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{{short description|Post–World War II ideology}}
{{Neo-Fascism}}
{{about|fascism after World War II|Nazi movements after World War II|Neo-Nazism}}
:''This page pertains to fascism after World War II. For a discussion of groups and movements that also include as core tenets racial nationalism, antisemitism, and praise for Hitler, see ]. For neofascist groups associated with a religious identity or theology, see ]. For analysis of where fascism fits on the left/right ideological spectrum, see ]. For discussions concerning the United States, see this page for post-WWII, and ] for pre-WWII and the FDR Administration.''
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{{neo-fascism |all}}


'''Neo-fascism''' is a post-World War II ] ideology that includes significant elements of ]. Neo-fascism usually includes ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] sentiment, sometimes with ] issues,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deutsch |first=Sandra McGee |date=2009 |title=Fascism, Neo-Fascism, or Post-Fascism? Chile, 1945-1988 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=305526877002 |journal=Diálogos - Revista do Departamento de História e do Programa de Pós-Graduação em História |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=19–44 |issn=1415-9945}}</ref> as well as opposition to ], ], ], ],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269613450 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |quote=Previous research has established that there is a connection between economic crises and the emergence of fascism, and that the critique of neo-liberalism and market economy constitutes a central feature of neo-fascist groups.|hdl=10451/23243 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ], and ] (sometimes are opposed to ] and ]).<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Fritzsche |title=Terrorism in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy: Legacy of the '68 Movement or 'Burden of Fascism'? |journal=] |date=1 October 1989 |issn=0954-6553 |pages=466–481 |volume=1 |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/09546558908427039}}</ref> As with classical fascism, it occasionally proposes a ] as an alternative to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |quote=We find that the crisis offers a whole new set of opportunities for the radical right to reconnect with its fascist legacy, and to develop and innovate crisis-related policy proposals and practices. The crisis shapes the groups' self-understanding and its practices of identity building, both in terms of collective rediscovery of the fascist regime's legislation, and in terms of promotion of the fascist model as a 'third way' alternative to market capitalism. Even more importantly, the financial crisis plays the role of the enemy against which the fascist identity is built, and enables neo-fascist movements to selectively reproduce their identity and ideology within its practices of protest, propaganda, and consensus building.|hdl=10451/23243 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
'''Neo-fascism''' is the term used to describe a range of movements emerging after the ] that display significant elements of ], or ]. The term Neo-Fascist (note uppercase 'F') may be claimed by groups that express a specific admiration for Mussolini, the insignia of ] (e.g. the ], the ]) and features specific to Fascist Italy. This usually includes ], ], ] and various oppositions to ] and ]. Neo-fascist (note lowercase 'f') movements can draw on an eclectic mix of attachment to Fascism, ], and the fascist movements of other nations. Allegations that a group is neofascist may be hotly contested, in particular if term is used as a ] political attack that uses ]. ] once remarked that "fascism" no longer seemed to mean much of anything, other than "objectionable." Hence the necessity for scholars to reach a precise definition of this movement which first took power in ] during ]'s 1922 ]. Anyhow, neofascism was used after the war to design movements or regimes sharing common characteristics with Fascism. While there exists a wide variety of neofascist movements, the question of neofascist regimes is more controversial.


Allegations that a group is neo-fascist may be hotly contested, especially when the term is used as a ]. Some ] regimes have been described as neo-fascist due to their authoritarian nature, and sometimes due to their fascination with and sympathy towards fascist ] and ]s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Fascism as the Looming Shadow of Democracy: A Critique of the Xenophobic Reason |first=Henk |last=Oosterling |encyclopedia=Philosophy and Democracy in Intercultural Perspective/Philosophie et démocratie en perspective interculturelle |pages=235–252 |year=1997 |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam/Atlanta}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Deutsch |first=Sandra McGee |title=Fascism, Neo-Fascism, or Post-Fascism? Chile, 1945–1988 |journal=Diálogos-Revista do Departamento de História e do Programa de Pós-Graduação Em História 13.1 |year=2009 |pages=19–44}}</ref>
== Definition of Fascism ==
{{Main|Fascism}}
<!-- The definitional debates and arguments by academics over the nature of fascism fill entire bookshelves. ] is an ] ]. SHOULD THAT BE INCLUDED? -->
First adopted in ] during the ], Fascism spread across ] and the rest of the world between ] and ], although some historians preferred to restrict the concept to ] and ]. Debates concerns the imitation of fascism by a wide variety of regimes, including ], ]'s ], ] in ], ]'s '']'' in ] and ] in ], ]'s ] in ], ] in ], the ] ], etc.; some historians prefer to keep for those regimes the traditional ] appelation or plain ].


== History ==
Fascism's roots have been traced by some scholars, such as ], to the ] ], as it mixed, in its first stages, certain socialist policies with nationalist ideology. Sternhell in particular points out toward ] ]'s theorization of "revolutionary violence" in ] in ''Reflections on Violence'' (1908) and the '']'' 's thought. However, others historians argue that fascism is essentially a mass movement, which distinguish it from the intellectual debates to which Sternhell traces ]'s roots. Furthermore, some divide fascism into various phases, beginning with the '']'', then fascism in power, and finally "war fascism" stage which only ] would have fully achieved. Besides, this analysis tends to underestimate the role of ] movements and territorial ] which followed the 1919 ] and largely supported the rise of fascism, along with WWI ]s. Irredentism, largely based on historical and geopolitical positions, has been indeed fundamental to the fascist phenomenon of the 1930s. ], a follower of ] who occupated ] in 1919 in a measure of gesture towards the ], thus developed the same year the concept of "proletarian nationalism", creating an inedit mix of ] terminology and nationalism opposed to Marxist ]. On the other hand, Nazism itself was closely linked to ] movements, which ] qualified as "continental ]s". Notwithstanding the ], these historical conditions of the rise of fascism as a mass movement between the two World Wars partly explains the difficulties of transposing the concept of "fascism" out of its historical context of origin.
{{fascism sidebar}}
According to ] and ], the neo-fascist ideology emerged in 1942, after ] ] and decided to reorient its propaganda on a Europeanist ground.<ref name=":1"/> Europe then became both the myth and the utopia of the neo-fascists, who abandoned previous theories of racial inequalities within the white race to share a common ] stance after World War II, embodied in ]'s ] policy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laqueur |first=Walter |title=Fascism: Past, Present, Future |date=1997 |publisher=] |isbn=9780198025276 |pages=93–94 |language=en}}</ref> The following chronology can therefore be delineated: an ideological gestation before 1919; the historical experience of ] between 1919 and 1942, unfolded in several phases; and finally neo-fascism from 1942 onward.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Camus |first1=Jean-Yves |title=Far-Right Politics in Europe |last2=Lebourg |first2=Nicolas |date=20 March 2017 |publisher=] |isbn=9780674971530 |pages=9–10, p. |no-pp=y |language=en }}</ref>


Drawing inspiration from the ], institutional neo-fascism took the form of the ] (MSI). It became one of the chief reference points for the European far-right until the late 1980s,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ignazi |first=Piero |title=Extreme Right Parties in Western Europe |date=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=9780198293255 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> and "the best (and only) example of a Neofascist party", in the words of political scientist ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casadio |first=Massimiliano Capra |date=2014 |title=The New Right and Metapolitics in France and Italy |journal=] |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–86 |doi=10.14321/jstudradi.8.1.0045 |issn=1930-1189 |jstor=10.14321/jstudradi.8.1.0045 |s2cid=144052579}}</ref> At the initiative of the MSI, the ] was established in 1951 as a pan-European organization of like-minded neo-fascist groups and figures such as the ] ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5opW1yV7FcC&pg=PA592 |title=The Oxford handbook of fascism |last=Bosworth |first=R. J. B. |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-929131-1 |page=592 |via=]}}</ref> Other organizations like ] called in the late 1950s for an extra-parliamentarian insurrection against the regime in what extents to a remnant of pre-war fascist strategies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gautier |first=Jean-Paul |title=Les extrêmes droites en France: De 1945 à nos jours |trans-title=The extreme right in France: From 1945 to the present day |date=2017 |publisher=Syllepse |isbn=9782849505700 |pages=40–41 |language=fr}}</ref> The main driving force of neo-fascist movements was what they saw as the defense of a Western civilization from the rise of both communism and the ], in some cases the loss of the colonial empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=Mark |title=Key Thinkers of the Radical Right: Behind the New Threat to Liberal Democracy |date=2019 |publisher=] |isbn=9780190877613 |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref>
Fascism is typified by:
*a ], ] and ] ] (many of the ''squadristi'' were WWI veterans, and the ]'s ] movement also was a source of it; '']'' was also fundamental in Italian fascism)
*]
*Economic ]
*Attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic.
*The fascist state regulates and controls (as opposed to nationalizing) the ].
*Fascism exalts the ], ] (]), or ] as superior to the individuals, institutions, or groups composing it.
*Fascism uses explicit ] rhetoric and ] techniques applicated from ]; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness;
*Demands loyalty to a single leader, often to the point of a ]. ] of the leader may be invoked.
*A powerful, ] leader or ruling cadre who portrays the ], ], or ] as superior to the individuals or groups composing it.
*NOTE: ] and various forms of ] theories are often shared by contemporary neofascist movements.


In 1961, Bardèche redefined the nature of fascism in a book deemed influential in the European far-right at large entitled {{lang|fr|Qu'est-ce que le fascisme?}} (''What Is Fascism?''). He argued that previous fascists had essentially made two mistakes in that they focused their efforts on the methods rather than the original "idea"; and they wrongly believed that fascist society could be achieved via the nation-state as opposed to the construction of Europe. According to him, fascism could survive the 20th century in a new ] guise if its theorists succeed in building inventive methods adapted to the changes of their times; the aim being the promotion of the core politico-cultural fascist project rather than vain attempts to revive doomed regimes:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bar-On |first=Tamir |title=Where Have All The Fascists Gone? |date=2016 |publisher=] |isbn=9781351873130 |pages= |language=en }}</ref> In addition, Bardèche wrote: "The single party, the secret police, the public displays of Caesarism, even the presence of a Führer are not necessarily attributes of fascism. ... The famous fascist methods are constantly revised and will continue to be revised. More important than the mechanism is the idea which fascism has created for itself of man and freedom. ... With another name, another face, and with nothing which betrays the projection from the past, with the form of a child we do not recognize and the head of a young Medusa, the Order of Sparta will be reborn: and paradoxically it will, without doubt, be the last bastion of Freedom and the sweetness of living."<ref>Bardèche, Mauriche (1961). ''Qu'est-ce que le fascisme?''. Paris: Les Sept Couleurs. pp. 175–176.</ref>
After the defeat of the ] during WWII and the desperate attempt of the ], the concept of ] would be used mainly in the ] in the ]s, in the beginning of the ] and in the midst of ], to describe the specific forms of regimes which had appeared during the 1920-30s. The term had first been used, along with "]", by Fascist ideologue ], who ghostwrote '']'' (]) for Mussolini. ], ] or ], who served as president ]'s ], used the term to criticize an alleged characteristic of both ] and ]; surprisingly, Fascism was not included by H. Arendt, who considered it a more traditional "authoritarian" regime. Her interpretation has since been widely discussed. Furthermore, many have pointed towards much more similarities between the Nazi and the Fascist regimes &mdash; including a common ] and territorial revisionism (''irredentism'') &mdash; than with Stalinism.


In the spirit of Bardèche's strategy of disguise through framework change, the MSI had developed a policy of ''inserimento'' (insertion, ]), which relied on gaining political acceptance via the cooperation with other parties within the democratic system. In the political context of the Cold War, anti-communism began to replace ] as the dominant trend in liberal democracies. In Italy, the MSI became a support group in parliament for the Christian Democratic government in the late 1950s–early 1960s, but was forced back into "political ghetto" after anti-fascist protests and violent street clashes occurred between radical leftist and far-right groups, leading to the demise of the short-lived fascist-backed ] in July 1960.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Fella|first1=Stefano|title=Re-inventing the Italian Right: Territorial Politics, Populism and 'post-fascism'|last2=Ruzza|first2=Carlo|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134286348|pages=|no-pp=y|language=en}}</ref>
The wide popularity acquired by the concept of totalitarianism has lead in part to a confusion between fascism and totalitarianism, which may explains parts of the debate on some specific cases of alleged "neo-fascist regimes", in particular when dealing with regimes claiming to be ]. Thus, several authors (], ], ], ]) have questionned the concept of totalitarianism and criticized ] societies as form of "soft totalitarianism". Debord thus spoke of a "diffused spectacle," Foucault of "]," Deleuze of "society of control" and "microfascism" opposed to the fascist political movements of the 1930s, etc. The debate thus shifted in part from fascism to totalitarianism, and the last concept was used in new contexts: partly created to denounce the ], it was in effect reversed against the "]" first by ]. In this new use of the concept of totalitarianism, however, the nationalist ideology and irredentism specific to fascist movements of the 1930s had no place. But militarism retained its importance, as in Adorno's concerns with the "death pulsion" and the ].


According to ] David Pavón-Cuéllar of the ], the emergence of ] in the late-twentieth century prompted neoliberalist politicians to utilize neo-fascism by authoritatively removing all limits to capital (including ], ] and ]), through the ] and by using the ] to find a ] to exploit in order to maintain a ] instead of protecting all individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pavón-Cuellar|first=David|year=2020|title=Turning from Neoliberalism to Neo-Fascism: Universalization and Segregation in the Capitalist System|journal=Desde el Jardín de Freud|publisher=]|volume=20|pages=19–38|doi=10.15446/djf.n20.90161|s2cid=226731094|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Regimes often called fascist after World War Two==
Some post-World War II regimes have been called "neo-fascists" due to their ] nature and sometimes their fascination for fascist ] and rituals. Furthermore, ]s such as ], ]'s ], ] and ]'s ] regime which preceded ]'s ''junta'', or ]'s ] regime were accused of hosting ] war criminals whom part escaped through the ] network. These regimes also participated together in ], which targeted political opponents worldwide. These international operations gave rise to some cooperation between various neo-fascist elements engaged in a "] against Communism"<ref name="Serac"> "During this period we have systematically established close contacts with like-minded groups emerging in Italy, Belgium, Germany, Spain or Portugal, for the purpose of forming the kernel of a truly Western League of Struggle against Marxism." ], quoted by ], in '']: Portrait of a Black Terrorist'', London: Anarchy Magazine/Refract Publications, 1984. ISBN 0946222096, p.27) </ref> and ] services. This includes Operation Condor, but also ] and Italy's ], in which "]" ] actions were used &mdash; see the 1969 ] or the 1980 ] (Valerio Fioravanti and Francesca Mambro, two Neofascists activists, were convicted to life imprisonment for the Bologna attack; ], head of ], was condemned for investigation diversion, along with Francesco Pazienza and ] officers Pietro Musumeci and Giuseppe Belmonte <ref> of the 1980 ] </ref>) <ref> On ], see Daniele Ganser, ''NATO's Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe'', London, Franck Cass, 2005, ISBN 0714685003 (a quick ) and (Report by the ] (Italian Military Secret Service) on Operation Gladio; US Field Manual; Report by Giulio Andreotti; Parliamentary Investigation into the Swiss Defense Ministry; various FOIA requests to the CIA; Parliamentary Investigation report in Belgium & in Italy... on the ] website </ref> <ref name="Case"> See the case of ], involved in Italy's ] but whom also took part in ], organizing the 1976 assassination attempt of Chilean Christian Democrat ]. See also the case of ], who escaped to ] with the help of the ] following the 1972 Peteano attack for which he is currently serving a life sentence . Along with Delle Chiaie, Vinciguerra testified in Rome in December 1995 before judge Maria Servini de Cubria, stating that Enrique Arancibia Clavel (a former Chilean secret police agent prosecuted for crimes against humanity in 2004) and US expatriate DINA agent ] were directly involved in General ]' assassination. Michael Townley was condemned in Italy to 15 years of prison for having served as intermediary between the ] and the Italian neofascists , thus displaying again connections between European neofascist elements and South-American dictatorships. </ref>.{{fact}} This relationship between some authoritarian regimes and neo-fascist groups is highlighted by those claiming these regimes were neo-fascist, while others tend to believe this only proves the existence of neofascist tendencies in such dictatorships.{{fact}} Just as Salazar's ''Estado Novo'', Franco's dictatorship or ]'s '']'' regime in ], they asserted that these regimes belonged to the traditional class of authoritarian dictatorships or to the long lineage of Latin American '']'' and military '']''.


== Causes and description ==
Under this definition, which basically excludes the use of "neo-fascist" for post-WWII regimes, neo-fascism is in fact restricted to more or less marginal political movements which never actually attained power. This interpretation, however, tends to underplay the role of several former Nazis and Fascists directly involved in neofascist groups engaged after WWII in the "Crusade against Communism" <ref name="Serac"/>{{citation needed}}. A third element could thus be added to the distinction between neo-fascist movements and regimes: the one of an unformal "Neofascist International" which gathered worldwide neofascist activists opposed to Communism <ref name="Serac"/>. The contacts between Italian terrorist ] (present at various massacres on various continents), American ] agent ], anti-] ] and ] (whom founded the ]), ], Turkish ] member ] <ref> , '']'', July 1998 {{en icon}} </ref>, French ] ] (whom worked with ] after having taken part in the ]), etc., are the proofs of communication between various national neofascists movements and some state security forces, links which probably provides the strongest argument for the alleged existence of true neo-fascist regimes &mdash; at least of regimes which strongly supported these neofascist movements and were actively involved in them.{{fact}}
A number of historians and political scientists have pointed out that the situations in a number of European countries in the 1980s and 1990s, in particular France, Germany and Italy, were in some significant ways analogous to the conditions in Europe in the period between World War I and World War II that gave rise to fascism in its many national guises. Constant economic crises including high unemployment, a resurgence of nationalism, an increase in ethnic conflicts, and the geo-political weakness of national regimes were all present, and while not an exact one-to-one correspondence, circumstances were similar enough to promote the beginning of neo-fascism as a new fascist movement. Because intense nationalism is almost always a part of neo-fascism, the parties which make up this movement are not pan-European, but are specific to each country they arise in; other than this, the neo-fascist parties and other groups have many ideological traits in common.<ref>Golsan, Richard J. "Introduction" in Golsan (1998), pp.2–6</ref>


While certainly fascistic in nature, it is claimed by some that there are differences between neo-fascism and what can be called "historical fascism", or the kind of neo-fascism which came about in the immediate aftermath of World War II. Some historians claim that contemporary neo-fascist parties are not anti-democratic because they operate within their country's political system. Whether that is a significant difference between neo-fascism and historical fascism is doubted by other scholars, who point out that Hitler worked within the existing political system of the ] to obtain power, although it took an anti-democratic but constitutional process in the form of presidential appointment rather than election through the Reichstag. Others point to the current neo-fascists not being totalitarian in nature, but the organization of their parties along the lines of the '']'' would seem to indicate otherwise. Historian ] claims that the differences in current circumstance to that of the interwar years, and the strengthening of democracy in European countries since the end of the war prevents a general return of historical fascism, and causes true neo-fascist groups to be small and remain on the fringe. For Payne, groups like the ] in France are not neo-fascists in nature, but are merely "right radical parties" that will, in the course of time, moderate their positions in order to achieve electoral victory.<ref>Golsan, Richard J. "Introduction" in Golsan (1998), pp. 6–7.</ref>
Furthermore, in some cases neofascist elements did acquire executive power. Hence, even before Videla's ''junta'', ], the ] leader of the '']'' neofascist movement, was also Minister of Social Welfare. Again, those who opposed the classification of such regimes as neofascist will argue that, despite the acknowledged presence of neofascist tendencies in the government itself, such regimes should be qualified as ordinary dictatorships, as the precedent authoritarian regimes of the 1920-30s. Such an argument lift the question of the legimity itself of the "neofascist" category, since in this case it is restricted to movements which are not in power, although they may have benefitted from specific state complicities. Neofascism is thus understood as a tendency, but not as a valid category for defining a political regime. It's definition is henceforth strictly limited, in such an extent than it may be argued that the concept itself of neofascism disappears in this definition, since it put aside the relationship between several Cold War regimes and international neofascist movements whom cooperated in several specific operations, including assassinations and ] bombings <ref name="Case"/>.


The problem of immigrants, both legal and illegal or irregular, whether called "foreigners", "foreign workers", "economic refugees", "ethnic minorities", "asylum seekers", or "aliens", is a core neo-fascist issue, intimately tied to their nativism, ultranationalism, and xenophobia, but the specifics differ somewhat from country to country due to prevailing circumstances. In general, the anti-immigrant impetus is strong when the economy is weak or unemployment is high, and people fear that outsiders are taking their jobs. Because of this, neo-fascist parties have more electoral traction during hard economic times. Again, this mirrors the situation in the interwar years, when, for instance, Germany suffered from incredible ] and many people had their life savings swept away. In contemporary Europe, mainstream political parties see the electoral advantage the neo-fascist and far-right parties get from their strong emphasis on the supposed problem of the outsider, and are then tempted to co-opt the issue by moving somewhat to the right on the immigrant issue, hoping to slough off some voters from the hard right. In the absence in post-war Europe of a strong socialist movement, this has the tendency to move the political centre to the right overall.<ref>Judt (2005), pp.736–46</ref>
The case of ] is an example of such international cooperation mixing neofascist elements and state services. The latter, a Chilean Christian Democrat, was severely injured, along with his wife, on ], ] by gunshots while in exile in Rome. According to the ] and Italian attorney general Giovanni Salvi, in charge of former DINA head ]' prosecution, ] (founder of '']'') met with former CIA agent ] and anti-Castrist ] in Madrid, in ], to prepare, with the help of ]'s secret police, the murder of Bernardo Leighton <ref> of ], on the ] website </ref>. Attorney general Giovanni Salvi accused the Italian ] of having dissimulated proofs of the DINA's involvement in the terrorist attack.


While both historical fascism and contemporary neo-fascism are xenophobic, nativist and anti-immigrant, neo-fascist leaders are careful not to present these views in so strong a manner as to draw obvious parallels to historical events. Both ] of France's National Front and ]'s ], in the words of historian ], "revealed prejudices only indirectly". Jews would not be castigated as a group, but a person would be specifically named as a danger who just happened to be a Jew.<ref name=judt>Judt (2005), pp. 742–746.</ref> The public presentation of their leaders is one principal difference between the neo-fascists and historical fascists: their programs have been "finely honed and 'modernized'" to appeal to the electorate, a "far-right ideology with a democratic veneer". Modern neo-fascists do not appear in "jackboots and brownshirts", but in suits and ties. The choice is deliberate, as the leaders of the various groups work to differentiate themselves from the brutish leaders of historical fascism and also to hide whatever bloodlines and connections tie the current leaders to the historical fascist movements. When these become public, as they did in the case of Haider, it can lead to their decline and fall.<ref>Wolin, Richard. "Designer Fascism" in Golan (1998), p.49</ref><ref name=judt/>
The ] (1967-1974) was often adjectived as "fascist", even if the regime's nature was not fascist but military-based, anti-communist, ultra-nationalist and authoritarian. Some claim it was backed by the ] because of the Junta's leader ]' former militancy in the Greek Secret Intelligence service (]].


== International networks ==
] (]-]) - <!-- citation requested 15 Jan 06 -->Many scholars have labelled the ] system built by ] and ] as a type of fascism.{{fact}} Whether it was a fascist regime or an example of a socially conservative administration with excessive powers is hotly debated. The racial and nationalist ideas were implanted inside the South African regime, however the economic structure of the country was not as regulated as that of a typically fascist state. {{fact}}
In 1951, the ] (NEO) neo-fascist European-wide alliance was set up to promote ]. It was a more radical splinter group of the ]. The NEO had its origins in the 1951 ] conference, when a group of rebels led by ] and ] refused to join the European Social Movement as they felt that it did not go far enough in terms of ] and ]. As a result, Binet joined with ] in a second meeting that same year in ] to set up a second group pledged to wage war on communists and non-].<ref>{{cite journal|title = German Nationalists and European Union|last = Tauber|first = Kurt P.|journal = ]|issn = 0032-3195|volume = 74|issue = 4|year = 1959|pages = 564–89|doi = 10.2307/2146424|jstor = 2146424}}</ref>


]]]
] (1953-1980s) - ], a self-declared fascist, headed the ] after a ''coup d'état'', supported by the US, overthrew the democratic government of Col. ]. Sandoval became known as the "godfather of the death squads" during the Guatemalan military's 30-year counter-insurgency campaign and at one point served as Guatemala's vice president.
Several ] regimes and international neo-fascist movements collaborated in operations such as assassinations and ] bombings. ], who was involved in Italy's ], took part in ]; organizing the 1976 assassination attempt on ]an Christian Democrat ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060607195322/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm |date=7 June 2006}} of ], on the ] website.</ref> ] escaped to ] with the help of the ], following the 1972 Peteano attack, for which he was sentenced to life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |title=Terrorism Western Europe (PDF) |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209013035/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2006 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107215357/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/collection_gladio/Terrorism_Western_Europe.pdf |date=7 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/news/media_desk.htm#Gladio |title=Gladio |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209010857/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/news/media_desk.htm#Gladio |archive-date=9 December 2006 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Along with Delle Chiaie, Vinciguerra testified in ] in December 1995 before judge ], stating that Enrique Arancibia Clavel (a former Chilean secret police agent prosecuted for crimes against humanity in 2004) and US expatriate ] agent ] were directly involved in General ]' assassination. Michael Townley was sentenced in Italy to 15 years of prison for having served as intermediary between the DINA and the Italian neo-fascists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/05/22/mun6.html |title=mun6 |publisher=Jornada.unam.mx |date=22 May 2000 |access-date=22 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422190743/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/05/22/mun6.html |archive-date=22 April 2011 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


The regimes of ], ]'s Chile and ]'s ] participated together in ], which targeted political opponents worldwide. During the Cold War, these international operations gave rise to some cooperation between various neo-fascist elements engaged in a "] against Communism".<ref name="Serac">"During this period we have systematically established close contacts with like-minded groups emerging in Italy, Belgium, Germany, Spain or Portugal, for the purpose of forming the kernel of a truly Western League of Struggle against Marxism." (], quoted by ], in '']: Portrait of a Black Terrorist'', London: Anarchy Magazine/Refract Publications, 1984. {{ISBN|0-946222-09-6}}, p. 27)</ref> Anti-] terrorist ] was condemned for the ] bombing on 6 October 1976. According to the '']'', this bombing was decided on at the same meeting during which it was decided to target Chilean former minister ], who was assassinated on 21 September 1976. Carriles wrote in his autobiography that "we the Cubans didn't oppose ourselves to an isolated tyranny, nor to a particular system of our fatherland, but that we had in front of us a colossal enemy, whose main head was in Moscow, with its tentacles dangerously extended on all the planet."<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506135038/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/book/caminos-guerrero-5.htm |date=6 May 2006}} to ''Los Caminos del Guerrero'', 1994.</ref>
] (1965-1978) - The racial segregation system by ] <!-- citation requested 15 Jan 06 -->is similarly considered by some to be a form of fascism.{{fact}} See the comments for South Africa.
<!-- Do NOT include a list of == Alleged neo-fascist groups == as it is excessively subject to POV. -->


== Europe ==
] (1982-1988) - The right wing Christian ], backed by its own private army and inspired by the Spanish Falangists, was nominally in power in the country during the 1980s but had limited authority over the highly factionalised state, two-thirds of which was occupied by ] and ] troops. Phalangists, trained and supported by ] carried out the ] in ].
=== Finland ===
In Finland, neo-fascism is often connected to the 1930s and 1940s fascist and pro-Nazi ] (IKL), its youth movement ] and its predecessor ]. Post-war fascist groups such as ], ], ], ] and many others consciously copy the style of the movement and look up to its leaders as inspiration. A ] councillor and police officer in Seinäjoki caused small scandal wearing the fascist blue-and-black uniform.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb92tBxVOZgC&pg=PA37|title=Millennial Violence: Past, Present, and Future|publisher=]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7146-5294-8|page=209|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=27 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427212401/https://books.google.com/books?id=qb92tBxVOZgC&pg=PA37|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Finns Party splinter group dons colours of 1940s fascists|date=13 January 2021|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|publisher=]|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603080717/https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== France ===
] (]-]) - Under the Iranian ], during the regime of ], attacks on the political left were led by right-wing groups with fascistic elements including the ], led by ]; the ] (The National Socialist Iranian Workers Party) led by Dr. ]; and ] (Iranian Nazi Party) founded by ].
{{expand section|date=July 2024}}
In France, the far-right ] party is of neo-fascist origin and is frequently accused of promoting anti-semitism and xenophobia.<ref name="europe-election-youth-far-right">{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Christian |title=Why Europe's young people are flirting with the far right |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/25/europe/europe-election-youth-far-right-intl-cmd/index.html |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=CNN |publisher=Cable News Network |date=25 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="national-rally-france">{{Cite web |title=National Rally |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Rally-France |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=] |language=en}}</ref>


== South America == === Greece ===
{{expand section|with=]|date=January 2024}}
]
After the onset of the ] and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the ], widely considered a neo-Nazi party, soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in ]'s parliament, espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants and refugees. In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader ] and other Golden Dawn members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization. In October, 2020, the court declared Golden Dawn to be a criminal organization, convicting 68 members of various crimes including murder. However, far-right politics continue to be strong in Greece, such as ]' ], an Ultranationalist party. In 2021, Greek neo-Nazi youth attacked a rival group at a school in Greece.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ΕΠΑΛ Σταυρούπολης: Νέα επεισόδια στη Θεσσαλονίκη - Ναζί επιτέθηκαν σε διαδηλωτές|url=https://www.ieidiseis.gr/ellada/111874/epal-stavroypolis-nea-epeisodia-sti-thessaloniki-nazi-epitethikan-se-diadilotes|access-date=2021-09-29|website=www.ieidiseis.gr|language=el-gr}}</ref>


=== Italy ===
] has a long tradition of "populist" (the term is not well defined) and authoritarian regimes, since the military '']'' of the 19th and early 20th century, and the various military '']'' who took on power during the ]. Military intervention in politics has been common since the ] in the 1820-1830s, and most of these ''juntas'' were thus qualified as traditional military ]s. However, insofar as some of these regimes profided clandestine refugee after WWII for several ]s (], etc.), and supported in other cases neofascist movements (e.g. the Argentinian '']''), some have qualified them as neofascists. For example, ]'s regime, whom took power during the 1980 "]" in ], with the help of Italian neofascist ], Nazi war criminal ] and the support of ]' '']'', has been accused of neofascist tendencies and of admiration for Nazi paraphernalia and rituals. ], who preceded him, also displayed admiration towards Nazism and Fascism.
{{see also|History of the Italian Republic}}
], leader of the ]]]
Italy was broadly divided into two political blocs following World War II: the ], who remained in power until the 1990s, and the ] (PCI), which was very strong immediately after the war and achieved a large consensus during the 1970s. With the beginning of the ], the ] and ] turned a blind eye to the refusal of Italian authorities to honor requested extraditions of ] to ], which they feared would benefit the PCI. With no event such as the ] taking place for Italian war crimes, the collective memory of the crimes committed by Italian fascists was excluded from public media, from textbooks in Italian schools, and even from the academic discourse on the Western side of the ] throughout the Cold War.<ref>] 2008: (Editor) Foibe – Revisionismo di stato e amnesie della repubblica. Kappa Vu. Udine.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pedaliu |first=Effie G. H. |author-link=Effie G. H. Pedaliu |year=2004 |title=Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/6783/ |journal=] |volume=39 |issue=4, ''Collective Memory'' |pages=503–29 |doi=10.1177/0022009404046752 |issn=0022-0094 |jstor=4141408 |s2cid=159985182}}</ref> The PCI was expelled from power in May 1947, a month before the Paris Conference on the ], along with the ] (PCF).


In 1946, a group of ] soldiers founded the ] (MSI) to continue advocating the ideas of ]. The leader of the MSI was ], who remained at the head of the party until his death in 1988. Despite attempts in the 1970s towards a "]" between the PCI and the DC, the PCI did not have a role in executive power until the 1980s. In December 1970, ] attempted, along with Stefano Delle Chiaie, the '']'' which was supposed to install a neo-fascist regime. Neo-fascist groups took part in various ] terrorist attacks, starting with the December 1969 ], for which ] was convicted, and they are usually considered to have stopped with the 1980 ].
Argentina (]-] and ]-]) - ] admired Mussolini and established his own pseudo-fascist regime, although it has been more often considered a right-wing ]. After he died, his third wife and vice-president ] was deposed by a military ], after a short interreign characterized by support to the neo-fascist ] (''la Triple A'') terrorist group. ]'s junta, which participated in ], supported various neofascist and ] movements; the ] supported Meza Tejada's "Cocaine Coup" in Bolivia and trained the ] in ]. <!-- Similarities are best drawn, though, with the ] regime of Brazil (1930-1945; 1950-1954) {{citation needed}}. This is not so sure... Vargas was rather more traditionally populist, while the Triple A was neo-fascist without any doubt -->


In 1987, the reins of the MSI party were taken by ], under whom in 1995 it was dissolved and transformed into the ] (AN). The party led by Fini distanced itself from Mussolini and fascism and made efforts to improve its relations with the Jewish community, becoming a conservative right-wing party until its merger with ]'s ] into the ] party ] in 2009. Neo-fascist parties in Italy include the ] (''Fiamma Tricolore''), the ] (''Forza Nuova''), the ] (''Fronte Sociale Nazionale''), and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelli Gattinara |first1=Pietro |last2=Forio |first2=Caterina |last3=Albanese |first3=Marco |date=1 January 2013 |title=The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia |journal=Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=234–258 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00202007 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10451/23243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Andriola |first=Matteo Luca |url=http://www.edizionipaginauno.it/La-nuova-destra-in-Europa-seconda-edizione-Matteo-Luca-Andriola.php |title=La Nuova destra in Europa. Il populismo e il pensiero di Alain de Benoist |publisher=Edizioni paginauno |year=2019 |isbn=978-8899699369 |language=it}}</ref> The national-conservative ] (FdI), main heirs of MSI and AN, has been described as neo-fascist by several academics,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benveniste |first1=Annie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mDelDAAAQBAJ |title=The Rise of the Far Right in Europe: Populist Shifts and 'Othering' |last2=Campani |first2=Giovanna |last3=Lazaridis |first3=Gabriella |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-1375-5679-0 |page=36 |access-date=5 November 2021 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Campani |first1=Giovanna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjolDwAAQBAJ |title=Understanding the Populist Shift: Othering in a Europe in Crisis |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Gabriella |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-3173-2606-9 |page=45 |access-date=5 November 2021 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and it has some neo-fascist factions within their internal organization.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bruno |first1=Valerio Alfonso |last2=Downes |first2=James F. |last3=Scopelliti |first3=Alessio |date=12 November 2021 |title=Post-Fascism in Italy: 'So Why This Flame Mrs. Giorgia Meloni' |url=https://culturico.com/2021/11/12/post-fascism-in-italy-so-why-this-flame-mrs-giorgia-meloni/ |access-date=28 September 2022 |website=Cultorico}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lowen |first=Mark |date=26 August 2022 |title=Giorgia Meloni: Far-right leader who's favourite to run Italy |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-62659183 |access-date=21 September 2022 |work=]}}</ref> The results of the ], in which FdI became the first party, have been variously described as Italy's first far-right-led government in the republican era and its most right-wing government since World War II.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leali |first1=Giorgio |last2=Roberts |first2=Hannah |date=25 September 2022 |title=Italy on track to elect most right-wing government since Mussolini |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-election-exit-poll-far-right-giorgia-meloni-brothers-of-berlusconi-salvini-mario-draghi/ |access-date=27 September 2022 |website=Politico}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Sharon |last2=DiDonato |first2=Valentina |last3=Fox |first3=Kara |last4=Mortensen |first4=Antonia |last5=Nadeau |first5=Barbie Latza |last6=Ruotolo |first6=Nicola |date=26 September 2022 |title=Giorgia Meloni claims victory to become Italy's most far-right prime minister since Mussolini |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/25/europe/italy-election-results-intl/index.html |access-date=26 September 2022 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=26 September 2022 |title=Italy election: Meloni says center-right bloc has 'clear' mandate |url=https://www.dw.com/en/italy-election-meloni-says-center-right-bloc-has-clear-mandate/a-63233616 |access-date=26 September 2022 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref> The ] has divided the Italian ], including neo-fascists, into three clusters: the pro-Western and ] extreme right (e.g. '']''), nostalgic and pro-Putin neo-fascism (]), and an ideologically evolving collection of ] and ] militants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guerra |first=Nicola |date=2023 |title=The Russia-Ukraine war has shattered the Italian far right |journal=] |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1080/19434472.2023.2206468 |s2cid=258645197}}</ref> Recent studies have studied the geopolitical role of Italian neofascism with some groups participating with CIA-backing in the Strategy of Tension during the Cold War where terrorists actions were aimed to keep Italy in NATO and prevent the Communist Party from coming to power <ref>{{cite book |last=Guerra |first=Nicola |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Italian-Far-Right-from-1945-to-the-Russia-Ukraine-Conflict/Guerra/p/book/9781032566252 |title=The Italian Far Right from 1945 to the Russia-Ukraine Conflict |publisher=Routledge |year=2024 |isbn=978-1-03-256625-2 |language=en}}</ref>
]'s ] (1973-1988) is considered by some a neofascist dictatorship because it wiped out opposition, left-wing intellectuals and activists, and any kind of criticism, often kidnapping and murdering people considered "enemies", even abroad. Pinochet's regime was supported by the more traditional elements of the ]. Six months after the ], ], the founder of the ], visited him in Santiago.


=== Romania ===
In September 1976 ], a former Chilean ambassador to the United States and minister in former President ]'s cabinet, was killed by a car bomb in Washington, D.C. General ], Pinochet's predecessor as army commander — who had resigned rather than support the moves against President Allende — had died in similar circumstances in Buenos Aires, Argentina, two years earlier. Pinochet set up ], a wide intelligence operation throughout Latin America, coordinating efforts with neighboring dictatorships as to get rid of all possible enemies. According to the "]" discovered in 1992 in Paraguay, 50,000 persons were murdered, 30,000 "disappeared" (aka "'']''") and 400,000 incarcerated. As it was considered by some right-wing American politicians like ] a barrier against communism, he got wide favour from American government first, and later by the British, who saw him as an ally when recovering the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) from the Argentine invaders; the Plan Condor benefited from a "US communication base" in the ] zone <ref> published by the '']'' in 2001, which revealed the existence of this US communication base in Panama; on the National Security Archives website </ref>. Pinochet was therefore widely supported with weapons, logistics, and media silence until 1988. Furthermore, Pinochet hosted some former Nazis such as ] who founded the ], which worked with the ] intelligence service. However since Pinochet didn't set up a rigid unique mass party which mobilized the population, several historians argue that it was a more traditional authoritarian regime.
{{Main|Neo-Legionarism}}
In Romania, the ultra-nationalist movement which allied itself with the ] and German National Socialism was the ], also known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael. There are some modern political organisations which consider themselves heirs of Legionarism, this includes ] and the ], founded by former Iron Guard members. The latter organisation was outlawed in 2015. Aside, from these Romanian organisations, the ] representing ultra-nationalism from the Hungarian minority is also present, especially in ].<ref>{{cite news |author=Luiza Ilie |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-romania-prosecutors-blast-idUSKBN0TK4YD20151201 |title=Romanian prosecutors arrest suspect for attempted blast |work=Reuters|access-date=2016-02-26|date= December 2015}}</ref> Other nationalistic and irredentist groups such as the ] do not originate from Legionarism, but in fact grew out of ] tendencies from the era of ] (the party was founded by his "court poet" ]).<ref>{{cite web |author=Markéta Smrčková |url=http://www.cepsr.com/clanek.php?ID=360 |title=Comparison of Radical Right-Wing Parties in Bulgaria and Romania |publisher=Central European Political Studies Review |access-date=2016-02-26 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111042730/http://www.cepsr.com/clanek.php?ID=360 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


The ] (UVR), which had around 4 million supporters in 1992, has been described as neofascist.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aDVFqf0uxt0C&q=The+Walls+Came+Tumbling+Down%3A+The+Collapse+of+Communism+in+Eastern+Europe|title=The Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe|first=Gale|last=Stokes|date=7 October 1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-987919-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Its political branch was the ],<ref name="auto">{{Cite web | url=http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/extremism_ro/04_extremism_ro_003.pdf | title=Principalele forþe extremiste: de la vatra Româneascã la punr ªi prm | language=ro | trans-title=The main extremist forces: from the Romanian hearth to the Punr and PRM | website=www.edrc.ro}}</ref> but had also ties to the ] (PDSR),<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tinread.biblioteca.ct.ro/opac/bibliographic_view/283526 | title=BJCT &#124; }}</ref> ] (PRM) and the ] (PDAR).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://listanationala.ro/doctrina-nationalista/partidul-vatra-romaneasca-comunicat/ | title=Partidul Vatra Românească – Comunicat &#124; Lista Națională }}</ref> One of the founders of the UVR was the Romanian President ],<ref name="auto"/> who was still its member in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hotnews.ro/iliescu-da-vina-pe-maghiari-pentru-conflictul-de-la-targu-mures-843044|title=Iliescu da vina pe maghiari pentru conflictul de la Targu Mures - HotNews.ro|date=25 March 2005}}</ref>
==Neo-Fascism and Italy==
{{Main|History of Italy as a Republic}}
Organizations that have been described as 'Neo-Fascist' include;
*'']'' founded by ] (and the other one founded by ] in 1970)
*'']'' (MSI) (Mussolini)
*'']'' (AN)
*'']''
*'']'' (LN)
*'']'' (FN)
*'']''
*'']'' founded by ]
*'']'' (founded in 2000)


=== Russia ===
] was broadly divided into two political blocs following the World War, the ], which remained in power until the 1980s, and the ] (PCI), very strong immediately after the war but which was expulsed from power in ] ], a month before the Paris Conference on the ], along with the ] (PCF). Despite attempts in the 1970s towards a "]" between the PCI and the DC, the PCI didn't take part in the executive power until the 1980s. In December 1970, ] attempted, along with Stefano Delle Chiaie, the '']'' which was supposed to install a neofascist regime. Neofascist groups took part in various ] terrorist attacks, starting with the December 1969 ], for which ] was convicted, and usually considered to have stop with the 1980 ]. A 2000 parliamentary report from the center-left ] coalition concluded that "the ] had been supported by the United States in order to impede the PCI, and, in a lesser measure, the ] from reaching executive power".
{{See also|Rashism}}
In 1990, ] founded the ]. Its leader opposes democratic values, human rights, a multiparty system, and the rule of law. ] considers Zhirinovsky to be a neo-fascist.<ref name="Fascism">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism/Russia#ref742252 |title=Fascism |access-date=2022-04-02}}</ref> Zhirinovsky endorsed the forcible re-occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and suggested ] should be dumped there.<ref>, ], 5 July 2007</ref> During the ] in the mid-1990s, he advocated hitting some ] villages with ]s.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214043842/http://www.rferl.org/specials/russianelection/archives/07-171299.asp |date=14 February 2008 }}, ], 17 December 1999</ref>


The ] was a paramilitary organization which was founded by ] in 1990. It used a left-pointed ] and emphasizes the "primary importance" of Russian blood. Concerning ], the organizations's leader Barkashov declared: "I consider a great hero of the German nation and of all white races. He succeeded in inspiring the entire nation to fight against degradation and the washing away of national values."<ref name="Fascism"/> Before it was banned in 1999, and breakup in late 2000, the group estimated to have had approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Blamires | first1=C. | last2=Jackson | first2=P. | title=World Fascism: A-K | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-57607-940-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA581 | access-date=2022-03-16|quote=the RNE was of substantial organizational strength before its breakup in late 2000 and was estimated to have had, on the eve of its fracture, approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members}}</ref> Alexander Barkashov along with other members of the Russian National Unity have engaged in religious activities and pro-Russian activism in the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Militant Right-Wing Extremism in Putin's Russia: Legacies, Forms and Threats|page=289|quote=RNE volunteer troops were closely linked with the Russian Orthodox army|author=Miroslav Mareš, Martin Laryš, Jan Holzer|publisher=Routledge|year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitrokhin |first=Nikolay |date=2015 |title=Infiltration, instruction, invasion: Russia's war in the Donbass |url=https://spps-jspps.autorenbetreuung.de/files/07-mitrokhin.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528025541/http://spps-jspps.autorenbetreuung.de/files/07-mitrokhin.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-28 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=219–249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jarzyńska |first=Katarzyna |date=24 December 2014 |title=Russian nationalists on the Kremlin's policy in Ukraine |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_156.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120070202/https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_156.pdf |archive-date=2022-01-20 |url-status=live |journal=OSW Commentary, Centre for Eastern Studies |volume=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Laruelle | first=M. | title=In the Name of the Nation: Nationalism and Politics in Contemporary Russia | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US | series=The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-230-10123-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Apq_AAAAQBAJ | quote=Russian National Unity underwent an internal coup d'etat in 2000. Several regional leaders decided to exclude Alexander Barkashov from his position as leader of the party, splitting up into multiple factions, none of which was able to step in to play a unifying role.... Barkashov, who had legal troubles for "hooliganism" in 2005, created a new party bearing his name in December of the following year but had no real success.}}</ref>
Since the 1990s, ], led by ], has distanced itself from Mussolini and fascism and made efforts to improve relations with Jewish groups, with most die-hards leaving it; it now seeks to present itself as a respectable rightwing party. ], grand-daughter of Mussolini, hence splitted to form ''Fiamma Tricolore''. ] led by ] is primarily a ] ] movement, but has often been accused of xenophobia and racism; however, it has also lately presented its goals as a more moderate quest for local autonomy.


==Neo-Fascism in Greece== === Serbia ===
A neo-fascist organization in Serbia was ], which was banned on 12 June 2012 by the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics-article.php?yyyy=2012&mm=06&dd=12&nav_id=80718 |title=Constitutional Court Bans Right-Wing Organization |date=12 June 2012 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106035920/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics-article.php?yyyy=2012&mm=06&dd=12&nav_id=80718 |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Serbia and Montenegro: Country Report October 2003|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|date=October 2003|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Temerin: Sadašnjost ili Budućnost Vojvodine|last=Ilić|first=Vladimir|date=May 2012|page=5}}</ref>
:''See also ]''
Organizations that have been described as 'Neo-fascist' include:
*]
*] (Kostas Plevris)
*] (])


Earlier, on 18 June 1990, ] organized the Serbian Chetnik Movement (SČP) though it was not permitted official registration due to its obvious Chetnik identification. On 23 February 1991, it merged with the National Radical Party (NRS), establishing the ] (SRS) with Šešelj as president and ] as vice president.<ref name=ramet359>{{cite book| last = Ramet| first = Sabrina P.| year = 2008| title = Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia at Peace and at War: Selected Writings, 1983–2007| publisher = LIT Verlag| location = Berlin| isbn = 978-3-03735-912-9|page = 359}}</ref> It was a Chetnik party,<ref>{{cite book| last = Cigar| first = Norman| year = 1995| title = Genocide in Bosnia: The Policy of "Ethnic Cleansing"| publisher = University of Minnesota Press| location = College Station| isbn = 978-1-58544-004-7|page = 201}}</ref> oriented towards neo-fascism with a striving for the territorial expansion of Serbia.<ref name=ramet359 /><ref>{{cite book| last = Bugajski| first = Janusz| author-link = Janusz Bugajski| title = Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era| publisher = M. E. Sharpe| location = Armonk, New York| year = 2002| isbn = 978-0-7656-2016-3| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9gGKtLTQlUcC| pages = 415–16| access-date = 22 January 2019| archive-date = 13 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210313005240/https://books.google.com/books?id=9gGKtLTQlUcC| url-status = live}}</ref>
Neo-fascism in ] has been present in Greek politics since the authoritarian regime of ], though with limited popularity among the public. During the 50's and 60's, Greek neo-fascists composed extremist fractions, one of which was responsible for the killing of politician Grigoris Lambrakis. In 1967, the Greek military Junta of ] found inspiration in the Metaxas period (]) of 1936-1941 and gathered many Greeks of a neo-fascist mentality to power.


=== Slovakia ===
After the restoration of democracy in 1974, former Junta leader George Papadopoulos founded and leaded ], a party supporting, if not neo-fascism, at least ] views and the ideal of "Ellas ton Ellinon Christianon" (Greece of Greek-Orthodox Greeks).
] is a far-right political party with views that are considered extremist and fascist. The Party's leader, ], is a former ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35739551|title=Marian Kotleba and the rise of Slovakia's extreme right – BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=13 March 2016|date=2016-03-06|last1=Cameron|first1=Rob|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309014023/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35739551|archive-date=9 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref> who once wore a uniform modelled on that of the ], the militia of the ]. He opposes ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/164704/marian-kotleba-stat-chrani-ciganskych-parazitov/|title=Marián Kotleba: Štát chráni cigánskych parazitov|last=Azet.sk|website=aktuality.sk|date=31 May 2010 |access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926085130/http://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/164704/marian-kotleba-stat-chrani-ciganskych-parazitov/|archive-date=26 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> immigrants,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naseslovensko.net/nasa-praca/spustili-sme-peticiu-proti-prichodu-imigrantov-na-slovensko/|title=Spustili sme petíciu proti príchodu imigrantov na Slovensko!|website=Kotleba – Ľudová strana Naše Slovensko|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312162123/http://www.naseslovensko.net/nasa-praca/spustili-sme-peticiu-proti-prichodu-imigrantov-na-slovensko/|archive-date=12 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/304775-sefovia-krajov-sa-u-prezidenta-nezhodli-s-kotlebom-na-teme-snp/|title=Šéfovia krajov sa u prezidenta nezhodli s Kotlebom na téme SNP – Pravda.sk|last=s.|first=P E R E X, a.|website=Pravda.sk|language=sk-SK|access-date=13 March 2016|date=2014-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310042738/http://spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/304775-sefovia-krajov-sa-u-prezidenta-nezhodli-s-kotlebom-na-teme-snp/|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ], the ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hn.hnonline.sk/svet-120/neustupujte-teroristom-hrozi-vam-diktat-bruselu-pise-kotleba-janukovycovi-603442|title=Neustupujte teroristom, hrozí vám diktát Bruselu, píše Kotleba Janukovyčovi {{!}} Svet {{!}} Hospodárske noviny – Denník o ekonomike a financiách|website=hn.hnonline.sk|date=31 January 2014 |access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926142145/http://hn.hnonline.sk/svet-120/neustupujte-teroristom-hrozi-vam-diktat-bruselu-pise-kotleba-janukovycovi-603442|archive-date=26 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The party also endorses the ] war criminal and former Slovak President ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/408705/podcenujeme-vyznam-stability-a-hodnot-tvrdi-fico/|title=Fico: Podceňujeme hodnoty, Tiso bol vojnový zločinec|last=Azet.sk|date=21 January 2017 |access-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210123648/https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/408705/podcenujeme-vyznam-stability-a-hodnot-tvrdi-fico/|archive-date=10 December 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>


In 2003, Kotleba founded the far-right political party Slovak Community (Slovak: '']''). In 2007, the Slovak interior ministry banned the party from running and campaigning in elections. In spite of this ban, Kotleba's party got 8.04%<ref>
The Greek neo-fascists were greatly alienated thoguh, but continued to existed in fringe minority parties, very rarely achieving parliament seats. In the early 80's ], a former Greek Army parachutist and youth leader of the Greek neo-fascist party ] founded ], an extreme ] party.
{{cite web|url=http://spravy.pravda.sk/parlamentne-volby-2016/|title=Parlamentné voľby 2016 – Voľby – Pravda.sk|last=s.|first=P E R E X, a.|website=Pravda.sk|language=sk-SK|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313123320/http://spravy.pravda.sk/parlamentne-volby-2016/|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> of votes in the Slovak 2016 parliamentary elections. As of December 2022, voter support has dropped significantly to about 3.1%, under the 5% threshold required to enter parliament.<ref>{{cite web |title=PRESS RELEASE |url=https://www.focus-research.sk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Volebne-preferencie-politickych-stran_DECEMBER-II.-2022.pdf |website=focus-research.sk |language=sk |date=12 January 2023}}</ref>


=== Turkey ===
Another important neo-fascist party was the 4th of August Party, later named ] (First Line), headed by ]. Plevris is a former ] and a die-hard admirer of Metaxas and Hitler{{fact}}, a renowned Hellenic supremacist, ] and Holocaust denier with close ties with other European revisionists.
{{See also|Grey Wolves (organization)}}
Grey Wolves is a Turkish ]<ref>Harry Anastasiou, ''The Broken Olive Branch: Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and the Quest for Peace in Cyprus'', Vol. 2, (Syracuse University Press, 2008), 152.</ref><ref>Martin van Bruinessen, ''Transnational aspects of the Kurdish question'', (European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre, 2000), .</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Alexander |editor-first1= Yonah |title=Turkey : terrorism, civil rights, and the European Union |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge|location=London |isbn=9780415441636 |edition= 1st|editor-last2=Brenner|editor-first2= Edgar H. |editor-last3=Krause|editor-first3=Serhat Tutuncuoglu |page=6}}</ref> and neo-fascist<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005p. 674</ref><ref>Annual of Power and Conflict, by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">The Nature of Fascism, by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">Political Parties and Terrorist Groups, by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People, by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref><ref name="consort">{{cite web|url=http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html|title=On the Trail of Turkey's Terrorist Grey Wolves|author=Martin A. Lee|publisher=The Consortium|date=1997|access-date=16 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805180040/http://www.consortiumnews.com/archive/story33.html|archive-date=5 August 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|title=Crime of the Century|author=Thomas Joscelyn|date=April 6, 2005|work=Weekly Standard|access-date=16 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713054325/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/455qbfex.asp|archive-date=13 July 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> youth organization. It is the "unofficial militant arm" of the ].<ref name="Combs">{{cite book |last=Combs |first=Cindy C. |title=Encyclopedia of terrorism |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaterr00comb |url-access=limited |year=2007 |publisher=Facts On File |location=New York |isbn=9781438110196 |author2=Slann, Martin |page= |quote=In 1992, when it emerged again as the MHO, it supported the government's military approach regarding the insurgency by the Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) in southeast Turkey and opposed any concessions to Kurdish separatists. .... The Grey Wolves, the unofficial militant arm of the MHP, has been involved in street killings and gunbattles.}}</ref> The Grey Wolves have been accused of ].<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674"/><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171"/><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45"/> According to Turkish authorities,{{Who|date=January 2013}} the organization carried out 694 murders during the ], between 1974 and 1980.<ref name=Terrorism>Albert J. Jongman, Alex Peter Schmid, ''Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, & Literature'', pp. 674</ref>


The nationalist political party ] founded by ] is also sometimes described as neo-fascist.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Springer| isbn = 978-0-230-10338-2| last = Michael| first = M.| title = Resolving the Cyprus Conflict: Negotiating History| date = 2009-11-09}}</ref>
== Neo-Fascism in Turkey ==


=== United Kingdom ===
]' ] movement, the youth organization of the ] (MHP) founded in 1969, claims to be inspired by Italian fascist ]'s "]" theory. It is a pan-Turkish party which advocates the creation of the ], the "Great Turkish Empire", including all Turkish (sometimes referred as Turkic) peoples mainly in the successor Central-Asian countries of the former Soviet Union as well as China (the ] of ]).
The ] (BNP) is a ] ] in the United Kingdom which espoused the ideology of ]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Renton |first=David |date=1 March 2005 |title='A day to make history'? The 2004 elections and the British National Party |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39 |pages=25–45 |doi=10.1080/00313220500045170|s2cid=144972650 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thurlow |first=Richard C. |title=Fascism in Modern Britain |publisher=Sutton |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7509-1747-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vAWGAAAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Copsey |first=Nigel |title=Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|date=September 2009 |edition= 2nd |isbn=978-0-230-57437-3}}</ref><ref name="bnplondonbomb">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=C |date=December 2008 |title=British National Party representations of Muslims in the month after the London bombings: Homogeneity, threat, and the conspiracy tradition |journal=] |volume=47 |issue=4 |doi=10.1348/014466607X264103 |last2=Finlay |first2=W. M. L. |pmid=18070375 |pages=707–26}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=BNP Policies – Immigration|url=https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/bnp-policies-%E2%80%93-immigration-1|publisher=British National Party|access-date=26 November 2016|date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127024256/https://www.bnp.org.uk/news/national/bnp-policies-%E2%80%93-immigration-1|archive-date=27 November 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
Alparslan Türkeş thus went to ] (]) in 1992 to support ], who openly described himself as sympathiser of the ultranationalist group, during the presidential election. Once elected as ], Abulfaz Elchibey chose as ministry of Interior ], a member of the Grey Wolves who plead for the creation of a Greater Turkey which would include northern Iran and extend itself to Siberia, India and China. İskender Hamidov resigned in ] ] after having threatened ] with a nuclear strike.<ref>{{fr icon}} , by ], '']'', March 1997</ref> The Grey Wolves share a racist and supremacist ideology, and have taken part in murders and other violent attacks, including ] attacks aimed against the ] ]. ], a Grey Wolves member who would try to assassinate the ] ] in ] ], had for example assassinated ], editor of '']'' newspaper, in 1979. He escaped from prison with the help of ], who himself has been in contact with Stefano Delle Chiaie among other international terrorists; Alparslan Türkeş and Abdullah Catli have both been accused of being prominent members of "Counter-Guerrilla", the Turkish branch of ], ]'s ] anti-communist organizations set up during the ] officially to counter an eventual ] invasion .
</ref> In the ], it gained two ] (MEPs), including former party leader ].<ref>{{cite news|title=BNP secures two European seats|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8088381.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=26 November 2016|date=8 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818222342/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8088381.stm|archive-date=18 August 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Other British organisations described as fascist or neo-fascist include the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Paul |year=1981 |title=The New Fascists |location=London |publisher=Grant McIntyre |isbn=978-0330269537 |page=73}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Ryan |last=Shaffer |year=2013 |title=The Soundtrack of Neo-Fascism: Youth and Music in the National Front |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=47 |number=4–5|doi=10.1080/0031322X.2013.842289 |page=460|s2cid=144461518 }}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Nathan |last2=Corb |first2=Abbee |last3=Giannasi |first3=Paul |last4=Grieve |first4=John |title=The Routledge International Handbook on Hate Crime |date=2014 |publisher=] |isbn=9781136684364 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8hgWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |language=en}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Dominic |last1=Alessio |first2=Kristen |last2=Meredith |year=2014 |title=Blackshirts for the Twenty–First Century? Fascism and the English Defence League |journal=Social Identities |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=104–118 |doi=10.1080/13504630.2013.843058|s2cid=143518291 }}</ref> and ].<ref name="Bienkov">{{Cite web |first=Adam |last=Bienkov |title=Britain First: The violent new face of British fascism |date=19 June 2014 |website=Politics.co.uk |url=http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2014/06/19/britain-first-the-violent-new-face-of-british-fascism |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211170024/http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2014/06/19/britain-first-the-violent-new-face-of-british-fascism |archive-date=11 December 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news|last=Foxton|first=Willard|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/11207973/The-loathsome-Britain-First-are-trying-to-hijack-the-poppy-dont-let-them.html|title=The loathsome Britain First are trying to hijack the poppy – don't let them|date=4 November 2014|work=]|access-date=8 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105222205/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-one/11207973/The-loathsome-Britain-First-are-trying-to-hijack-the-poppy-dont-let-them.html|archive-date=5 November 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>


== Americas ==
==Neo-Fascism and the United States==
=== Argentina ===
The presence or absence of ] in the ] has been a matter of long-dispute from a variety of political viewpoints (see ]). This idea, for example, was brought up in the cautionary novel ] by ].
In Argentina, a notable advocate of neo-fascism was president ], who applied ] policies under the fascist police organization ] and ] policies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Santucho |first=Julio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TUDjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fascista%22+%22Isabel+peron%22 |title=Los últimos guevaristas: surgimiento y eclipse del Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo |date=1988 |publisher=Puntosur Editores |isbn=978-950-9889-17-0 |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |date=2014-07-02 |title=When Neo-Fascism Was Power in Argentina |url=https://publicseminar.org/2014/07/when-neo-fascism-was-power-in-argentina/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=Public Seminar |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=M |first=Pedro N. Miranda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIsNAAAAYAAJ&q=%22fascista%22+%22Isabel+peron%22 |title=Terrorismo de estado: testimonio del horror en Chile y Argentina |date=1989 |publisher=Editorial Sextante |language=es}}</ref> Perón made a direct apology to fascism by performing the ] in an appearance on the national radio network.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-01-14 |title=María Estela Martínez, 'Isabelita Perón' |language=es |work=El País |url=https://elpais.com/diario/2007/01/14/internacional/1168729204_740215.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |issn=1134-6582}}</ref> The ] is also considered a neo-fascist or fascist dictatorship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rizki |first=Cole |date=2020-10-01 |title=No State Apparatus Goes to Bed Genocidal Then Wakes Up Democratic |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/radical-history-review/article/2020/138/82/166692/No-State-Apparatus-Goes-to-Bed-Genocidal-Then |journal=Radical History Review |volume=2020 |issue=138 |pages=82–107 |doi=10.1215/01636545-8359271 |s2cid=224990803 |issn=0163-6545 |quote=On March 24, 1976, the Argentine military staged a coup d'état and established a fascist dictatorship that perpetrated genocide for seven years. |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829004348/https://read.dukeupress.edu/radical-history-review/article/2020/138/82/166692/No-State-Apparatus-Goes-to-Bed-Genocidal-Then |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ie5tAAAAMAAJ |title=Report on Anti-semitism in Argentina |date=2006 |publisher=Social Research Center of DAIA |chapter=The use of the Nazi-Fascist Discourse by Argentinean Governments |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153120/https://books.google.com/books?id=ie5tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/943710572 |title=Global Latin America: into the twenty-first century |date=2016 |first1=Matthew C. |last1=Gutmann |first2=Jeff |last2=Lesser |isbn=978-0-520-96594-2 |location=Oakland, California |oclc=943710572 |quote=It was a sacrifice of some questionable lives to preserve the Proceso, the National Process of Reorganization to make Argentina conform to a right-wing fascist version of Catholicism. |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153136/https://www.worldcat.org/title/943710572 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/863194632 |title=The ideological origins of the dirty war: fascism, populism, and dictatorship in twentieth century Argentina |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-993024-1 |location=Oxford |oclc=863194632 |quote=The Last Military dictatorship in Argentina (1976–1983) was many things. Outside its concentration camps it presented the facade of a typical authoritarian state. Within them, however, it was fascist. |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153130/https://www.worldcat.org/title/863194632 |url-status=live }}</ref>


=== Brazil ===
Movements identified as neo-fascist include the ]. Arguably neo-nazi groups include the ], and the ].


The Brazilian government of ] is cited as the rising point of neo-fascism in South America in the 21st century,<ref name="Löwy">{{cite web |last=Löwy |first=Michael |date=24 October 2019 |title=Neofascismo: um fenômeno planetário – o caso Bolsonaro |url=http://www.ihu.unisinos.br/78-noticias/593814-neofascismo-um-fenomeno-planetario-o-caso-bolsonaro |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Revista IHU Online |publisher=Instituto Humanitas Unisinos}}</ref><ref name="Viel">{{cite web |last=Viel |first=Ricardo |date=29 July 2019 |title=Manuel Loff: "O bolsonarismo é o neofascismo adaptado ao Brasil do século 21" |url=https://apublica.org/2019/07/o-bolsonarismo-e-o-neofacismo-adaptado-ao-brasil-do-seculo-21/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Agências Pública}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pereira |first=Roni |title=Dissecando o neofascismo de Jair Bolsonaro |url=https://ronikurono.jusbrasil.com.br/artigos/635153860/dissecando-o-neofascismo-de-jair-bolsonaro |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Jusbrasil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=12 November 2018 |title=O governo Bolsonaro, o neofascismo e a resistência democrática |url=https://diplomatique.org.br/o-governo-bolsonaro-o-neofascismo-e-a-resistencia-democratica/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Le Monde Diplomatique}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Filho |first=João |date=17 November 2019 |title=Novo projeto de poder de Bolsonaro, a Aliança pelo Brasil é o primeiro partido neofascista do país |url=https://theintercept.com/2019/11/17/alianca-pelo-brasil-bolsonaro-neofascista/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=The Intercept Brasil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Caldeira |first=Gabriel |date=1 June 2020 |title=Bolsonarismo está mais radical, diz estudioso de neofascismo |url=https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/bolsonarismo-esta-mais-radical-diz-estudioso-de-neofascismo,a23691794639a6d9f4a077bed4ac3677hozxmwal.html |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Terra}}</ref><ref name="Bonavides">{{cite web |last=Bonavides |first=Natália |date=23 March 2020 |title=O lado mais sombrio do neofascismo do governo Bolsonaro |url=https://congressoemfoco.uol.com.br/opiniao/forum/o-lado-mais-sombrio-do-neofascismo-do-governo-bolsonaro/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Congresso em Foco}}</ref> based on the ] of science, bellicose rhetoric and authoritarian measures that withdraw rights from the population linked to a strongly ] economic policy.<ref name="PMC7139254">{{cite journal |last=de Souza |first=Marcelo |year=2020 |title=The land of the past? Neo-populism, neo-fascism, and the failure of the left in Brazil |journal=Political Geography |volume=83 |page=102186 |doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102186 |pmc=7139254 |pmid=32292250}}</ref><ref name="poder360">{{cite web |last=Guaracy |first=Thales |date=18 January 2020 |title=Bolsonaro faz do negacionismo um instrumento político, escreve Thales Guaracy |url=https://www.poder360.com.br/opiniao/governo/bolsonaro-faz-do-negacionismo-um-instrumento-politico-escreve-thales-guaracy/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Poder360}}</ref><ref name="OGlobo">{{cite web |last=Chacra |first=Guga |date=15 May 2020 |title=O negacionismo de Bolsonaro entrará para a história da pandemia |url=https://blogs.oglobo.globo.com/guga-chacra/post/o-negacionismo-de-bolsonaro-entrara-para-historia-da-pandemia.html |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=O Globo}}</ref><ref name="RevistaEpoca">{{cite web |last=Gherman |first=Michel |date=28 March 2020 |title=Bolsonaro, O negacionista: politica e ciência em tempos de Corona |url=https://epoca.globo.com/michel-gherman/coluna-bolsonaro-negacionista-politica-ciencia-em-tempos-de-corona-24332846 |access-date=27 November 2021 |work=Revista Época}}</ref><ref name="Bonavides" /> As a result of factors such as ], fear and reaction to the ], as well as the economic crises of ] and ], Jair Bolsonaro emerged as a viable option, not because of a well-defined strategic project, but almost accidentally.<ref name=":01">CORDEIRO, Andrey Ferreira (2020). . Em: BARBOSA, Fabio; etal; O pânico como política: o Brasil no imaginário do Lulismo em crise. Mauad Editora, Rio de Janeiro.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rocha |first=Igor |date=3 September 2019 |title=Governo Bolsonaro: ala "técnica" é, também, ideológica |url=https://entendendobolsonaro.blogosfera.uol.com.br/2019/09/03/ala-tecnica-do-governo-bolsonaro-e-tambem-ideologica/ |access-date=27 November 2021 |website=entendendobolsonaro.blogosfera.uol.com.br |language=pt-br |quote=É necessário ter em mente que todas as "alas" da base deste e de outros governos é ideológica e isso, em si, não é um problema. Afirmar o contrário apenas indica que alguns comportamentos ideológicos de muitos agentes do governo Bolsonaro se tornaram senso comum, sendo naturalizados a ponto de, mesmo ideológicos, não serem percebidos dessa maneira.}}</ref> In this way, the multiplicity of groups that make up the Bolsonarism, the different wings (military, ideological, religious, capital, etc.) present pragmatic disagreements, strategies, objectives and distinct methods.<ref name=":0" /> The core of this Brazilian neo-fascism converged its interests and rhetoric with ] ] and both allied themselves with military sectors and liberal ],<ref name="PMC7139254" /> so that within ] there is a power bloc made up of non-fascist conservatives and ] neo-fascists; although still without the support of the broad and fanatical mass movement which was the basis of European fascism.<ref name="PMC7139254" />
The claim that the United States was once, or is now, fascistic remains dubious and fiercely debated, with few scholars supporting the claim.


=== United States ===
] has warned that people in the U.S. need to remain vigilant to keep America from drifting towards fascism.. Some link growing corporate power to fascism..
{{See also|Fascism in North America|Alt-right|Radical right (United States)}}


Groups which are identified as neo-fascist in the ] generally include ] organizations and movements such as the ],<ref>Belam, Martin and Gabatt, Adam (September 30, 2020) '']''</ref> the ], and the ]. The ] publishes ] historical papers which are often of an ] nature. The ]—a loosely connected coalition of individuals and organizations which advocates a wide range of ] ideas, from ] to ]—is often included under the ] "neo-fascist", because alt-right individuals and organizations advocate a radical form of authoritarian ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Motadel |first=David |date=2017-08-17 |title=The United States was never immune to fascism. Not then, not now {{!}} David Motadel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/17/fascism-history-united-states |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227024947/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/aug/17/fascism-history-united-states |archive-date=27 February 2018 |access-date=2017-11-27 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-11-14 |title=Global Pulse: Taking a right turn – ThePrint |url=https://theprint.in/2017/11/14/global-pulse-taking-right-turn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041554/https://theprint.in/2017/11/14/global-pulse-taking-right-turn/ |archive-date=1 December 2017 |access-date=2017-11-27 |work=ThePrint |language=en-US |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
], emeritus professor of politics at Princeton University, speaks of an "inverted totalitarianism" which "has an upside-down character": political apathy instead of mobilization of the society, "short-circuits" in the voting system replaces the abolition of the ], and media state control is replaced by ]:
:"Like previous forms of ], the ] boasts a reckless ] that believes the United States can demand unquestioning support, on terms it dictates; ignores treaties and violates ] at will; invades other countries without provocation; and incarcerates persons indefinitely without charging them with a crime or allowing access to counsel. The drive toward total power can take different forms, as Mussolini's Italy, Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union suggest. The American system is evolving its own form: "inverted totalitarianism." This has no official doctrine of ] or ] but, as described above, it displays similar contempt for restraints."


== Oceania ==
Writing in the Toronto Star, Paul Bigioni argues that:
=== Australia and New Zealand ===
], the ]n perpetrator of the ] at ] and ] in ], ], was an admitted fascist who followed ] and admired ], the leader of the ] organization ] (BUF), who is quoted in the shooter's manifesto ''The Great Replacement'' (named after ]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://time.com/5552664/new-zealand-massacre-fascism/|title=What Historians of Fascism Think About The Suspected New Zealand Shooter's Declaration of Extremism|magazine=]|last=Waxman|first=Olivia B.|access-date=April 1, 2019|date=March 17, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/new-zealand-killer-says-his-role-model-was-nazi-allied-british-fascist|title=New Zealand killer says his model was Nazi-allied British fascist|work=The Forward/Times of Israel|access-date=April 1, 2019|date=March 15, 2019}}</ref>


== Africa ==
:"Before the rise of fascism, Germany and Italy were, on paper, liberal democracies. Fascism did not swoop down on these nations as if from another planet. To the contrary, fascist dictatorship was the result of political and economic changes these nations underwent while they were still democratic. In both these countries, economic power became so utterly concentrated that the bulk of all economic activity fell under the control of a handful of men. Economic power, when sufficiently vast, becomes by its very nature political power. The political power of big business supported fascism in Italy and Germany."
=== South Africa ===
The ] are a self-described ] ] founded in 2013 by the expelled former ] (ANCYL) President ], and his allies.<ref name="Dispatch">{{cite news|title=Malema launches his Economic Freedom Fighters|author=Meggan Saville|url=http://www.dispatch.co.za/malema-launches-his-economic-freedom-fighters/|newspaper=Dispatch Online|date=12 July 2013|access-date=16 July 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725200305/http://www.dispatch.co.za/malema-launches-his-economic-freedom-fighters/|archive-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> Malema and the party have frequently courted controversy for engaging in ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=John|year=2016|title=Morning in South Africa|publisher=Indiana University Press|page=187|quotation=Often explicitly antiwhite in its rhetoric, it would expropriate without compensation white-owned property...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Megan|year=2016|title=Performing Whitely in the Postcolony: Afrikaners in South African Theatrical and Public Life|publisher=University of Iowa Press|page=62|quotation=Several events added fuel to the fire: the increasing popularity of Julius Malema's antiwhite political party, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF)...}}</ref> and ] ].<ref name=INDIE>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/group-to-take-juliusmalema-to-court-for-racist-rant-15526571|title=Group to take #JuliusMalema to court for racist rant {{!}} IOL News|last=Mngoma|first=Nosipho|date=18 June 2018|website=www.iol.co.za|publisher=The Mercury|language=en|access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref> In November 2019, the Professor of International Relations at ], Vishwas Satgar, defined them as a manifestation of a new phenomena, 'Black Neofascism'.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Black Neofascism? The Economic Freedom Fighters in South Africa|date=November 2019|last=Satgar|first=Vishwas|journal=Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie|volume=56|issue=4|pages=580–605|doi=10.1111/cars.12265|pmid=31692263|s2cid=207894048}}</ref>


== Asia ==
In several essays, author David Neiwert has explored the rise of what he calls "pseudo-fascism." Neiwert concedes that "American democracy has not yet reached the genuine stage of crisis required for full-blown fascism to take root" and thus "the current phenomenon cannot properly be labeled 'fascism.'" He warns:
=== India ===
{{main|Hindutva|Hindu terrorism|Akhand Bharat}}
{{See also|Violence against Muslims in independent India|Violence against Christians in India}}
{{trim|{{#section:Hindutva|fascism}}}}


=== Indonesia ===
:"But what is so deeply disturbing about the current state of the conservative movement is that it has otherwise plainly adopted not only many of the cosmetic traits of fascism, its larger architecture -- derived from its core impulses -- now almost exactly replicates that by which fascists came to power in Italy and Germany in the 1920s and '30s."
]'s propaganda which advocated the hegemony of "Greater Germany" inspired similar ideas of "Indonesia Mulia" (esteemed ]) and "Indonesia Raya" (great Indonesia) in the former ]. The first fascist party was the Partai Fasis Indonesia (PFI). ] admired ] under Hitler and its vision of happiness for all: "It's in the Third Reich that the Germans will see Germany at the apex above other nations in this world," he said in 1963.<ref>{{cite news |author=Aboeprijadi Santoso |date=July 20, 2008 |title=Fascism in Indonesia, no big deal? |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/07/20/fascism-indonesia-no-big-deal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109235949/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/07/20/fascism-indonesia-no-big-deal.html |archive-date=9 January 2014 |access-date=9 January 2014 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |df=dmy-all}}</ref> He stated that Hitler was 'extraordinarily clever' in 'depicting his ideals': he spoke about Hitler's rhetorical skills, but denied any association with ] as an ideology, saying that Indonesian nationalism was not as narrow as Nazi nationalism.<ref>, Eva Mirela Suciu, Department of Asian Studies, The University of Sydney, 2008</ref>


=== Japan ===
Some libertarians and conservatives argue that American economic policies have had fascist elements since the ]. This is further discussed at ] and ].
{{see also|Nippon Kaigi|Uyoku dantai}}
After World War II, neo-fascism and ultra-nationalism were ostracized from mainstream politics in Germany, while in ], they were partially related to major right-wing conservative politics.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2021/10/japan-jsdf-remilitarization-article-9-us-foreign-policy-biden-asian-pivot |title= No, Japan Should Not Remilitarize |quote=Carrying the legacy of Japanese fascism, the LDP (and particularly Nippon Kaigi) is the knowing driver of both this growing racism and nationalism and Japan's swelling military fervor. The synthesis of remilitarization with reactionary politics is embodied in the party's longtime leader, Shinzō Abe, Japan's longest-serving prime minister, who retired only last year due to his declining health. |work=Jacobin magazine |date=24 October 2021 |access-date=28 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Shinzo Abe and the long history of Japanese political violence |quote=As the French judge at the trial, Henri Bernard, noted, Japan's wartime atrocities 'had a principal author who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present defendants could only be considered accomplices.' The result was that whereas ultranationalism became toxic in post-war Germany, in Japan neo-fascism — centred around the figure of the emperor — retained its allure and became mainstream albeit sotto voce within Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party. |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/shinzo-abe-and-the-long-history-of-japanese-political-violence/ |agency=] |date=9 July 2022 |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref> Since 2006, all prime ministers of Japan's ] have been members of far-right ultranationalist ].<ref name="2014 reshuffle">"" (Korea Joongang Daily – 2014/09/05)</ref>


=== Mongolia ===
====External links for this section====
With ] located between the larger nations ] and ], ethnic insecurities have driven many Mongolians to neo-fascism,<ref>
=====Neofascism=====
{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1910893,00.html|title=Postcard: Ulan Bator – TIME|date=27 July 2009|magazine=]|access-date=30 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722010422/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1910893,00.html|archive-date=22 July 2009|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> expressing nationalism centered around ] and ]. Groups advocating these ideologies include Blue Mongolia, ], and Mongolian National Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42|title=Mongolia's leading English language news|publisher=The UB Post|access-date=30 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512064316/http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42|archive-date=12 May 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
*
* .pdf format
* by ], ''Free Inquiry'' magazine.
* by Paul Bigioni, Toronto Star, November 27 2005
* from ''Newsday'' July 18, 2003 by Sheldon S. Wolin, professor of political science at Princeton University.
*] "I was a Republican from before the fascists took over."


===Pakistan===
==Neo-Fascism and religion (Islam, Christianity, Judaism etc)==
:''See main article, ].''


Pakistan's ] is considered fascist by some analysts because of its engagement in ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/250105-seven-theses-on-the-rise-of-fascism-in-pakistan|title=Seven theses on the rise of fascism in Pakistan|website=www.thenews.com.pk}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Perspective, Muhammad Shoaib Pervez|page=2|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
==List of organizations and movements==
Organizations that have self-described themselves as 'neo-fascist,' or are categorized as such<!-- on wikipedia that is--> include:
*] - United States
*] - United States
*] - Australia
*] - India (also described as Hindu chauvinist)
*] - Bolivia
*] - United Kingdom
*] - Canada
*] - Croatia
*] - Estonia
*] - Spain
*] - Greece
*] - Greece
*] - Greece
*] - Puerto Rico
*] - Romania
*] - Guatemala
*] - Croatia
*] - Canada
*] - Malta
*] - Lebanon
*] - Russia
*] - France
*] - Australia
*] - Russia
*] - Germany
*] (MHP) and ] - Turkey
*] - Latvia
*] (SUMKA) - Iran
*]
*] - New Zealand
*] "New Right" - Romania
*] - Mexico
*] - Australia
*] - Serbia
*] - Syria and Lebanon
*] - Canada (no longer exists)
*]- Serbia


== Endnotes == === Taiwan ===
{{main|National Socialism Association}}
<references/>
The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-fascist political organization founded in ] in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (許娜琦), a 22-year-old female political science graduate of ]. The NSA views ] as its leader and often uses the slogan "Long live Hitler". This has brought them condemnation from the ], an international Jewish human rights centre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/837697.html |title=Taiwan political activists admiring Hitler draw Jewish protests – Haaretz – Israel News |publisher=Haaretz.com |access-date=22 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304123401/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/837697.html |archive-date=4 March 2010 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


==See also== == See also ==
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* ]
*]
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
* ]
*]
*] * ]
*] * ]
* ]
*]
*] * ]
* ]
*]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
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{{div-col-end}}


==References==
===Academic surveys===
'''Informational notes'''
* '']'' by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0316519596)
{{notelist}}
* '']'' (Oxford Readers) by ] (1995, ISBN 0192892495
*''Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918-1985'' by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0631136185)
*''Fascism Today: A World Survey'' by Angelo Del Boca (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
*''Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe'' by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0415910587)
*''The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today'' by Geoff Harris, (] Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0748604669)
*''The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe'' by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0582238811)
*''The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis'' by Herbert Kitschelt (] Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0472084410)
*''Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe'' edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0312295936)


'''Citations'''
==External links==
{{reflist}}
* - ]'s list of 14 characteristics of Fascism, originally published 1995.
*


'''Bibliography'''
]
* Golsan, Richard J. ed. (1998) ''Fascism's Return: Scandal, Revision and Ideology since 1980''. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. {{isbn|0-8032-7071-2}}.
]
* ] (2005) '']''. New York, Penguin Press. {{isbn|1-59420-065-3}}.

'''Further reading'''<!-- These should be about neo-fascist movements after World War II proper. -->
* '']'' by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-316-51959-6}}).
* ''The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today'' by Geoff Harris, (] Press; new edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-7486-0466-9}}).
* ''The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe'' by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, {{ISBN|0-582-23881-1}}).
* '']'' (Oxford Readers) by ], 1995, {{ISBN|0-19-289249-5}}.
* '']'' Nicola Guerra, (London: Routledge, 2024, {{ISBN|978-1-03-256625-2}}).
* ''Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985'' by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, {{ISBN|0-631-13618-5}}).
* '']'' by ] (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969).
* ''Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe'' by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-415-91058-7}}).
* ''Fascism: Contagion, Community, Myth'' by Nidesh Lawtoo (Michigan State University Press, 2019.
* ''Italian Neofascism: The Strategy of Tension and the Politics of Nonreconciliation'' by Anna Cento Bull (Berghahn Books, 2007).
* ''Mussolini and the Eclipse of Italian Fascism: From Dictatorship to Populism'' by R. J. B. Bosworth R. J. (Yale University Press, 2019, {{ISBN|978-0-3002-5582-9}}).
* ''The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis'' by Herbert Kitschelt (] Press; reprint edition, 1997, {{ISBN|0-472-08441-0}}).
* ''The Routledge Companion to Italian Fascist Architecture: Reception and Legacy'' by Kay Bea Jones and Stephanie Pilat (], 2020, {{ISBN|978-1-0000-6144-4}}).
* ''Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe'' edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (]; 1st edition, 2002, {{ISBN|0-312-29593-6}}).
* ''Transnational Neofascism in France and Italy'' by Andrea Mammone (], 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-1070-3091-6}}).

== External links ==
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* , ]'s list of 14 characteristics of fascism, published in 1995.
* , some general ideological features by Matthew N. Lyons.
* by Chip Berlet.

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Latest revision as of 00:57, 2 January 2025

Post–World War II ideology This article is about fascism after World War II. For Nazi movements after World War II, see Neo-Nazism.

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Neo-fascism is a post-World War II far-right ideology that includes significant elements of fascism. Neo-fascism usually includes ultranationalism, ultraconservatism, racial supremacy, right-wing populism, authoritarianism, nativism, xenophobia, and anti-immigration sentiment, sometimes with economic liberal issues, as well as opposition to social democracy, parliamentarianism, Marxism, capitalism, communism, and socialism (sometimes are opposed to liberalism and liberal democracy). As with classical fascism, it occasionally proposes a Third Position as an alternative to market capitalism.

Allegations that a group is neo-fascist may be hotly contested, especially when the term is used as a political epithet. Some post-World War II regimes have been described as neo-fascist due to their authoritarian nature, and sometimes due to their fascination with and sympathy towards fascist ideology and rituals.

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According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg, the neo-fascist ideology emerged in 1942, after Nazi Germany invaded the USSR and decided to reorient its propaganda on a Europeanist ground. Europe then became both the myth and the utopia of the neo-fascists, who abandoned previous theories of racial inequalities within the white race to share a common euro-nationalist stance after World War II, embodied in Oswald Mosley's Europe a Nation policy. The following chronology can therefore be delineated: an ideological gestation before 1919; the historical experience of fascism between 1919 and 1942, unfolded in several phases; and finally neo-fascism from 1942 onward.

Drawing inspiration from the Italian Social Republic, institutional neo-fascism took the form of the Italian Social Movement (MSI). It became one of the chief reference points for the European far-right until the late 1980s, and "the best (and only) example of a Neofascist party", in the words of political scientist Cas Mudde. At the initiative of the MSI, the European Social Movement was established in 1951 as a pan-European organization of like-minded neo-fascist groups and figures such as the Francoist Falange, Maurice Bardèche, Per Engdahl, and Oswald Mosley. Other organizations like Jeune Nation called in the late 1950s for an extra-parliamentarian insurrection against the regime in what extents to a remnant of pre-war fascist strategies. The main driving force of neo-fascist movements was what they saw as the defense of a Western civilization from the rise of both communism and the Third World, in some cases the loss of the colonial empire.

In 1961, Bardèche redefined the nature of fascism in a book deemed influential in the European far-right at large entitled Qu'est-ce que le fascisme? (What Is Fascism?). He argued that previous fascists had essentially made two mistakes in that they focused their efforts on the methods rather than the original "idea"; and they wrongly believed that fascist society could be achieved via the nation-state as opposed to the construction of Europe. According to him, fascism could survive the 20th century in a new metapolitical guise if its theorists succeed in building inventive methods adapted to the changes of their times; the aim being the promotion of the core politico-cultural fascist project rather than vain attempts to revive doomed regimes: In addition, Bardèche wrote: "The single party, the secret police, the public displays of Caesarism, even the presence of a Führer are not necessarily attributes of fascism. ... The famous fascist methods are constantly revised and will continue to be revised. More important than the mechanism is the idea which fascism has created for itself of man and freedom. ... With another name, another face, and with nothing which betrays the projection from the past, with the form of a child we do not recognize and the head of a young Medusa, the Order of Sparta will be reborn: and paradoxically it will, without doubt, be the last bastion of Freedom and the sweetness of living."

In the spirit of Bardèche's strategy of disguise through framework change, the MSI had developed a policy of inserimento (insertion, entryism), which relied on gaining political acceptance via the cooperation with other parties within the democratic system. In the political context of the Cold War, anti-communism began to replace anti-fascism as the dominant trend in liberal democracies. In Italy, the MSI became a support group in parliament for the Christian Democratic government in the late 1950s–early 1960s, but was forced back into "political ghetto" after anti-fascist protests and violent street clashes occurred between radical leftist and far-right groups, leading to the demise of the short-lived fascist-backed Tambroni Cabinet in July 1960.

According to psychologist David Pavón-Cuéllar of the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, the emergence of neoliberalism in the late-twentieth century prompted neoliberalist politicians to utilize neo-fascism by authoritatively removing all limits to capital (including labor laws, social rights and tariffs), through the aestheticization of politics and by using the narcissism of small differences to find a target for hate to exploit in order to maintain a social hierarchy instead of protecting all individuals.

Causes and description

A number of historians and political scientists have pointed out that the situations in a number of European countries in the 1980s and 1990s, in particular France, Germany and Italy, were in some significant ways analogous to the conditions in Europe in the period between World War I and World War II that gave rise to fascism in its many national guises. Constant economic crises including high unemployment, a resurgence of nationalism, an increase in ethnic conflicts, and the geo-political weakness of national regimes were all present, and while not an exact one-to-one correspondence, circumstances were similar enough to promote the beginning of neo-fascism as a new fascist movement. Because intense nationalism is almost always a part of neo-fascism, the parties which make up this movement are not pan-European, but are specific to each country they arise in; other than this, the neo-fascist parties and other groups have many ideological traits in common.

While certainly fascistic in nature, it is claimed by some that there are differences between neo-fascism and what can be called "historical fascism", or the kind of neo-fascism which came about in the immediate aftermath of World War II. Some historians claim that contemporary neo-fascist parties are not anti-democratic because they operate within their country's political system. Whether that is a significant difference between neo-fascism and historical fascism is doubted by other scholars, who point out that Hitler worked within the existing political system of the Weimar Republic to obtain power, although it took an anti-democratic but constitutional process in the form of presidential appointment rather than election through the Reichstag. Others point to the current neo-fascists not being totalitarian in nature, but the organization of their parties along the lines of the Führerprinzip would seem to indicate otherwise. Historian Stanley G. Payne claims that the differences in current circumstance to that of the interwar years, and the strengthening of democracy in European countries since the end of the war prevents a general return of historical fascism, and causes true neo-fascist groups to be small and remain on the fringe. For Payne, groups like the National Front in France are not neo-fascists in nature, but are merely "right radical parties" that will, in the course of time, moderate their positions in order to achieve electoral victory.

The problem of immigrants, both legal and illegal or irregular, whether called "foreigners", "foreign workers", "economic refugees", "ethnic minorities", "asylum seekers", or "aliens", is a core neo-fascist issue, intimately tied to their nativism, ultranationalism, and xenophobia, but the specifics differ somewhat from country to country due to prevailing circumstances. In general, the anti-immigrant impetus is strong when the economy is weak or unemployment is high, and people fear that outsiders are taking their jobs. Because of this, neo-fascist parties have more electoral traction during hard economic times. Again, this mirrors the situation in the interwar years, when, for instance, Germany suffered from incredible hyperinflation and many people had their life savings swept away. In contemporary Europe, mainstream political parties see the electoral advantage the neo-fascist and far-right parties get from their strong emphasis on the supposed problem of the outsider, and are then tempted to co-opt the issue by moving somewhat to the right on the immigrant issue, hoping to slough off some voters from the hard right. In the absence in post-war Europe of a strong socialist movement, this has the tendency to move the political centre to the right overall.

While both historical fascism and contemporary neo-fascism are xenophobic, nativist and anti-immigrant, neo-fascist leaders are careful not to present these views in so strong a manner as to draw obvious parallels to historical events. Both Jean-Marie Le Pen of France's National Front and Jörg Haider's Freedom Party of Austria, in the words of historian Tony Judt, "revealed prejudices only indirectly". Jews would not be castigated as a group, but a person would be specifically named as a danger who just happened to be a Jew. The public presentation of their leaders is one principal difference between the neo-fascists and historical fascists: their programs have been "finely honed and 'modernized'" to appeal to the electorate, a "far-right ideology with a democratic veneer". Modern neo-fascists do not appear in "jackboots and brownshirts", but in suits and ties. The choice is deliberate, as the leaders of the various groups work to differentiate themselves from the brutish leaders of historical fascism and also to hide whatever bloodlines and connections tie the current leaders to the historical fascist movements. When these become public, as they did in the case of Haider, it can lead to their decline and fall.

International networks

In 1951, the New European Order (NEO) neo-fascist European-wide alliance was set up to promote pan-European nationalism. It was a more radical splinter group of the European Social Movement. The NEO had its origins in the 1951 Malmö conference, when a group of rebels led by René Binet and Maurice Bardèche refused to join the European Social Movement as they felt that it did not go far enough in terms of racialism and anti-communism. As a result, Binet joined with Gaston-Armand Amaudruz in a second meeting that same year in Zürich to set up a second group pledged to wage war on communists and non-white people.

Francoist-Falangist and Nazi memorabilia in a shop in Toledo, Spain

Several Cold War regimes and international neo-fascist movements collaborated in operations such as assassinations and false flag bombings. Stefano Delle Chiaie, who was involved in Italy's Years of Lead, took part in Operation Condor; organizing the 1976 assassination attempt on Chilean Christian Democrat Bernardo Leighton. Vincenzo Vinciguerra escaped to Franquist Spain with the help of the SISMI, following the 1972 Peteano attack, for which he was sentenced to life. Along with Delle Chiaie, Vinciguerra testified in Rome in December 1995 before judge María Servini de Cubría, stating that Enrique Arancibia Clavel (a former Chilean secret police agent prosecuted for crimes against humanity in 2004) and US expatriate DINA agent Michael Townley were directly involved in General Carlos Prats' assassination. Michael Townley was sentenced in Italy to 15 years of prison for having served as intermediary between the DINA and the Italian neo-fascists.

The regimes of Francoist Spain, Augusto Pinochet's Chile and Alfredo Stroessner's Paraguay participated together in Operation Condor, which targeted political opponents worldwide. During the Cold War, these international operations gave rise to some cooperation between various neo-fascist elements engaged in a "Crusade against Communism". Anti-Fidel Castro terrorist Luis Posada Carriles was condemned for the Cubana Flight 455 bombing on 6 October 1976. According to the Miami Herald, this bombing was decided on at the same meeting during which it was decided to target Chilean former minister Orlando Letelier, who was assassinated on 21 September 1976. Carriles wrote in his autobiography that "we the Cubans didn't oppose ourselves to an isolated tyranny, nor to a particular system of our fatherland, but that we had in front of us a colossal enemy, whose main head was in Moscow, with its tentacles dangerously extended on all the planet."

Europe

Finland

In Finland, neo-fascism is often connected to the 1930s and 1940s fascist and pro-Nazi Patriotic People's Movement (IKL), its youth movement Blues-and-Blacks and its predecessor Lapua Movement. Post-war fascist groups such as Patriotic People's Movement (1993), Patriotic Popular Front, Patriotic National Movement, Blue-and-Black Movement and many others consciously copy the style of the movement and look up to its leaders as inspiration. A Finns Party councillor and police officer in Seinäjoki caused small scandal wearing the fascist blue-and-black uniform.

France

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2024)

In France, the far-right National Rally party is of neo-fascist origin and is frequently accused of promoting anti-semitism and xenophobia.

Greece

This section needs expansion with: Spartans (Greek political party). You can help by adding to it. (January 2024)
Golden Dawn demonstration in Greece, 2012 (I will be found dead for Greece is written on the banner).

After the onset of the Great Recession and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the Golden Dawn, widely considered a neo-Nazi party, soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in Greece's parliament, espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants and refugees. In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and other Golden Dawn members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization. In October, 2020, the court declared Golden Dawn to be a criminal organization, convicting 68 members of various crimes including murder. However, far-right politics continue to be strong in Greece, such as Ilias Kasidiaris' National Party – Greeks, an Ultranationalist party. In 2021, Greek neo-Nazi youth attacked a rival group at a school in Greece.

Italy

See also: History of the Italian Republic
Giorgio Almirante, leader of the Italian Social Movement

Italy was broadly divided into two political blocs following World War II: the Christian Democrats, who remained in power until the 1990s, and the Italian Communist Party (PCI), which was very strong immediately after the war and achieved a large consensus during the 1970s. With the beginning of the Cold War, the American and British governments turned a blind eye to the refusal of Italian authorities to honor requested extraditions of Italian war criminals to Yugoslavia, which they feared would benefit the PCI. With no event such as the Nuremberg trials taking place for Italian war crimes, the collective memory of the crimes committed by Italian fascists was excluded from public media, from textbooks in Italian schools, and even from the academic discourse on the Western side of the Iron Curtain throughout the Cold War. The PCI was expelled from power in May 1947, a month before the Paris Conference on the Marshall Plan, along with the French Communist Party (PCF).

In 1946, a group of Italian fascist soldiers founded the Italian Social Movement (MSI) to continue advocating the ideas of Benito Mussolini. The leader of the MSI was Giorgio Almirante, who remained at the head of the party until his death in 1988. Despite attempts in the 1970s towards a "historic compromise" between the PCI and the DC, the PCI did not have a role in executive power until the 1980s. In December 1970, Junio Valerio Borghese attempted, along with Stefano Delle Chiaie, the Borghese Coup which was supposed to install a neo-fascist regime. Neo-fascist groups took part in various false flag terrorist attacks, starting with the December 1969 Piazza Fontana massacre, for which Vincenzo Vinciguerra was convicted, and they are usually considered to have stopped with the 1980 Bologna railway bombing.

In 1987, the reins of the MSI party were taken by Gianfranco Fini, under whom in 1995 it was dissolved and transformed into the National Alliance (AN). The party led by Fini distanced itself from Mussolini and fascism and made efforts to improve its relations with the Jewish community, becoming a conservative right-wing party until its merger with Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia into the centre-right party The People of Freedom in 2009. Neo-fascist parties in Italy include the Tricolour Flame (Fiamma Tricolore), the New Force (Forza Nuova), the National Social Front (Fronte Sociale Nazionale), and CasaPound. The national-conservative Brothers of Italy (FdI), main heirs of MSI and AN, has been described as neo-fascist by several academics, and it has some neo-fascist factions within their internal organization. The results of the 2022 Italian general election, in which FdI became the first party, have been variously described as Italy's first far-right-led government in the republican era and its most right-wing government since World War II. The Russia-Ukraine war has divided the Italian far right, including neo-fascists, into three clusters: the pro-Western and Atlanticist extreme right (e.g. CasaPound), nostalgic and pro-Putin neo-fascism (New Force), and an ideologically evolving collection of National Bolshevik and Eurasianist militants. Recent studies have studied the geopolitical role of Italian neofascism with some groups participating with CIA-backing in the Strategy of Tension during the Cold War where terrorists actions were aimed to keep Italy in NATO and prevent the Communist Party from coming to power

Romania

Main article: Neo-Legionarism

In Romania, the ultra-nationalist movement which allied itself with the Axis powers and German National Socialism was the Iron Guard, also known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael. There are some modern political organisations which consider themselves heirs of Legionarism, this includes Noua Dreaptă and the Everything For the Country Party, founded by former Iron Guard members. The latter organisation was outlawed in 2015. Aside, from these Romanian organisations, the Sixty-Four Counties Youth Movement representing ultra-nationalism from the Hungarian minority is also present, especially in Transylvania. Other nationalistic and irredentist groups such as the Greater Romania Party do not originate from Legionarism, but in fact grew out of national communist tendencies from the era of Nicolae Ceaușescu (the party was founded by his "court poet" Corneliu Vadim Tudor).

The Romanian Hearth Union (UVR), which had around 4 million supporters in 1992, has been described as neofascist. Its political branch was the Romanian National Unity Party, but had also ties to the Social Democracy Party of Romania (PDSR), Greater Romania Party (PRM) and the Democratic Agrarian Party of Romania (PDAR). One of the founders of the UVR was the Romanian President Ion Iliescu, who was still its member in 2005.

Russia

See also: Rashism

In 1990, Vladimir Zhirinovsky founded the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia. Its leader opposes democratic values, human rights, a multiparty system, and the rule of law. Encyclopedia Britannica considers Zhirinovsky to be a neo-fascist. Zhirinovsky endorsed the forcible re-occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and suggested nuclear waste should be dumped there. During the First Chechen War in the mid-1990s, he advocated hitting some Chechen villages with tactical nuclear weapons.

The Russian National Unity was a paramilitary organization which was founded by Alexander Barkashov in 1990. It used a left-pointed swastika and emphasizes the "primary importance" of Russian blood. Concerning Adolf Hitler, the organizations's leader Barkashov declared: "I consider a great hero of the German nation and of all white races. He succeeded in inspiring the entire nation to fight against degradation and the washing away of national values." Before it was banned in 1999, and breakup in late 2000, the group estimated to have had approximately 20,000 to 25,000 members. Alexander Barkashov along with other members of the Russian National Unity have engaged in religious activities and pro-Russian activism in the Russian-Ukrainian War.

Serbia

A neo-fascist organization in Serbia was Obraz, which was banned on 12 June 2012 by the Constitutional Court of Serbia.

Earlier, on 18 June 1990, Vojislav Šešelj organized the Serbian Chetnik Movement (SČP) though it was not permitted official registration due to its obvious Chetnik identification. On 23 February 1991, it merged with the National Radical Party (NRS), establishing the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) with Šešelj as president and Tomislav Nikolić as vice president. It was a Chetnik party, oriented towards neo-fascism with a striving for the territorial expansion of Serbia.

Slovakia

Kotleba – People's Party Our Slovakia is a far-right political party with views that are considered extremist and fascist. The Party's leader, Marian Kotleba, is a former neo-Nazi, who once wore a uniform modelled on that of the Hlinka Guard, the militia of the 1939–45 Nazi-sponsored Slovak State. He opposes Romani people, immigrants, the Slovak National Uprising, NATO, the United States, and the European Union. The party also endorses the clerical fascist war criminal and former Slovak President Jozef Tiso.

In 2003, Kotleba founded the far-right political party Slovak Community (Slovak: Slovenská Pospolitosť). In 2007, the Slovak interior ministry banned the party from running and campaigning in elections. In spite of this ban, Kotleba's party got 8.04% of votes in the Slovak 2016 parliamentary elections. As of December 2022, voter support has dropped significantly to about 3.1%, under the 5% threshold required to enter parliament.

Turkey

See also: Grey Wolves (organization)

Grey Wolves is a Turkish ultranationalist and neo-fascist youth organization. It is the "unofficial militant arm" of the Nationalist Movement Party. The Grey Wolves have been accused of terrorism. According to Turkish authorities, the organization carried out 694 murders during the late-1970s political violence in Turkey, between 1974 and 1980.

The nationalist political party MHP founded by Alparslan Türkeş is also sometimes described as neo-fascist.

United Kingdom

The British National Party (BNP) is a nationalist party in the United Kingdom which espoused the ideology of fascism and anti-immigration. In the 2009 European elections, it gained two members of the European Parliament (MEPs), including former party leader Nick Griffin. Other British organisations described as fascist or neo-fascist include the National Front, Combat 18, the English Defence League, and Britain First.

Americas

Argentina

In Argentina, a notable advocate of neo-fascism was president María Estela Martínez de Perón, who applied anti-communist policies under the fascist police organization Triple A and economic market opening policies. Perón made a direct apology to fascism by performing the Roman salute in an appearance on the national radio network. The National Reorganization Process is also considered a neo-fascist or fascist dictatorship.

Brazil

The Brazilian government of Jair Bolsonaro is cited as the rising point of neo-fascism in South America in the 21st century, based on the denial of science, bellicose rhetoric and authoritarian measures that withdraw rights from the population linked to a strongly neoliberal economic policy. As a result of factors such as opposition to Workers' Party, fear and reaction to the 2013 protests, as well as the economic crises of 2008 and 2014, Jair Bolsonaro emerged as a viable option, not because of a well-defined strategic project, but almost accidentally. In this way, the multiplicity of groups that make up the Bolsonarism, the different wings (military, ideological, religious, capital, etc.) present pragmatic disagreements, strategies, objectives and distinct methods. The core of this Brazilian neo-fascism converged its interests and rhetoric with Pentecostal religious fundamentalism and both allied themselves with military sectors and liberal think tanks, so that within bolsonarism there is a power bloc made up of non-fascist conservatives and far-right neo-fascists; although still without the support of the broad and fanatical mass movement which was the basis of European fascism.

United States

See also: Fascism in North America, Alt-right, and Radical right (United States)

Groups which are identified as neo-fascist in the United States generally include neo-Nazi organizations and movements such as the Proud Boys, the National Alliance, and the American Nazi Party. The Institute for Historical Review publishes negationist historical papers which are often of an antisemitic nature. The alt-right—a loosely connected coalition of individuals and organizations which advocates a wide range of far-right ideas, from neoreactionaries to white nationalists—is often included under the umbrella term "neo-fascist", because alt-right individuals and organizations advocate a radical form of authoritarian ultranationalism.

Oceania

Australia and New Zealand

Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the Australian perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, was an admitted fascist who followed eco-fascism and admired Oswald Mosley, the leader of the British fascist organization British Union of Fascists (BUF), who is quoted in the shooter's manifesto The Great Replacement (named after the French far-right theory of the same name).

Africa

South Africa

The Economic Freedom Fighters are a self-described pan-Africanist political party founded in 2013 by the expelled former African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) President Julius Malema, and his allies. Malema and the party have frequently courted controversy for engaging in anti-White and anti-Indian racism. In November 2019, the Professor of International Relations at University of the Witwatersrand, Vishwas Satgar, defined them as a manifestation of a new phenomena, 'Black Neofascism'.

Asia

India

Main articles: Hindutva, Hindu terrorism, and Akhand Bharat See also: Violence against Muslims in independent India and Violence against Christians in India

The Hindutva ideology of organisations such as RSS have long been compared to fascism or Nazism. An editorial published on 4 February 1948, for example, in the National Herald, the mouthpiece of the Indian National Congress party, stated that "it seems to embody Hinduism in a Nazi form" with the recommendation that it must be ended. Similarly, in 1956, another Congress party leader compared Jana Sangh to the Nazis in Germany. After the 1940s and 1950s, a number of scholars have labelled or compared Hindutva to fascism. Marzia Casolari has linked the association and the borrowing of pre-World War II European nationalist ideas by early leaders of Hindutva ideology. According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics and International Relations, the term Hindutva has "fascist undertones". Many scholars have pointed out that early Hindutva ideologues were inspired by fascist movements in early 20th-century Italy and Germany.

The Indian Marxist economist and political commentator Prabhat Patnaik calls Hindutva "almost fascist in the classical sense". He states that the Hindutva movement is based on "class support, methods and programme". According to Patnaik, Hindutva has the following fascist ingredients: "an attempt to create a unified homogeneous majority under the concept of "the Hindus"; a sense of grievance against past injustice; a sense of cultural superiority; an interpretation of history according to this grievance and superiority; a rejection of rational arguments against this interpretation; and an appeal to the majority based on race and masculinity".

According to some opinion writers, Hindutva shows ethno-nationalism and hyper-militarism similar to Revisionist Zionism and Kahanism.

Indonesia

Adolf Hitler's propaganda which advocated the hegemony of "Greater Germany" inspired similar ideas of "Indonesia Mulia" (esteemed Indonesia) and "Indonesia Raya" (great Indonesia) in the former Dutch colony. The first fascist party was the Partai Fasis Indonesia (PFI). Sukarno admired Nazi Germany under Hitler and its vision of happiness for all: "It's in the Third Reich that the Germans will see Germany at the apex above other nations in this world," he said in 1963. He stated that Hitler was 'extraordinarily clever' in 'depicting his ideals': he spoke about Hitler's rhetorical skills, but denied any association with Nazism as an ideology, saying that Indonesian nationalism was not as narrow as Nazi nationalism.

Japan

See also: Nippon Kaigi and Uyoku dantai

After World War II, neo-fascism and ultra-nationalism were ostracized from mainstream politics in Germany, while in Japan, they were partially related to major right-wing conservative politics. Since 2006, all prime ministers of Japan's LDP have been members of far-right ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi.

Mongolia

With Mongolia located between the larger nations Russia and China, ethnic insecurities have driven many Mongolians to neo-fascism, expressing nationalism centered around Genghis Khan and Adolf Hitler. Groups advocating these ideologies include Blue Mongolia, Dayar Mongol, and Mongolian National Union.

Pakistan

Pakistan's Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan is considered fascist by some analysts because of its engagement in Islamic extremism.

Taiwan

Main article: National Socialism Association

The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-fascist political organization founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (許娜琦), a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often uses the slogan "Long live Hitler". This has brought them condemnation from the Simon Wiesenthal Center, an international Jewish human rights centre.

See also

References

Informational notes

  1. The Hindutva organisations were not exclusively criticised in the 1940s by the Indian political leaders. The Muslim League was also criticised for "its creed of Islamic exclusiveness, its cult of communal hatred" and called a replica of the German Nazis.

Citations

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  2. Castelli Gattinara, Pietro; Forio, Caterina; Albanese, Marco (1 January 2013). "The appeal of neo-fascism in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound Italia". Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies. 2 (2): 234–258. doi:10.1163/22116257-00202007. hdl:10451/23243. Previous research has established that there is a connection between economic crises and the emergence of fascism, and that the critique of neo-liberalism and market economy constitutes a central feature of neo-fascist groups.
  3. Fritzsche, Peter (1 October 1989). "Terrorism in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy: Legacy of the '68 Movement or 'Burden of Fascism'?". Terrorism and Political Violence. 1 (4): 466–481. doi:10.1080/09546558908427039. ISSN 0954-6553.
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  160. "Taiwan political activists admiring Hitler draw Jewish protests – Haaretz – Israel News". Haaretz.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2008.

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