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{{Short description|Adoption of Kurdish culture or language}}{{Kurds}}


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'''Kurdification''' is a cultural change in which something ] non-] is made to become Kurdish, usually in contexts of ], in particular in relation to ], ], ] and the ] of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Ali, Pratt|first=Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine|title=What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25729-0|pages=109|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7KnoG_52Jh8C&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|year=2007|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|pages=19|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22553,4565c25f653,469cbf9d0,0.html}}</ref><ref> (AsiaNews, October 2007)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UNHCR’s ELIGIBILITY GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION NEEDS OF IRAQI ASYLUM-SEEKERS|page=11|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/46deb05557.pdf}}</ref> Kurds claim that Kurdification is used for the ] which ensured to restore the situation before Saddam Hussein's assimilation and deportation policies.
'''Kurdification''' is a cultural change in which people, territory, or language gradually become ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye|url-access=registration|page=|title=The History of Ancient Iran|last=Frye|first=Richard Nelson|date=1984|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=9783406093975|language=en}}</ref> Historically, Kurdification has happened naturally, as in ], or as a deliberate government policy (as in ] after ]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Ali, Pratt|first=Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine|title=What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25729-0|pages=109|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KnoG_52Jh8C&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|year=2007|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|pages=19|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22553,4565c25f653,469cbf9d0,0.html}}</ref>


The notion of Kurdification is different from country to country. In Turkish Kurdistan, many ethnic ] had Kurdified after converting to ],<ref>Outcasting Armenians: Tanzimat of the Provinces, Talin Suciyan, Path to Open, 2023, pp. 84</ref> while many ethnic ],<ref>{{cite book|author1=Harmen van der Wilt|title=The Genocide Convention: The Legacy of 60 Years|page=147}}</ref> ],<ref name="cerkes" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> and ] were Kurdified as a result of fleeing to the region and having subsequently assimilated to the Kurdish culture and language.
==History==
Kurdification has been an open policy of the KRG since 2003, according to Gareth Stansfield, a professor of Middle East politics at the University of Exeter.<ref>http://time.com/3182347/kurds-sunni-arabs-iraq-isis-erbil/</ref>


==Turkey==
Kurds have annexed Assyrian, Yazidi and Shabak villages which are now under Kurdish Control in North Iraq and in Turkey.<ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20140614185547.htm</ref><ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20150810104756.htm</ref> In some towns, Assyrian politicians have been replaced with Kurdish ones.<ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20140614185547.htm</ref> The entire Assyrian Triangle (between Greater Zab and the River Tigris) has been occupied by Kurdish intruders.<ref>https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/14007-assyrians-need-protection-from-islamisation-and-kurdification</ref><ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20110930190835.htm</ref>


=== Turks ===
It is alleged that Kurds have clear plans for the annexation of the Nineveh Plains to the Kurdish occupation and they have always attempted to interrupt international protection for Assyrians in international forums.<ref>https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/14007-assyrians-need-protection-from-islamisation-and-kurdification</ref> The Hareetz newspaper reported that the Kurds object to the establishment of a protected Christian enclave, because they want to annex the Nineveh Valley, most of whose residents are Christians.<ref>https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/14007-assyrians-need-protection-from-islamisation-and-kurdification, Haaretz newspaper on 24 December 2010</ref><ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20110930190835.htm</ref>
Turks first interacted with Kurds during the ], when ] was seeking to pass through ] to conquer ]. Kurds were mostly Muslim, and Kurdistan was historically a buffer zone between the Muslim ] and the Christian Anatolia and ]. Alp Arslan gained the trust of Kurdish principalities and tribes, many of which even joined him in the ].<ref>Kürt-Türk İliskilerinde Merkezî İktidar İstisnai, Yerel Yönetimler İse Kuraldır, Ali Fırat. GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE KÜRT- TÜRK İLİŞKİLERİ, Issue 31, page 7</ref> Later, under the Seljuks around the 11th century, Turks began to settle in Anatolia. In regions around Kurdistan, many Turks quickly assimilated to the Kurdish identity.<ref>From Culture to Ethnicity to Conflict: An Anthropological Perspective on International Ethnic Conflict, Jack David Eller, 1999, pp. 154</ref>


Ottoman Kurdistan had an autonomous status from 1514 until the 1850s, and Kurds were also exempt from military services. ] had given the autonomy and military exemptions as a reward for the Kurds siding with the Ottomans in the ].<ref>A Modern History of the Kurds - McDowall, David p.28</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Klein |first=Janet |title=The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone |date=2011-05-31 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7570-0 |pages=55 |language=en}}</ref> While non-Turks in the Ottoman Empire increasingly ], the Turks living near Kurds increasingly Kurdified. There were villages in Kurdistan were villagers identified as Kurds but did not speak Kurdish.<ref>Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?, Soner Cagaptay, 2006, pp. 104-105</ref>
Some Yazidis expressed concern over forced assimilation into Kurdish culture and identity. Some have accused the Kurdish parties of diverting US $12 million reconstruction funds allocated for Yazidi areas in ] to a Kurdish village and ] them politically.<ref>{{cite web|title=UNHCR’s ELIGIBILITY GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION NEEDS OF IRAQI ASYLUM-SEEKERS|page=11|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/46deb05557.pdf}}</ref>
⚫ According to the ], in 2009, "The goal of these tactics is to push ] and ] communities to identify as ] ]. The Kurdish authorities are working hard to impose Kurdish identity on two of the most vulnerable minorities in Iraq, the Yazidis and the Shabaks".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghanim|first1=David|title=Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy|page=34|url=http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=ZZ076ls9unQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Iraq%27s+Dysfunctional+Democracy&hl=tr&sa=X&ei=qsHsU9n8I4rmyQPLs4DYCg&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Iraq's%20Dysfunctional%20Democracy&f=false}}</ref>


] claimed that many ethnic Turks had Kurdified themselves to enjoy the privileges that Kurds had in the Ottoman Empire, such as autonomy and exemption from ].<ref>Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law, Derya Bayir, 2016, pp. 134</ref>
Some sources have reported that, since 2003, there have been many cases of Yazidi women being abducted and forced to marry members of the Kurdish security force ].<ref>http://www.minorityrights.org/5742/iraq/yezidis.html</ref>{{dead link|date=January 2016}} However, the report was never confirmed by other organizations or authorities.


Historically, Kurdification was much more effective on Sunni Turks than it was on Alevi Turks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gürbüz |first1=Macit |title=Eskiden Türk'tük, şimdi Kürt'ük: Kürtleşen Türkler |date=1 March 2021 |pages=218 |edition=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6MgEAAAQBAJ |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> Turkish nationalists claimed that ] was a Turkic ethnic religion derived from ], and that Kurdish Alevis were merely Kurdified Turks who assimilated into the ] or ] cultures.<ref>Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam, Markus Dressler, 2015, pp. 278</ref><ref>Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam, Markus Dressler, 2015, pp. 144</ref>
In addition to the Kurdish-speaking majority, there are significant Yazidi communities that speak ] as their native mother language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Betts|first1=Robert Brenton|title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences|date=2013|url=http://books.google.com.tr/books?id=luSHLVR5XZUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Sunni-Shi%27a+Divide:+Islam%27s+Internal+Divisions+and+Their+Global+Consequences&hl=tr&sa=X&ei=HUn0U_PlN8agyAOBh4GIBw&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=arabic%20speaking%20yazidis&f=false}}</ref> In 2002, at the request of a group of Yazidis led by Tamoyan, the ]n parliament recognized the Yazidis as a separate ].<ref>http://rudaw.net/english/people-places/28052014</ref> The ] recognizes the Yazidis as a distinct ].<ref>{{cite web|title=UNHCR’s ELIGIBILITY GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION NEEDS OF IRAQI ASYLUM-SEEKERS|page=11|url=http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/46deb05557.pdf}}</ref>


While there was historic Kurdification of Turks, Turkish nationalists often overemphasised certain instances in which Turks assimilated into Kurdish society, and generalised most Kurds as Kurdified Turks.<ref>Political Salience of Ethnic Identities: A Comparative Study of Tajiks in Uzbekistan and Kurds in Turkey, Ebru Erdem, 2006, pp. 32</ref> Turkish nationalists exaggerated the historical extent of Kurdified Turks as a way to downplay the Kurdish identity. Turkish nationalists claimed that Kurds in Turkey were "mostly comprised of Turks who had changed their language", while actual Kurds were "a community that spoke a broken ] and that lived in Turkey, Iraq and Iran".<ref>The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict, Kemal Kirişci, pp. 102-103</ref>
A quote from a lawyer Kuryo Meytap in an interview: "The policy of Kurdification is operated for decades. The ]n history is systematically distorted, many Assyrian villages still be kept busy, the names of the Assyrian cities and villages are specifically converted into ]."<ref>http://bethnahrin.de/2009/08/18/daher-sollten-wir-diese-einrichtungen-durch-gezieltes-werben-in-unserer-umgebung-und-innerhalb-unseres-volkes-dabei-unterstuetzen-dass-das-ace-sowie-das-seyfo-center-finanziell-mehr-unterstuetzt-we/</ref>


===Caucasian refugees (1860s–1910s)===
According to ], President of the ], Shabaks are currently undergoing a process of Kurdification.<ref>https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06BAGHDAD4365_a.html</ref>
{{Main|Chechen Kurds}}
When refugees from ] reached the ], Constantinople decided not to settle these in Kurdistan due to the ] and lack of material resources for the refugees. Yet after some time, the Ottomans started seeing the refugees as a chance to diminish the Kurdish claim to the region and allowed the refugees to settle in the region.<ref name="klein">{{cite book|author1=Janet Klein|title=The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone|date=2011|publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7775-9}}</ref> In 1862, Circassian refugees from the ] tribe arrived in the Kurdish areas of ] and ] and settled in the three Kurdish villages of Yoğurtyemez, Xanik (Çukurtarla), Develik and founded the village of Koxiş (Yolçatı).<ref>{{cite news|title=Unutulmuş Ahlat Çerkesleri-1|url=http://www.cerkesfed.org/2016/08/16/unutulmus-ahlat-cerkesleri-1/|access-date=11 December 2016|agency=Cerkes-Fed|date=16 August 2016|language=tr}}</ref>


The first big wave of Caucasian refugees to Kurdistan was in 1864 when 15,000 to 20,000 refugees settled in ], founding new villages and settling in abandoned Greek and Armenian villages.<ref name="chochievkoc">{{cite journal|author1=Georgi Chochiev and Bekir Koç|title=Migrants from the North Caucasus in Eastern Anatolia: Some Notes on Their Settlement and Adaptation|journal=Journal of Asian History|date=2006|volume=40|issue=183|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> The largest group of refugees were Circassias who fled the ] region (part of the ]) during the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Anita L. P. Burdett|title=Armenia: Political and Ethnic Boundaries 1878–1948|date=1998|publisher=Archive Ed.|isbn=978-1-85207-955-0|page=1017}}</ref> Concurrently with the Circassian migration, Ossetians settled in the villages of Xulik (Otluyazı) and Ağcaviran (Akçaören) in Ahlat.<ref name="Gorman">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Gorman|title=Diasporas of the Modern Middle East|isbn=978-0-7486-8611-7|date=2015-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Çerkes fıkraları|date=1994|publisher=University of Wisconsin – Madison|page=10|language=tr}}</ref> According to the Russian intelligence officer Aleksandr Kolyubakin, no less than 1,500 Ossetians lived in the ] in the late 1880s.<ref name="Gorman" />
On 15 August 2005, Shabaks organised a demonstration under the slogan "We are the Shabak, not the Kurds and not the Arabs", demanding recognition of their unique ethnic identity. The demonstration came under fire from ] militia.<ref>http://www.aina.org/news/20050816114539.htm</ref>


Chechens and ] mostly settled in ] area, in the villages of Arincik (Kıyıbaşı), Çarbuhur (Bağiçi), Tepeköy, Artet (Serinova), Ulusırt and Arinç (Çöğürlü).<ref name="checheningush">{{cite book|title=Caucasian battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=104|isbn=978-1-108-01335-2|date=2011-02-17}}</ref>
On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, in order to combat the Kurdification and Arabization of Iraqi minorities.<ref>https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06BAGHDAD3283_a.html</ref>


From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of Kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue.<ref>Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012</ref><ref name="cerkes">{{cite book|author1=Yeldar Barış Kalkan|title=Çerkes halkı ve sorunları: Çerkes tarih, kültür, coğrafya ve siyasetine sınıfsal yaklaşım|date=2006|page=175}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Dursun Gümüşoğlu|title=Anadolu'da bir köy: Eskikonak : antropolojik inceleme|date=2008}}</ref>
In 2008, Mr Mirza Ismail, chairman of London Yezidis Community-Canada, accused the Kurdistan Regional Government of forcing Yazidis to register as Kurds, expanding Kurdish settlements in Yazidi regions, and forcing Yazidis out of ] city.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ismail|first1=Mirza|title=The Kurdish Threat to The Yezidis of North Iraq|url=http://www.aina.org/guesteds/20081201015903.htm|publisher=Assyrian International News Agency|accessdate=26 March 2015|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081223112315/http://www.aina.org/guesteds/20081201015903.htm|archivedate=2008-12-23|date=2008-12-01|deadurl=no}}</ref>


===Urbanization of Kurds===
In October 2015, Amnesty International said YPG had driven thousands of civilians from northern Syria and destroyed their homes in retaliation for perceived links to ISIL. Majority of the destroyed homes belonged to the Arabs, but also to Turkmens and Kurds.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria Kurds 'razing villages seized from IS' - Amnesty - BBC News|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34511134|accessdate=21 January 2016|work=BBC News|language=en-GB}}</ref> Turkish Daily Sabah claimed that Amnesty International has said that Kurdish PYD conducted ethnic cleansing against Turkmens and Arabs after seizing Tal Abyad.<ref>{{cite news|title=The PYDs ethnic cleansing|url=http://www.dailysabah.com/columns/yahya_bostan/2015/10/26/the-pyds-ethnic-cleansing|accessdate=21 January 2016|work=DailySabah}}</ref> However, Amnesty International has published only one report about the Syrian Kurdish forces and it is related to destroying villages and homes, not ethnic cleansing at all.<ref>{{cite news|title=The official Amnesty International report|url=https://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/syria_nowhere_to_go_english-final.pdf|accessdate=21 January 2016}}</ref> Arabs are also being displaced in previously mixed Kurdish-Arab villages in Iraq.<ref>http://time.com/3182347/kurds-sunni-arabs-iraq-isis-erbil/</ref>
With the departure of non-Muslim populations of many cities in regions with significant Kurdish population, the native urban Muslim populations also migrated to cities such as Gaziantep, İzmir, Adana, Ankara, and Istanbul. The tractorization in rural Kurdish communities during the 1950s and the later abandonment of villages due to the ] caused many Kurds to migrate to nearby cities that were losing their native population such as Diyarbakır but also to distant cities like Mersin, either mostly or partially Kurdifying the ethnic makeup.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yanmış |first1=Mehmet |title=Yakın Dönemde Kürtler: Kimlik, Din, Gelenek |date=11 April 2017 |pages=81,82,121 |publisher=eKitap Projesi & Cheapest Books |isbn=9786059496377 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cA6SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81 |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> The aim of the resettlements and depopulation of the Kurdish population from villages to the cities were the ] of the Kurdish population<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jongerden |first=Joost |date=2009 |title=Crafting Space, Making People: The Spatial Design of Nation in Modern Turkey |url=https://edepot.wur.nl/108719 |website=European Journal of Turkish Studies}}</ref> or according to ] the destruction of the Kurdish nation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Jongerden, Joost (2009).p.2</ref>


==Iraq==
The minorities of Iraq have also founded parties to represent their people, for example: the ], the ], the ] and the ].
They have also founded own militias to defend their villages, for example: the ], the ] and the ].<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>


===Shabaks===
==Flags of the ethnic and national minorities in Iraq==


On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, arguing that the move was to combat the ] and Kurdification of Iraqi minorities. The Iraqi government voted against the proposition.<ref name="jihadology.net">{{cite web|url=http://jihadology.net/2015/01/12/hizballah-cavalcade-quwat-sahl-ninawa-iraqs-shia-shabak-get-their-own-militia/|title=Hizballah Cavalcade: Quwat Sahl Nīnawā: Iraq's Shia Shabak Get Their Own Militia|work=JIHADOLOGY: A clearinghouse for jihādī primary source material, original analysis, and translation service|access-date=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/tastekin-iraqi-turkmen-isis-kirkuk-mosul-arms-itf.html|title=Iraqi Turkmen take up arms in Kirkuk - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East|work=Al-Monitor|access-date=23 April 2016|date=2014-06-18}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Assyrian Flag !! Turkmen Flag !! Shabak Flag !! Yazidi Flag
|-
| ] || ] || ] || ]
⚫ |}


== See also == ===After 2011===
Some Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq complained that construction plans are "aimed at affecting a demographic change that divides Assyrian blocs". Also some Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens have reported that they are facing a policy of cultural and security control against them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iraq-kurdistan-region-protect-minority-rights.html|title=Iraqi Kurdistan Must Ensure Minority Rights |work=Al-Monitor|access-date=23 April 2016|date=2013-09-23 }}</ref>

⚫ According to Sweden-based economist David Ghanim, the goal of some tactics of the KRG had been to push ] and ] communities to identify as ], which has been strongly denied by KRG authorities. He also claimed that the Kurdish authorities are working to impose Kurdish identity on the Yazidis and the Shabaks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghanim|first1=David|title=Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ076ls9unQC&q=Iraq%27s+Dysfunctional+Democracy|isbn=9780313398025|date=2011-09-12|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref>

The Kurdish regional government has also been accused of trying to Kurdify other regions such as the ] and ] by providing financial support for Kurds who want to settle in those areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hashim|first=Ahmed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6pHkXuYNw4C&pg=PT251|title=Insurgency and counter-insurgency in Iraq|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8014-4452-4|page=223|access-date=2015-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107174842/https://books.google.com/books?id=C6pHkXuYNw4C&pg=PT251|archive-date=2016-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taneja|first=Preti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2otAQAAIAAJ|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|year=2007|page=20|isbn=9781904584605|access-date=2015-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107174842/https://books.google.com/books?id=P2otAQAAIAAJ&q|archive-date=2016-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Kirkuk ====
{{See also|Kirkuk Massacre of 1959}}
While Kurdish forces held the city of ], Kurdish authorities attempted to Kurdify the city. Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple ] reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iraq: Kirkuk Security Forces Expel Displaced Turkmen|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/05/07/iraq-kirkuk-security-forces-expel-displaced-turkmen|website=Human Rights Watch|date=7 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=KRG: Kurdish Forces Ejecting Arabs In Kirkuk|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/11/03/krg-kurdish-forces-ejecting-arabs-kirkuk|website=Human Rights Watch|date=3 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Iraq: Arab's homes destroyed in Kirkuk|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7ykOzhXU58 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/W7ykOzhXU58 |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|website=Human Rights Watch}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

] reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uncertain Refuge, Dangerous Return: Iraq's Uprooted Minorities|url=https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-710-Download-full-report.pdf|website=Minority Rights Group International}}</ref>

==Iran==

=== Karapapakhs ===
In ], many ] were Kurdified. They had also became Sunni, dressed like Kurds, and spoken a mixture of Kurdish and ] in the process.<ref>Turkic Peoples Of The World, Margaret Bainbridge, 2013, pp. 149</ref>

=== Küresunni Turks ===
In the southwest of ], there are Kurdicized groups of ] Turks.<ref name="iranica"></ref>

=== Tilku Tribe ===
A group of Kurdicized Tilku Turks live around ] and Zagheh of ].<ref></ref>

==Syria==

During the ], the ], have been accused of Kurdification. <ref name="cfr">{{Cite news |date=2019-11-14 |title=The Future of the Kurds in Syria |language=en |work=] |url=https://www.cfr.org/conference-calls/future-kurds-syria |access-date=2021-02-16}}</ref><ref name="thenation">{{Cite news |date=2017-02-07 |title=Have the Syrian Kurds Committed War Crimes? |language=en |work=] |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/have-the-syrian-kurds-committed-war-crimes/ |access-date=2021-02-16}}</ref> During 2016, ] reported that the PYD was aiming to connect Kobane and Afrin cantons in the Manbij area between the Euphrates River and Afrin, where Kurds represent less than a quarter of the population, believing that various Kurdification methods could help subdue a large portion of the Turkmen and Arab population.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Balanche |first1=Fabrice |title=Rojava's Sustainability and the PKK's Regional Strategy |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/rojavas-sustainability-and-pkks-regional-strategy |website=The Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref> ] of the Washington Post stated: {{Quote|text="The Kurds formally renamed ] with a Kurdish name, "Gire Spi", and proclaim its new identity in signs throughout the town — written in the Latin script used by Turkish Kurds but not readily understood by Syrian Kurds or Arabs. They have also unilaterally detached it from the existing Syrian province of Raqqa and made it a part of their newly formed autonomous enclave, carved from areas traditionally inhabited by Kurds but steadily encroaching also on territories that were historically Arab."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the-challenges-of-governing-after-the-islamic-state/2015/10/30/8985938c-7673-11e5-a5e2-40d6b2ad18dd_story.html|title= They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it|newspaper=The ]|date=2015 |access-date= 30 October 2015 }}</ref>|author=Liz Sly|title="They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it."|source=The Washington Post}}Likewise, YPG is accused of Kurdifying the names of the villages, especially the Arab villages in Raqqa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sivrikaya |first1=Halil Atilla |title=ARAP BAHARI'NIN SURİYE SAHASINDA ARAP DİLİNE OLAN YANSIMALARI: PYD/YPG ÖRNEĞİ |journal=Güvenlik Bilimleri Dergisi |date=November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=335 |doi=10.28956/gbd.646356 |s2cid=213975513 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/854266 |access-date=16 July 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> ] has also accused PYD of Kurdifying the region and terrorizing the Christians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kurdish PYD-YPG Shamelessly Terrorizes Christian Churches In Northeast Syria |url=https://wca-ngo.org/wca-news/press-releases/656-kurdish-pyd-ypg-shamelessly-terrorizes-christian-churches-in-northeast-syria |website=World Council of Arameans (Syriacs) |access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>

More recently during the ], many states, NGOs such as Human Rights Watch,<ref name="Phillips">{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT224 |title=The Great Betrayal: How America Abandoned the Kurds and Lost the Middle East |date=2019 |publisher=I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd |location=New York |page=224 |isbn=9781786725769 |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> and more than a dozen of Syrian rebel groups<ref name="tna">{{cite web |title=Syrian refugees 'return to Tal Abyad' after IS defeat |url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/syrian-refugees-return-tal-abyad-after-defeat |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=The New Arab|date=17 June 2015 }}</ref> accused the ] of Kurdifying traditional ]<ref name="cfr" /><ref name="thenation" /> and Turkmen lands.<ref name="tna" /><ref name="Phillips" /> In 2015, ] disclosed allegations of unjustified forced displacement, demolition of homes, and the seizure and destruction of property of Arabs and Turkmens (including the destruction of entire villages in some cases) through a field research.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria: 'We had nowhere to go' – Forced displacement and demolitions in Northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/2503/2015/en/ |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Amnesty International|date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>

In a report published by the ]' ] on 10 March 2017, the Commission refuted Amnesty International's reports of ethnic cleansing, stating that "'though allegations of 'ethnic cleansing' continued to be received during the period under review, the Commission found no evidence to substantiate reports that YPG or SDF forces ever targeted Arab communities on the basis of ethnicity."<ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2017 |title=Syria and Islamist groups guilty of war crimes, YPG cleared: UN report |url=https://komnews.com/syria-and-islamist-groups-guilty-of-war-crimes-ypg-cleared-un-report/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054645/https://komnews.com/syria-and-islamist-groups-guilty-of-war-crimes-ypg-cleared-un-report/ |archive-date=17 March 2017 |work=Kom News}}</ref><ref name="UN report counters">{{cite web |last=Antonopoulos |first=Paul |date=15 March 2017 |title=UN report counters Amnesty International's claim that Kurds are ethnically cleansing in Syria |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/un-report-counters-amnesty-internationals-claim-that-kurds-are-ethnically-cleansing-in-syria/ |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-date=18 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518193449/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/un-report-counters-amnesty-internationals-claim-that-kurds-are-ethnically-cleansing-in-syria/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="refutes">{{cite web |date=14 March 2017 |title=UN report refutes ethnic cleansing claims against Syrian Kurdish YPG, SDF |url=http://ekurd.net/ypg-changing-demographics-2017-03-14 |access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref> In interviews, YPG spokespersons acknowledged that a number of families were in fact displaced. However, they placed the number at no more than 25, and stated military necessity.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=October 2015 |title=We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE2425032015ENGLISH.pdf |access-date=20 October 2021 |website=] |page=28 |quote=In some dangerous areas there are some specific cases that are very small, resulting from the terrorist threat, where families were sent away from the area ... Only 25 families were forced to leave across Rojava ... (They are told) 'Folks, remove your things please, and if you leave from this area until the war ends it will be a good thing ...' You have terrorists in al-Raqqa and their families – the uncle, and brother, and sister – are here, and they are in communication, giving them information. We were forced to distance these families. Not detain them. Distance them. Take them outside of the area.}}</ref> They stated that the family members of terrorists maintained communications with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger.<ref name=":1" /> They further stated that IS was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2015 |title=We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE2425032015ENGLISH.pdf |access-date=20 October 2021 |website=] |page=29 |quote=He added that IS was benefiting from the presence of civilians in these areas, and using them to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Kurdistan
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*] *]
*] *]
*] in Iraq *]
*] *]
*] by David McDowall
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==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}

==General references==
* "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003" * "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003"
*Park, Bill, ''The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq'' The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held" *Park, Bill, ''The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq'' The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held"
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Latest revision as of 13:29, 9 January 2025

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (January 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Adoption of Kurdish culture or language
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Kurdish history and Kurdish culture
People
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History

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Kurdification is a cultural change in which people, territory, or language gradually become Kurdish. Historically, Kurdification has happened naturally, as in Turkish Kurdistan, or as a deliberate government policy (as in Iraqi Kurdistan after 2003 invasion of Iraq).

The notion of Kurdification is different from country to country. In Turkish Kurdistan, many ethnic Armenians had Kurdified after converting to Islam, while many ethnic Bulgarians, Circassians, Chechens, Ingushs, and Ossetians were Kurdified as a result of fleeing to the region and having subsequently assimilated to the Kurdish culture and language.

Turkey

Turks

Turks first interacted with Kurds during the Seljuk Empire, when Alp Arslan was seeking to pass through Kurdistan to conquer Anatolia. Kurds were mostly Muslim, and Kurdistan was historically a buffer zone between the Muslim Middle East and the Christian Anatolia and South Caucasus. Alp Arslan gained the trust of Kurdish principalities and tribes, many of which even joined him in the Battle of Manzikert. Later, under the Seljuks around the 11th century, Turks began to settle in Anatolia. In regions around Kurdistan, many Turks quickly assimilated to the Kurdish identity.

Ottoman Kurdistan had an autonomous status from 1514 until the 1850s, and Kurds were also exempt from military services. Selim I had given the autonomy and military exemptions as a reward for the Kurds siding with the Ottomans in the Battle of Chaldiran. While non-Turks in the Ottoman Empire increasingly Turkified, the Turks living near Kurds increasingly Kurdified. There were villages in Kurdistan were villagers identified as Kurds but did not speak Kurdish.

Kâzım Karabekir claimed that many ethnic Turks had Kurdified themselves to enjoy the privileges that Kurds had in the Ottoman Empire, such as autonomy and exemption from mandatory conscription.

Historically, Kurdification was much more effective on Sunni Turks than it was on Alevi Turks. Turkish nationalists claimed that Alevism was a Turkic ethnic religion derived from Tengrism, and that Kurdish Alevis were merely Kurdified Turks who assimilated into the Kurmanji or Zaza cultures.

While there was historic Kurdification of Turks, Turkish nationalists often overemphasised certain instances in which Turks assimilated into Kurdish society, and generalised most Kurds as Kurdified Turks. Turkish nationalists exaggerated the historical extent of Kurdified Turks as a way to downplay the Kurdish identity. Turkish nationalists claimed that Kurds in Turkey were "mostly comprised of Turks who had changed their language", while actual Kurds were "a community that spoke a broken Persian and that lived in Turkey, Iraq and Iran".

Caucasian refugees (1860s–1910s)

Main article: Chechen Kurds

When refugees from Caucasus reached the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople decided not to settle these in Kurdistan due to the extreme poverty and lack of material resources for the refugees. Yet after some time, the Ottomans started seeing the refugees as a chance to diminish the Kurdish claim to the region and allowed the refugees to settle in the region. In 1862, Circassian refugees from the Shapsug tribe arrived in the Kurdish areas of Ahlat and Adilcevaz and settled in the three Kurdish villages of Yoğurtyemez, Xanik (Çukurtarla), Develik and founded the village of Koxiş (Yolçatı).

The first big wave of Caucasian refugees to Kurdistan was in 1864 when 15,000 to 20,000 refugees settled in Sarıkamış, founding new villages and settling in abandoned Greek and Armenian villages. The largest group of refugees were Circassias who fled the Circassia region (part of the Russian Empire) during the ethnic cleansing of Circassians. Concurrently with the Circassian migration, Ossetians settled in the villages of Xulik (Otluyazı) and Ağcaviran (Akçaören) in Ahlat. According to the Russian intelligence officer Aleksandr Kolyubakin, no less than 1,500 Ossetians lived in the Sanjak of Muş in the late 1880s.

Chechens and Ingushs mostly settled in Varto area, in the villages of Arincik (Kıyıbaşı), Çarbuhur (Bağiçi), Tepeköy, Artet (Serinova), Ulusırt and Arinç (Çöğürlü).

From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of Kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue.

Urbanization of Kurds

With the departure of non-Muslim populations of many cities in regions with significant Kurdish population, the native urban Muslim populations also migrated to cities such as Gaziantep, İzmir, Adana, Ankara, and Istanbul. The tractorization in rural Kurdish communities during the 1950s and the later abandonment of villages due to the Kurdish-Turkish conflict caused many Kurds to migrate to nearby cities that were losing their native population such as Diyarbakır but also to distant cities like Mersin, either mostly or partially Kurdifying the ethnic makeup. The aim of the resettlements and depopulation of the Kurdish population from villages to the cities were the Turkification of the Kurdish population or according to İsmail Beşikçi the destruction of the Kurdish nation.

Iraq

Shabaks

On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, arguing that the move was to combat the Arabization and Kurdification of Iraqi minorities. The Iraqi government voted against the proposition.

After 2011

Some Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq complained that construction plans are "aimed at affecting a demographic change that divides Assyrian blocs". Also some Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens have reported that they are facing a policy of cultural and security control against them.

According to Sweden-based economist David Ghanim, the goal of some tactics of the KRG had been to push Shabak and Yazidi communities to identify as Kurds, which has been strongly denied by KRG authorities. He also claimed that the Kurdish authorities are working to impose Kurdish identity on the Yazidis and the Shabaks.

The Kurdish regional government has also been accused of trying to Kurdify other regions such as the Nineveh Plains and Kirkuk by providing financial support for Kurds who want to settle in those areas.

Kirkuk

See also: Kirkuk Massacre of 1959

While Kurdish forces held the city of Kirkuk, Kurdish authorities attempted to Kurdify the city. Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple Human Rights Watch reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.

United Nations reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.

Iran

Karapapakhs

In West Azerbaijan, many Karapapakhs were Kurdified. They had also became Sunni, dressed like Kurds, and spoken a mixture of Kurdish and Azerbaijani in the process.

Küresunni Turks

In the southwest of Khoy, there are Kurdicized groups of Küresünni Turks.

Tilku Tribe

A group of Kurdicized Tilku Turks live around Santeh and Zagheh of Saqqez County.

Syria

During the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Democratic Forces, have been accused of Kurdification. During 2016, Fabrice Balanche reported that the PYD was aiming to connect Kobane and Afrin cantons in the Manbij area between the Euphrates River and Afrin, where Kurds represent less than a quarter of the population, believing that various Kurdification methods could help subdue a large portion of the Turkmen and Arab population. Liz Sly of the Washington Post stated:

"The Kurds formally renamed Tal Abyad with a Kurdish name, "Gire Spi", and proclaim its new identity in signs throughout the town — written in the Latin script used by Turkish Kurds but not readily understood by Syrian Kurds or Arabs. They have also unilaterally detached it from the existing Syrian province of Raqqa and made it a part of their newly formed autonomous enclave, carved from areas traditionally inhabited by Kurds but steadily encroaching also on territories that were historically Arab."

— Liz Sly, "They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it.", The Washington Post

Likewise, YPG is accused of Kurdifying the names of the villages, especially the Arab villages in Raqqa. World Council of Arameans has also accused PYD of Kurdifying the region and terrorizing the Christians.

More recently during the Syrian Civil War, many states, NGOs such as Human Rights Watch, and more than a dozen of Syrian rebel groups accused the Syrian Democratic Forces of Kurdifying traditional Arab and Turkmen lands. In 2015, Amnesty International disclosed allegations of unjustified forced displacement, demolition of homes, and the seizure and destruction of property of Arabs and Turkmens (including the destruction of entire villages in some cases) through a field research.

In a report published by the United Nations' Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic on 10 March 2017, the Commission refuted Amnesty International's reports of ethnic cleansing, stating that "'though allegations of 'ethnic cleansing' continued to be received during the period under review, the Commission found no evidence to substantiate reports that YPG or SDF forces ever targeted Arab communities on the basis of ethnicity." In interviews, YPG spokespersons acknowledged that a number of families were in fact displaced. However, they placed the number at no more than 25, and stated military necessity. They stated that the family members of terrorists maintained communications with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger. They further stated that IS was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.

See also

References

  1. Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. C.H.Beck. p. 30. ISBN 9783406093975.
  2. Al-Ali, Pratt, Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine (2009). What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq. University of California Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-520-25729-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International (2007). Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003. Minority Rights Group International. p. 19.
  4. Outcasting Armenians: Tanzimat of the Provinces, Talin Suciyan, Path to Open, 2023, pp. 84
  5. Harmen van der Wilt. The Genocide Convention: The Legacy of 60 Years. p. 147.
  6. ^ Yeldar Barış Kalkan (2006). Çerkes halkı ve sorunları: Çerkes tarih, kültür, coğrafya ve siyasetine sınıfsal yaklaşım. p. 175.
  7. ^ Caucasian battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921. Cambridge University Press. 2011-02-17. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-108-01335-2.
  8. Kürt-Türk İliskilerinde Merkezî İktidar İstisnai, Yerel Yönetimler İse Kuraldır, Ali Fırat. GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE KÜRT- TÜRK İLİŞKİLERİ, Issue 31, page 7
  9. From Culture to Ethnicity to Conflict: An Anthropological Perspective on International Ethnic Conflict, Jack David Eller, 1999, pp. 154
  10. A Modern History of the Kurds - McDowall, David p.28
  11. Klein, Janet (2011-05-31). The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8047-7570-0.
  12. Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?, Soner Cagaptay, 2006, pp. 104-105
  13. Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law, Derya Bayir, 2016, pp. 134
  14. Gürbüz, Macit (1 March 2021). Eskiden Türk'tük, şimdi Kürt'ük: Kürtleşen Türkler (4 ed.). p. 218. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  15. Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam, Markus Dressler, 2015, pp. 278
  16. Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam, Markus Dressler, 2015, pp. 144
  17. Political Salience of Ethnic Identities: A Comparative Study of Tajiks in Uzbekistan and Kurds in Turkey, Ebru Erdem, 2006, pp. 32
  18. The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict, Kemal Kirişci, pp. 102-103
  19. Janet Klein (2011). The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7775-9.
  20. "Unutulmuş Ahlat Çerkesleri-1" (in Turkish). Cerkes-Fed. 16 August 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  21. Georgi Chochiev and Bekir Koç (2006). "Migrants from the North Caucasus in Eastern Anatolia: Some Notes on Their Settlement and Adaptation". Journal of Asian History. 40 (183). Harrassowitz Verlag.
  22. Anita L. P. Burdett (1998). Armenia: Political and Ethnic Boundaries 1878–1948. Archive Ed. p. 1017. ISBN 978-1-85207-955-0.
  23. ^ Anthony Gorman (2015-05-29). Diasporas of the Modern Middle East. ISBN 978-0-7486-8611-7.
  24. Çerkes fıkraları (in Turkish). University of Wisconsin – Madison. 1994. p. 10.
  25. Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012
  26. Dursun Gümüşoğlu (2008). Anadolu'da bir köy: Eskikonak : antropolojik inceleme.
  27. Yanmış, Mehmet (11 April 2017). Yakın Dönemde Kürtler: Kimlik, Din, Gelenek. eKitap Projesi & Cheapest Books. pp. 81, 82, 121. ISBN 9786059496377. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  28. ^ Jongerden, Joost (2009). "Crafting Space, Making People: The Spatial Design of Nation in Modern Turkey". European Journal of Turkish Studies.
  29. Jongerden, Joost (2009).p.2
  30. "Hizballah Cavalcade: Quwat Sahl Nīnawā: Iraq's Shia Shabak Get Their Own Militia". JIHADOLOGY: A clearinghouse for jihādī primary source material, original analysis, and translation service. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  31. "Iraqi Turkmen take up arms in Kirkuk - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. 2014-06-18. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  32. "Iraqi Kurdistan Must Ensure Minority Rights". Al-Monitor. 2013-09-23. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  33. Ghanim, David (2011-09-12). Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy. Abc-Clio. p. 34. ISBN 9780313398025.
  34. Hashim, Ahmed (2005). Insurgency and counter-insurgency in Iraq. Cornell University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8014-4452-4. Archived from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
  35. Taneja, Preti (2007). Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003. Minority Rights Group International. p. 20. ISBN 9781904584605. Archived from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
  36. "Iraq: Kirkuk Security Forces Expel Displaced Turkmen". Human Rights Watch. 7 May 2017.
  37. "KRG: Kurdish Forces Ejecting Arabs In Kirkuk". Human Rights Watch. 3 November 2016.
  38. "Iraq: Arab's homes destroyed in Kirkuk". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22.
  39. "Uncertain Refuge, Dangerous Return: Iraq's Uprooted Minorities" (PDF). Minority Rights Group International.
  40. Turkic Peoples Of The World, Margaret Bainbridge, 2013, pp. 149
  41. The most important Kurdish tribes in that region are ..., Korahsunni Kurdicized Turks, southwest of Ḵoy
  42. iranicaonline:Tilakuʾi (Kurdicized Turks, around Sonnata and Zāḡa)
  43. ^ "The Future of the Kurds in Syria". Council on Foreign Relations. 2019-11-14. Retrieved 2021-02-16.
  44. ^ "Have the Syrian Kurds Committed War Crimes?". Council on Foreign Relations. 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2021-02-16.
  45. Balanche, Fabrice. "Rojava's Sustainability and the PKK's Regional Strategy". The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
  46. "They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it". The Washington Post. 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
  47. Sivrikaya, Halil Atilla (November 2019). "ARAP BAHARI'NIN SURİYE SAHASINDA ARAP DİLİNE OLAN YANSIMALARI: PYD/YPG ÖRNEĞİ". Güvenlik Bilimleri Dergisi. 8 (2): 335. doi:10.28956/gbd.646356. S2CID 213975513. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  48. "Kurdish PYD-YPG Shamelessly Terrorizes Christian Churches In Northeast Syria". World Council of Arameans (Syriacs). Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  49. ^ Phillips, David L. (2019). The Great Betrayal: How America Abandoned the Kurds and Lost the Middle East. New York: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 224. ISBN 9781786725769. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  50. ^ "Syrian refugees 'return to Tal Abyad' after IS defeat". The New Arab. 17 June 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  51. "Syria: 'We had nowhere to go' – Forced displacement and demolitions in Northern Syria". Amnesty International. 12 October 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  52. "Syria and Islamist groups guilty of war crimes, YPG cleared: UN report". Kom News. 15 March 2017. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017.
  53. Antonopoulos, Paul (15 March 2017). "UN report counters Amnesty International's claim that Kurds are ethnically cleansing in Syria". Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  54. "UN report refutes ethnic cleansing claims against Syrian Kurdish YPG, SDF". 14 March 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  55. ^ "We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria" (PDF). Amnesty International. October 2015. p. 28. Retrieved 20 October 2021. In some dangerous areas there are some specific cases that are very small, resulting from the terrorist threat, where families were sent away from the area ... Only 25 families were forced to leave across Rojava ... (They are told) 'Folks, remove your things please, and if you leave from this area until the war ends it will be a good thing ...' You have terrorists in al-Raqqa and their families – the uncle, and brother, and sister – are here, and they are in communication, giving them information. We were forced to distance these families. Not detain them. Distance them. Take them outside of the area.
  56. "We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria" (PDF). Amnesty International. October 2015. p. 29. Retrieved 20 October 2021. He added that IS was benefiting from the presence of civilians in these areas, and using them to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.

General references

  • A. Bazzaz, turkmen.nl "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003"
  • Park, Bill, The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held"
  • Park, Bill, Iraqi scenarios, The Adelphi Papers, Volume 45, Number 374, May 2005, pp. 49–66
  • PKK Iran - Strategic Comments, 2004 - informaworld.com "recent months Turkish intelligence has begun to report Turcoman frustration with Ankara’s failure to prevent the increasing ‘Kurdification’ of northern Iraq"
Cultural assimilation
Assimilation by religions
Assimilation by writings
Opposite trends
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