russia
Main article: Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union § Russian collaborationismIn Russia proper, ethnic Russians governed the semi-autonomous Lokot Autonomy in Nazi-occupied Russia. On 22 June 1943, a parade of the Wehrmacht and Russian collaborationist forces was welcomed and positively received in Pskov. The entry of Germans into Pskov was labelled "Liberation day" by occupying authorities, and the old Russian tricolor flag was included in the parade.
Kalmykians
The Kalmykian Cavalry Corps was composed of about 5,000 Kalmyks who chose to join the retreating Germans in 1942 rather than remain in Kalmykia as the German Army retreated before the Red Army. Joseph Stalin subsequently declared the Kalmyk population as a whole to be German collaborators in 1943 and ordered mass deportations to Siberia, causing great loss of life.
Belarus
Main article: Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi GermanyIn Byelorussia under German occupation, local pro-independence politicians attempted to use the Nazis to re-establish an independent Belarusian state, which was conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1919. A Belarusian representative body, the Belarusian Central Council, was created under German control in 1943 but had no real power and concentrated mainly on managing social issues and education. Belarusian national military units (the Byelorussian Home Defence) were only created a few months before the end of the German occupation.
Many Belarusian collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red Army advance. In January 1945, the 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belarusian) was formed from the remains of Belarusian military units. The division participated in a small number of battles in France but demonstrated active disloyalty to the Nazis and saw mass desertion.
Transcaucasia
Main article: Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union § OtherEthnic Armenian, Georgian, Turkic and Caucasian forces deployed by the Germans consisted primarily of Soviet Red Army POWs assembled into ill-trained legions. Among these battalions were 18,000 Armenians, 13,000 Azerbaijanis, 14,000 Georgians, and 10,000 men from the "North Caucasus." American historian Alexander Dallin notes that the Armenian and Georgian Legions were sent to the Netherlands as a result of Hitler's distrust of them, and many later deserted. Author Christopher Ailsby called the Turkic and Caucasian forces formed by the Germans "poorly armed, trained and motivated", and "unreliable and next to useless".
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (the Dashnaks) was suppressed in Armenia when the First Republic of Armenia was conquered by the Russian Bolsheviks in the 1920 Red Army invasion of Armenia and thus ceased to exist. During World War II, some of the Dashnaks saw an opportunity to regain Armenia's independence. The Armenian Legion under Drastamat Kanayan participated in the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus. On 15 December 1942, the Armenian National Council was granted official recognition by Alfred Rosenberg, the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. The president of the Council was Ardasher Abeghian, its vice-president was Abraham Guilkhandanian, and it numbered among its members Garegin Nzhdeh and Vahan Papazian. Until the end of 1944, the organization published a weekly journal, Armenian, edited by Viken Shantn, who also broadcast on Radio Berlin with the aid of Dr. Paul Rohrbach.
Collaboration beyond Europe with the European Axis powers
Further information: Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world See also: Afrika Korps and Italian colonization of LibyaEgypt and the Palestine mandate
The well-publicized Arab-Jewish clash in Mandatory Palestine from 1936 to 1939, and the rise of Nazi Germany, began to affect Jewish relations with Egyptian society, despite the fact that the number of active Zionists was small. Local militant and nationalistic societies, like the Young Egypt Party and the Society of Muslim Brothers, circulated false reports claiming that Jews and the British were destroying holy places in Jerusalem, and other reports that hundreds of Arab women and children were being killed. Some of this antisemitism was fueled by an association between Hitler's regime and anti-imperialist Arab activists. One activist, Haj Amin al-Husseini, received Nazi funds for the Muslim Brotherhood to print and distribute thousands of anti-Semitic propaganda pamphlets.
In the 1940s the situation worsened. Sporadic pogroms began in 1942.
French colonial empire
France retained its colonial empire, and the terms of the armistice shifted the balance of power of France's reduced military resources away from metropolitan France and towards its overseas possessions, especially French North Africa. Although in 1940, most French colonies except for the French Equatorial Africa had rallied to Vichy France, this changed during the war. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled French Indochina, were under the control of the Free French. French Equatorial Africa in particular played a key role.
French North Africa
Concerned that the French fleet might fall into German hands, the British Royal Navy sank or disabled most of it in the July 1940 attack on the Algerian naval port at Mers-el-Kébir, which poisoned Anglo-French relations and led to Vichy reprisals. When Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, began on 8 November 1942 with landings in Morocco and Algeria, Vichy forces initially resisted, killing 479 and wounding 720. Admiral François Darlan appointed himself High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa, then ordered Vichy forces there to stop resisting and co-operate with the Allies, which they did.
Most Vichy figures were arrested, including Darlan and General Alphonse Juin, chief commander in North Africa. Both were released, and US General Dwight D. Eisenhower accepted Darlan's self-appointment. This infuriated de Gaulle, who refused to recognise Darlan. Darlan was assassinated on Christmas Eve 1942 by a French monarchist. German Wehrmacht forces in North Africa established the Kommando Deutsch-Arabische Truppen, composed of two battalions of Arab volunteers of Tunisian origin, an Algerian battalion and a Moroccan battalion. The four units had total of 3,000 men; with German cadres.
Morocco
In 1940, Résident Général Charles Noguès implemented antisemitic decrees coming from Vichy excluding Moroccan Jews from working as doctors, lawyers or teachers. All Jews living elsewhere were required to move to the Jewish quarters, called mellahs, Vichy anti-semitic propaganda encouraged boycotting Jews, and pamphlets were pinned to Jewish shops. These laws put Moroccan Jews in an uncomfortable position "between an indifferent Muslim majority and an antisemitic settler class." Sultan Mohammed V reportedly refused to sign off on "Vichy's plan to ghettoize and deport Morocco's quarter of a million Jews to the killing factories of Europe," and, in an act of defiance, insisted on inviting all the rabbis of Morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations.
Tunisia
Further information: Tunisia Campaign and Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab worldMany Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940, but little else. Despite his commitment to ending the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader Habib Bourguiba abhorred the Axis state ideologies. and feared any short-term benefit would come at the cost of long-term tragedy. After the Second Armistice at Compiègne, Pétain sent a new Resident-General to Tunis, Admiral Jean-Pierre Esteva. Arrests followed of Taieb Slim [fr] and Habib Thameur [fr], central figures in the Neo-Destour party. Bey Muhammad VII al-Munsif moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when the Free French forced out the Axis powers in 1943, they accused him of collaborating with Vichy and deposed him.
French Equatorial Africa
The federation of colonies in French Equatorial Africa (AEF or Afrique-Équatoriale française) rallied to the cause of De Gaulle after Félix Éboué of Chad joined him in August 1940. The exception was Gabon, which remained Vichy French until 12 November 1940, when it surrendered to the invading Free French. The federation became the strategic centre of Free French activities in Africa.
Syria and the Lebanon (League of Nations mandates)
See also: French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and Syria–Lebanon campaignThe Vichy government's Armée du Levant (Army of the Levant) under General Henri Dentz had regular metropolitan colonial troops and troupes spéciales (special troops, indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers). Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal, and eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry in horsed and motorized units, two artillery groups and supporting units. The French had 90 tanks (according to British estimates), the Armée de l'air had 90 aircraft (increasing to 289 aircraft after reinforcement) and the Marine nationale (French Navy) had two destroyers,a sloop and three submarines.
The Royal Air Force attacked the airfield at Palmyra, in central Syria, on 14 May 1941, after a reconnaissance mission spotted German and Italian aircraft. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued: Vichy French forces shot down a Blenheim bomber on 28 May, killing the crew, and forced down another on 2 June. French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters also escorted German Junkers Ju 52 aircraft into Iraq on 28 May. Germany permitted French aircraft en route from Algeria to Syria to fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel at the German-controlled Eleusina air base in Greece.
After the Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre, on 14 July 1941, 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war survived, who mostly chose to be repatriated rather than join the Free French.
Foreign volunteers
Main articles: Wehrmacht foreign volunteers and conscripts, Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts, Europäische Freiwillige, Schutzmannschaft, Selbstschutz, and Hiwi (volunteer)French military volunteers
French volunteers formed the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (LVF), Légion impériale, SS-Sturmbrigade Frankreich and finally in 1945 the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French), which was among the final defenders of Berlin.
Volunteers from British India
Main articles: India in World War II, Azad Hind, Indian National Army, Indian Independence League, Indian National Council, and Collaboration with Imperial JapanThe Indian Legion (Legion Freies Indien, Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950 or Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS) was created in August 1942, recruiting chiefly from disaffected British Indian Army prisoners of war captured by Axis forces in the North African campaign. Most were supporters of the exiled nationalist and former president of the Indian National Congress Subhas Chandra Bose. The Royal Italian Army formed a similar unit of Indian prisoners of war, the Battaglione Azad Hindoustan. (A Japanese-supported puppet state, Azad Hind, was also established in far-eastern India with the Indian National Army as its military force.)
Non-German units of the Waffen-SS
By the end of World War II, 60% of the Waffen-SS was made up of non-German volunteers from occupied countries. The predominantly Scandinavian 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland along with remnants of French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch volunteers were the last defenders of the Reichstag in Berlin.
The Nuremberg Trials, in declaring the Waffen-SS a criminal organisation explicitly excluded conscripts, who had committed no crimes. In 1950, The U.S. High Commission in Germany and the U.S. Displaced Persons Commission clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waffen-SS Units, considering them distinct from the German SS in purpose, ideology, activities and qualifications for membership.
Business collaboration
See also: Forced labour under German rule during World War II, List of companies involved in the Holocaust, Nazi Billionaires, and Category:Companies involved in the HolocaustA number of international companies have been accused of having collaborated with Nazi Germany before their home countries' entry into World War II, though it has been debated whether the term "collaboration" is applicable to business dealings outside the context of overt war.
American companies that had dealings with Nazi Germany included Ford Motor Company, Coca-Cola, and IBM.
Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. acted for German tycoon Fritz Thyssen, who helped finance Hitler's rise to power. The Associated Press (AP) supplied images for a propaganda book called The Jews in the USA, and another titled The Subhuman.
In December 1941, when the United States entered the war against Germany, 250 American firms owned more than $450 million of German assets. Major American companies with investments in Germany included General Motors, Standard Oil, IT&T, Singer, International Harvester, Eastman Kodak, Gillette, Coca-Cola, Kraft, Westinghouse, and United Fruit. Many major Hollywood studios have also been accused of collaboration, in making or adjusting films to Nazi tastes prior to the U.S. entry into the war.
German financial operations worldwide were facilitated by banks such as the Bank for International Settlements, Chase and Morgan, and Union Banking Corporation.
Robert A. Rosenbaum writes: "American companies had every reason to know that the Nazi regime was using IG Farben and other cartels as weapons of economic warfare"; and he noted that
"as the US entered the war, it found that some technologies or resources could not be procured, because they were forfeited by American companies as part of business deals with their German counterparts."
After the war, some of those companies reabsorbed their temporarily detached German subsidiaries, and even received compensation for war damages from the Allied governments.
See also
- Blue Division
- Collaboration in wartime
- Collaboration with Imperial Japan
- Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
- Finland in World War II
- German-occupied Europe
- Italian Civil War
- International Commission for the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania
- List of Allied traitors during World War II
- Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Resistance during World War II
- Responsibility for the Holocaust
- Participation of Ukrainians in the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising
Notes
- "A few thousand of the deportees were simply abandoned by their captors in the areas surrounding Kaminets-Podolsk. Most subsequently perished with Jewish residents of the area as a result of transports or aktions in the many ghettos, but a handful survived. The killings were conducted on August 27 and August 28, 1941, in the Soviet city of Kamianets-Podilskyi (now Ukraine), occupied by German troops in the previous month on July 11, 1941. The number of people deported over the Carpathians was 19,426, according to a document found in 2012
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- ^ Thomas, Nigel (2015). Hitler's Russian & Cossack Allies 1941–45. Men-at-Arms. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-1-4728-0687-1.
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- ^ Beevor, Antony. The Fall of Berlin 1945. pp. 113–114.
- ^ Jurado, Carlos Caballero (1999). Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941-1945. Men-at-Arms. Osprey Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 0-85045-524-3.
- ^ Drobyazko, S.; Karashchuk, A. (2001). Восточные легионы и казачьи части в Вермахте [Eastern legions and Cossack units in the Wehrmacht] (in Russian). Moscow. pp. 3–4.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ Jurado, Carlos Caballero (1999). Foreign Volunteers of the Wehrmacht 1941–1945. Men-at-Arms. Osprey Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 0-85045-524-3.
- Haslinger, Peter; Tönsmeyer, Tatjana, eds. (2021). Fighting Hunger, Dealing with Shortage (2 vols): Everyday Life under Occupation in World War II Europe: A Source Edition. Brill Publishers. p. 775. ISBN 978-90-04-46184-0.
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- Stalin's genocide against the "Repressed Peoples, J. Otto Pohl, pp. 267–293 03 Aug 2010 doi:10.1080/713677598 Journal of Genocide Research Volume 2, 2000 – Issue 2
- ^ Ailsby 2004, pp. 123–124.
- Dallin, Alexander. German Rule in Russia: 1941–1945. Octagon Books: 1990.
- Auron 2003, p. 238.
- Christopher J. Walker's "Armenia —The Survival of a Nation," p. 357
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- See, for example, Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, Volume 2: Their Finest Hour, London & New York, 1949, Book One, chapter 11, "Admiral Darlan and the French Fleet: Oran"
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- Funk 1974.
- Alphonse Juin (1888–1967), Chemins de mémoire, Ministère des Armées (Ministry of Armies), Republic of France
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- Torres, Carlos Canales; Vicente, Miguel del Rey (2012). La palmera y la esvástica: La odisea del Afrika Korps (in Spanish). EDAF. p. 267. ISBN 978-84-414-3173-7.
- ^ Kenbib, Mohammed (2014-08-08). "Moroccan Jews and the Vichy regime, 1940–42". The Journal of North African Studies. 19 (4): 540–553. [https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=n2:1362-9387] doi: ISSN 1362-9387
- ^ Miller 2013, p. 45.
- "Le Petit Marocain". Gallica. 24 June 1945. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
- Moroccan Jews pay homage to 'protector' – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News. Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-04.
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- ^ Mollo 1981, p. 144.
- Playfair 2004, pp. 200, 206.
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- ^ Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 43.
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- Weale 2012, p. 407.
- Hamilton 2020, pp. 349, 386.
- Dunphy, J.J. (2018). Unsung Heroes of the Dachau Trials: The Investigative Work of the U.S. Army 7708 War Crimes Group, 1945–1947. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-4766-3337-4.
Imperial Japan in 1943 had established a puppet state known as the Provisional Government of Free India
- Fay, Peter W. (1993). The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945. University of Michigan Press. pp. 212–213. ISBN 0-472-08342-2.
- Forbes, Robert (2010). For Europe : the French volunteers of the Waffen-SS. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-8117-3581-0.
- Beevor, Antony (2002). The fall of Berlin, 1945. New York: Viking-Penguin Books. pp. 321, 323, 351–352. ISBN 978-0-670-03041-5.
- Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Volume 22, September 1946 Archived 21 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (25 June 2013). "Scholar Asserts That Hollywood Avidly Aided Nazis". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- English, Simon (3 November 2003). "Ford 'used slave labour' in Nazi German plants". The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- "Mark Thomas discovers Coca-Cola's Nazi links". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- "Coca-Cola collaborated with the Nazis in the 1930s, and Fanta is the proof". Timeline. 2 August 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- Black, Edwin (27 February 2012). "IBM's Role in the Holocaust – What the New Documents Reveal". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- Black, Edwin. "How IBM Technology Jump Started the Holocaust". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- Black, Edwin (19 May 2002). "The business of making the trains to Auschwitz run on time". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 28 March 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- Campbell, Duncan (25 September 2004). "How Bush's grandfather helped Hitler's rise to power". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- "What the AP's Collaboration With the Nazis Should Teach Us About Reporting the News". Tablet Magazine. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ Stone & Kuznick 2013, p. 82.
- Robert A. Rosenbaum (2010). Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933–1941. ABC-CLIO. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-0-313-38503-2.
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- Hamilton, A. Stephan (2020) . Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945. Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1-912866-13-7.
- Hondros, John Louis (1983). Occupation & Resistance. The Greek Agony 1941–44. New York: Pella Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-918618-24-5.
- Hamilton, A. Stephan (2020) . Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945. Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1-912866-13-7
- Jennings, Eric (2015). Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-69697-6.
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- Kárný, Miroslav (1994). "Terezínský rodinný tábor v konečném řešení" . In Brod, Toman; Kárný, Miroslav; Kárná, Margita (eds.). Terezínský rodinný tábor v Osvětimi-Birkenau: sborník z mezinárodní konference, Praha 7.-8. brězna 1994 (in Czech). Prague: Melantrich. ISBN 978-8070231937
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- Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.
- MacDonald, David Bruce (2002). Balkan Holocausts?: Serbian and Croatian Victim Centered Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-6467-8.
- Miller, Susan Gilson (February 2013). "Facing the Challenges of Reform (1860–1894)". A History of Modern Morocco. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-04583-4.
- Milazzo, Matteo J. (1975). The Chetnik Movement & the Yugoslav Resistance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-1589-8.
- Mazower, Mark (1995). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. United States: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08923-6.
- Mollo, Andrew (1981). The Armed Forces of World War II. London: Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-54478-5.
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- Perkins, Kenneth J. (1986). Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European World. Westview Press. ISBN 0-7099-4050-5.
- Playfair, Major-General I.S.O.; et al. (2004) . Butler, J. R. M. (ed.). The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. II. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84574-066-5.
- Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34656-8.
- Sužiedėlis, Saulius (2004). Gaunt, David; Levine, Paul A.; Palosuo, Laura (eds.). Collaboration and Resistance During the Holocaust: Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. Frankfurt am Main, Bern, New York: Peter Lang, and Oxford.
- Stone, Oliver; Kuznick, Peter (2013). The Untold History of the United States. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-1352-0.
- Thomas, Martin (2007). The French Empire at War, 1940–1945. Manchester University Press.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
- Tomasevich, J. (2002). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. ACLS Humanities E-Book. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1.
- Voorhis, Jerry L. (1972). "Germany and Denmark 1940–1943". Scandinavian Studies. 44 (2): 171–185. ISSN 0036-5637. JSTOR 40917223.
- Weale, Adrian (2012). Army of Evil: A History of the SS. New York: Caliber Printing. ISBN 978-0-451-23791-0.
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). "From the German and Soviet Invasions of Poland to the German Attack in the West, September I, 1939 to May 10, 1940". A World at Arms A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). 28 March 2005: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511818639. ISBN 9780511818639.
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: CS1 maint: location (link) - Wnuk, Rafał (2018). Leśni bracia. Podziemie antykomunistyczne na Litwie, Łotwie i w Estonii 1944–1956 [Forest Brothers. Anti-communist underground in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia 1944–1956]. Lublin.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Further reading
See also: Bibliography of Poland during World War II, Bibliography of the Soviet Union during World War II, and Bibliography of Ukrainian history § World War II- Birn, Ruth Bettina, Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. Contemporary European History 2001, 10.2, 181–198.
- Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: Krigens købmænd, Gyldendal, 2000 ("The Merchants of War", in Danish)
- Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Nazi rule and Dutch collaboration: the Netherlands under German occupation, 1940–1945 Berg Publishers, 1988
- Jeffrey W. Jones "Every Family Has Its Freak": Perceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, 1943–1948 – Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747–770
- Kitson, Simon (2008). The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Klaus-Peter Friedrich Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II – Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711–746
- Rafaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress, Legal classics library,
- World constitutions, Volume 56 of Publications of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law, 1944
- Hitler's Empire: How the Nazis Ruled Europe, by Mark Mazower, Penguin Books 2008 (paperback), Chapter 14, "Eastern Helpers", pp. 446–47 (ISBN 978-0-14-311610-3)
- Morgan, Philip (2018). Hitler's Collaborators: Choosing Between Bad and Worse in Nazi-occupied Western Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923973-3.
- Nazism, a history in documents and eyewitness accounts, 1919–1945, Volume II: Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination, edited by J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Schocken Books (paperback), 1988, ISBN 0-8052-0972-7
- Bauer, Yehuda (2001). Rethinking the Holocaust. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09300-4.
- Blum, Alain; Chopard, Thomas; Koustova, Emilia (2020). "Survivors, Collaborators and Partisans?". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 68 (2): 222–255. doi:10.25162/jgo-2020-0008. JSTOR 27011586. S2CID 234169545.
- Fay, Peter W. (1993). The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08342-2.
- Finkel, Evgeny (2017). Ordinary Jews. Choice and Survival during the Holocaust.
- Grabowski, Jan (2008). "Szantażowanie Żydów: casus Warszawy 1939–1945" [Blackmailing the Jews: The Case Warsaw 1939–1945]. Przegląd Historyczny. 99 (4): 583–602.
- Jackson, Julian T. (2001). France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820706-1. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
- de Wailly, H. (2016) . Invasion Syria, 1941: Churchill and De Gaulle's Forgotten War [Syrie 1941: la guerre occultée: Vichystes contre gaullistes]. trans. W. Land (2nd English trans. ed.). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78453-449-3.
- Lidegaard, Bo, ed. (2003). Dansk udenrigspolitiks historie. Vol. 4 Overleveren. København: Danmarks Nationalleksikon. ISBN 978-87-7789-093-2.
- Mackenzie, Compton (1951). Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943, Defence. Vol. I. London: Chatto & Windus. OCLC 1412578.
- Maravigna, General Pietro (1949). Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia [How We Lost the War in Africa: Our First Colonies in Africa, the World Conflict and Operations in East Africa and Libya] (in Italian). Roma: Tosi. OCLC 643646990.
- Mędykowski, Witold (2006). "Przeciw swoim: Wzorce kolaboracji żydowskiej w Krakowie i okolicy" [Against Their Own: Patterns of Jewish Collaboration in and around Kraków]. Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały. 2 (2): 202–220. doi:10.32927/ZZSiM.187.
- Raugh, H. E. (1993). Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship (1st ed.). London: Brassey's. ISBN 978-0-08-040983-2.
- Rovighi, Alberto (1988) . Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) [Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941)] (in Italian). Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. OCLC 848471066.
- Shores, Christopher F.; Ehrengardt, Christian-Jacques (1987). L' aviation de Vichy au combat 2 La campagne de Syrie, 8 juin – 14 juillet 1941 [Vichy Air Combat: Syria Campaign, 8 June – 14 July 1941] (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Lavauzelle. ISBN 978-2-7025-0171-9.
- Sutherland, Jon; Canwell, Diane (2011). Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Aviation. pp. 53–67. ISBN 978-1-84884-336-3.
Estonia
- Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2003). "Extermination of the Gypsies in Estonia during World War II: Popular Images and Official Policies" (PDF). Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 17 (1): 31–61. doi:10.1093/hgs/17.1.31. PMID 20684093.
- Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2017). On the Margins: Essays on the History of Jews in Estonia. New York. ISBN 978-963-386-166-0.
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