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{{Original research|date=January 2025}}
⚫ '''Kurdification''' is a cultural change in which non-ethnic Kurds or/and non-ethnic Kurdish area or/and non-Kurdish languages<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.de/books?id=0y1jeSqbHLwC&pg=PA30&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The History of Ancient Iran|last=Frye|first=Richard Nelson|date=1984|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=9783406093975|language=en}}</ref> becomes ]. This can happen both naturally (as seen in ]) and deliberately (as seen in Iraq after ]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Ali, Pratt|first=Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine|title=What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25729-0|pages=109|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KnoG_52Jh8C&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|year=2007|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|pages=19|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22553,4565c25f653,469cbf9d0,0.html}}</ref><ref> (AsiaNews, October 2007)</ref>
{{Short description|Adoption of Kurdish culture or language}}{{Kurds}}


{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
The notion of kurdification is different from country to country. In ], many ethnic ],<ref>{{cite book|title=Mehrdad Izady|date=The Kurds: A Concise History And Fact Book}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|author1=Harmen van der Wilt|title=The Genocide Convention: The Legacy of 60 Years|page=147}}</ref> ],<ref name="cerkes" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> ],<ref name="georgian" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> and ] have become kurdified, as a result of fleeing to the region and having subsequently interacted with ethnic ]. In ], currently the minorities like ], ], ] and ] underwent a process of Kurdification in the ] when Kurdish forces administrated the area until 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/11/10/vulnerable-ground/violence-against-minority-communities-nineveh-provinces-disputed|title=On Vulnerable Ground {{!}} Violence against Minority Communities in Nineveh Province’s Disputed Territories|date=2009-11-10|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2018-10-23|language=en}}</ref>
⚫ '''Kurdification''' is a cultural change in which people, territory, or language gradually become ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye|url-access=registration|page=|title=The History of Ancient Iran|last=Frye|first=Richard Nelson|date=1984|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=9783406093975|language=en}}</ref> Historically, Kurdification has happened naturally, as in ], or as a deliberate government policy (as in ] after ]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Ali, Pratt|first=Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine|title=What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25729-0|pages=109|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KnoG_52Jh8C&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|year=2007|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|pages=19|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22553,4565c25f653,469cbf9d0,0.html}}</ref>

The notion of Kurdification is different from country to country. In Turkish Kurdistan, many ethnic ] had Kurdified after converting to ],<ref>Outcasting Armenians: Tanzimat of the Provinces, Talin Suciyan, Path to Open, 2023, pp. 84</ref> while many ethnic ],<ref>{{cite book|author1=Harmen van der Wilt|title=The Genocide Convention: The Legacy of 60 Years|page=147}}</ref> ],<ref name="cerkes" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> ],<ref name="checheningush" /> and ] were Kurdified as a result of fleeing to the region and having subsequently assimilated to the Kurdish culture and language.


==Turkey== ==Turkey==
===Caucasian refugees (1860s–1910s)=== ===Caucasian refugees (1860s–1910s)===
{{Main|Chechen Kurds}} {{Main|Chechen Kurds}}
When refugees from ] reached the ], Constantinople decided not to settle these in Kurdistan due to the extreme poverty and lack of material resources for the refugees. Yet after some time, the Ottomans started seeing the refugees as a chance to diminish the Kurdish claim to the region and allowed the refugees to settle in the region.<ref name="klein">{{cite book|author1=Janet Klein|title=The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone|date=2011|isbn=978-0-8047-7775-9}}</ref> In 1862, Circassian refugees from the ] tribe arrived in the Kurdish areas of ] and ] and settled in the three Kurdish villages of Yoğurtyemez, Xanik (Çukurtarla), Develik and founded the village of Koxiş (Yolçatı).<ref>{{cite news|title=Unutulmuş Ahlat Çerkesleri-1|url=http://www.cerkesfed.org/2016/08/16/unutulmus-ahlat-cerkesleri-1/|accessdate=11 December 2016|agency=Cerkes-Fed|date=16 August 2016|language=Turkish}}</ref> When refugees from ] reached the ], Constantinople decided not to settle these in Kurdistan due to the ] and lack of material resources for the refugees. Yet after some time, the Ottomans started seeing the refugees as a chance to diminish the Kurdish claim to the region and allowed the refugees to settle in the region.<ref name="klein">{{cite book|author1=Janet Klein|title=The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone|date=2011|publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7775-9}}</ref> In 1862, Circassian refugees from the ] tribe arrived in the Kurdish areas of ] and ] and settled in the three Kurdish villages of Yoğurtyemez, Xanik (Çukurtarla), Develik and founded the village of Koxiş (Yolçatı).<ref>{{cite news|title=Unutulmuş Ahlat Çerkesleri-1|url=http://www.cerkesfed.org/2016/08/16/unutulmus-ahlat-cerkesleri-1/|access-date=11 December 2016|agency=Cerkes-Fed|date=16 August 2016|language=tr}}</ref>


The first big wave of Caucasian refugees to Kurdistan was in 1864 when 15,000 to 20,000 refugees settled in ], founding new villages and settling in abandoned Greek and Armenian villages.<ref name="chochievkoc">{{cite journal|author1=Georgi Chochiev and Bekir Koç|title=Migrants from the North Caucasus in Eastern Anatolia: Some Notes on Their Settlement and Adaptation|journal=Journal of Asian History|date=2006|volume=40|issue=183|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> These refugees included ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kars – Index Anatolicus|url=http://nisanyanmap.com/?y=&t=Kars&u=1&ua=0|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> The largest group of refugees were Circassias who fled the ] region (part of the ]) during the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Anita L. P. Burdett|title=Armenia: Political and Ethnic Boundaries 1878–1948|date=1998|publisher=Archive Ed.|isbn=978-1-85207-955-0|page=1017}}</ref><ref name="list">{{cite news|title=Türkiye'deki Çerkes Köyleri|url=http://www.nartajans.net/site/haberler_5573_turkiye_deki_cerkes_koyleri.html|accessdate=11 December 2016|date=6 September 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref> Two years later, Shapsug tribe with members of the ] tribe founded the villages of Bolethan (Karapolat), Arnis (Güzgülü) and Ximsor (Eskibalta) near ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Karapolat – Index Anatolicus|url=http://nisanyanmap.com/?lv=2&y=Karapolat&t=&srt=x&u=1&ua=0|website=Index Anatolicus}}</ref><ref name="list" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Eskibalta – Index Anatolicus|url=http://nisanyanmap.com/?y=eskibalta&t=&lv=1&u=1&ua=0|publisher=Index Anatolicus|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> Concurrently with the Circassian migration, Ossetians settled in the villages of Xulik (Otluyazı) and Ağcaviran (Akçaören) in Ahlat,<ref name="Gorman">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Gorman|title=Diasporas of the Modern Middle East|isbn=978-0-7486-8611-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Çerkes fıkraları|date=1994|publisher=University of Wisconsin – Madison|page=10|accessdate=12 December 2016|language=Turkish}}</ref><ref name="ossetianvillages">{{cite web|title=Köylere Göre Sülaler |url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:zloDWbRCJMQJ:www.alanvakfi.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/koyleregoresulaleler.xlsx+&cd=1&hl=da&ct=clnk&gl=dk|publisher=Alan Vakfi|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> Yaramış, Karaağıl, Hamzaşeyx (Sarıpınar), Simo (Kurganlı) in the eastern ] region, and Lekbudak (Budaklı) near ].<ref name="ossetianvillages" /> According to the Russian intelligence officer Aleksandr Kolyubakin, no less than 1,500 Ossetians lived in the ] in the late 1880s.<ref name="Gorman" /> The first big wave of Caucasian refugees to Kurdistan was in 1864 when 15,000 to 20,000 refugees settled in ], founding new villages and settling in abandoned Greek and Armenian villages.<ref name="chochievkoc">{{cite journal|author1=Georgi Chochiev and Bekir Koç|title=Migrants from the North Caucasus in Eastern Anatolia: Some Notes on Their Settlement and Adaptation|journal=Journal of Asian History|date=2006|volume=40|issue=183|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag}}</ref> The largest group of refugees were Circassias who fled the ] region (part of the ]) during the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Anita L. P. Burdett|title=Armenia: Political and Ethnic Boundaries 1878–1948|date=1998|publisher=Archive Ed.|isbn=978-1-85207-955-0|page=1017}}</ref> Concurrently with the Circassian migration, Ossetians settled in the villages of Xulik (Otluyazı) and Ağcaviran (Akçaören) in Ahlat.<ref name="Gorman">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Gorman|title=Diasporas of the Modern Middle East|isbn=978-0-7486-8611-7|date=2015-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Çerkes fıkraları|date=1994|publisher=University of Wisconsin – Madison|page=10|language=tr}}</ref> According to the Russian intelligence officer Aleksandr Kolyubakin, no less than 1,500 Ossetians lived in the ] in the late 1880s.<ref name="Gorman" />


Chechens and ] mostly settled in ] area, in the villages of Arincik (Kıyıbaşı), Çarbuhur (Bağiçi), Tepeköy, Artet (Serinova), Ulusırt and Arinç (Çöğürlü),<ref name="checheningush">{{cite book|title=Caucasian battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=104|isbn=978-1-108-01335-2}}</ref> Avars who settled in Kayalık village,<ref>{{cite web|title=Varto – Index Anatolicus|url=http://nisanyanmap.com/?y=&t=Varto&u=1&ua=0|publisher=Index Anatolicus|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> and Circassians of the ] tribe founded the village of Narlı Çerkezleri (Eskinarlı) in ] area.<ref name="list" /> There is also a ] village in ].<ref name="georgian">{{cite web|title=Ortayazı Köyü/Ergani/Diyarbakır |url=http://www.gdd.org.tr/koydetay.asp?id=47|accessdate=17 December 2016}}</ref> Chechens and ] mostly settled in ] area, in the villages of Arincik (Kıyıbaşı), Çarbuhur (Bağiçi), Tepeköy, Artet (Serinova), Ulusırt and Arinç (Çöğürlü).<ref name="checheningush">{{cite book|title=Caucasian battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=104|isbn=978-1-108-01335-2|date=2011-02-17}}</ref>


From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue.<ref>Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012</ref><ref name="cerkes">{{cite book|author1=Yeldar Barış Kalkan|title=Çerkes halkı ve sorunları: Çerkes tarih, kültür, coğrafya ve siyasetine sınıfsal yaklaşım|date=2006|page=175|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Dursun Gümüşoğlu|title=Anadolu'da bir köy: Eskikonak : antropolojik inceleme|date=2008|accessdate=12 December 2016}}</ref> From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of Kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue.<ref>Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012</ref><ref name="cerkes">{{cite book|author1=Yeldar Barış Kalkan|title=Çerkes halkı ve sorunları: Çerkes tarih, kültür, coğrafya ve siyasetine sınıfsal yaklaşım|date=2006|page=175}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Dursun Gümüşoğlu|title=Anadolu'da bir köy: Eskikonak : antropolojik inceleme|date=2008}}</ref>


===Urbanization of Kurds===
==== 20th–21st century and PKK ====
With the departure of non-Muslim populations of many cities in regions with significant Kurdish population, the native urban Muslim populations also migrated to cities such as Gaziantep, İzmir, Adana, Ankara, and Istanbul. The tractorization in rural Kurdish communities during the 1950s and the later abandonment of villages due to the ] caused many Kurds to migrate to nearby cities that were losing their native population such as Diyarbakır but also to distant cities like Mersin, either mostly or partially Kurdifying the ethnic makeup.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yanmış |first1=Mehmet |title=Yakın Dönemde Kürtler: Kimlik, Din, Gelenek |date=11 April 2017 |pages=81,82,121 |publisher=eKitap Projesi & Cheapest Books |isbn=9786059496377 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cA6SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81 |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> The aim of the resettlements and depopulation of the Kurdish population from villages to the cities were the ] of the Kurdish population<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jongerden |first=Joost |date=2009 |title=Crafting Space, Making People: The Spatial Design of Nation in Modern Turkey |url=https://edepot.wur.nl/108719 |website=European Journal of Turkish Studies}}</ref> or according to ] the destruction of the Kurdish nation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Jongerden, Joost (2009).p.2</ref>
When the Kurdish question rose in Turkey, it also had an effect on their Caucasian neighbours. Even today, there is an aversion from joining the Kurds in their conflict against the Turkish state,<ref>{{cite news|author1=Paul Globe|title=Turkish Circassians Reject Proffered Alliance With Kurds|url=https://jamestown.org/program/turkish-circassians-reject-proffered-alliance-with-kurds/|accessdate=12 December 2016|date=7 April 2015}}</ref> but some individuals of Caucasian origin joined the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Çerkes gerilla: PKK kendimle yüzleşmemi sağladı|url=http://www.ozgur-gundem.com/haber/106811/cerkes-gerilla-pkk-kendimle-yuzlesmemi-sagladi|accessdate=12 December 2016|agency=Özgür Gündem|date=9 May 2014|language=Turkish}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Kurdish Politics in Turkey: From the PKK to the KCK|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1-317-27116-5}}</ref> As part of their campaign, the Kurdish party ] won most Caucasian villages in Turkish Kurdistan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bitlis’te Oturan Çerkes Aileden HDP’ye Destek|url=http://www.bitlisradikal.com/haber/65/bitliste-oturan-cerkes-aileden-hdpye-destek.html|accessdate=12 December 2016|agency=Bitlis Radikal|date=20 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=HDP Çerkesler için broşür hazırladı|url=http://www.haber46.com/siyaset/hdp-cerkesler-icin-brosur-hazirladi-h79668.html|accessdate=12 December 2016|agency=Haber46|date=8 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=SEÇSİS – Sandık Sonuçları|url=https://sonuc.ysk.gov.tr/module/GirisEkrani.jsf|accessdate=12 December 2016|language=Turkish}}</ref>

===Armenians===
Through the 20th century, an unknown number of Armenians living in the mountainous region of ] (Dersim) had converted to Alevism.<ref>{{cite news|title=Armenian Elements in the Beliefs of the Kizilbash Kurds |url=http://rbedrosian.com/mmpaul1.htm |accessdate=28 April 2013 |date=27 April 2013 |newspaper=İnternet Haber |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085249/http://rbedrosian.com/mmpaul1.htm |archivedate=24 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=A. Davis|first=Leslie|title=The slaughterhouse province: an American diplomat's report on the Armenian genocide, 1915–1917|year=1990|publisher=A.D. Caratzas|location=New Rochelle, New York|isbn=9780892414581|edition=2. print.|editor=Blair, Susan K.}}</ref> According to Mihran Prgiç Gültekin, the head of the Union of Dersim Armenians, around 75% of the population of ] is descended from "converted Armenians."<ref name="Mihran Gultekin">{{cite news|title=Mihran Gultekin: Dersim Armenians Re-Discovering Their Ancestral Roots |url=http://massispost.com/archives/1752 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130128104551/http://massispost.com/archives/1752 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=28 January 2013 |accessdate=30 December 2012 |newspaper=Massis Post |date=7 February 2011 |location=Yerevan }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.adanamedya.com/author_article_detail.php?id=2150 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130116131108/http://www.adanamedya.com/author_article_detail.php?id=2150 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=16 January 2013 |title=Dersimin Nobel adayları... |last=Adamhasan |first=Ali |date=5 December 2011 |newspaper=Adana Medya |accessdate=20 October 2013 |language=tr }}</ref> He reported in 2012 that over 200 families in Tunceli have declared their Armenian descent, but others are afraid to do so.<ref name="Mihran Gultekin" /><ref name="Dersim Armenians back to their roots">{{cite news|title=Dersim Armenians back to their roots|url=http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/politics/news/60924/|accessdate=31 December 2012|newspaper=]|date=7 February 2011}}</ref> In April 2013, Aram Ateşyan, the acting ], stated that 90% of Tunceli's population is of Armenian origin.<ref name="internethaber">{{cite news|title=Tunceli'nin yüzde 90'ı dönme Ermeni'dir|url=http://www.internethaber.com/tuncelinin-yuzde-90i-donme-ermenidir-527098h.htm|accessdate=28 April 2013|date=27 April 2013|newspaper=İnternet Haber|language=tr}}</ref>


==Iraq== ==Iraq==


===Shabak=== ===Shabaks===


On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, in order to combat the Arabization and Kurdification of Iraqi minorities. The Iraqi government voted against the proposition.<ref name="Cable: 06BAGHDAD3283_a">{{cite web|url=https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06BAGHDAD3283_a.html|title=Cable: 06BAGHDAD3283_a|publisher=|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="jihadology.net">{{cite web|url=http://jihadology.net/2015/01/12/hizballah-cavalcade-quwat-sahl-ninawa-iraqs-shia-shabak-get-their-own-militia/|title=Hizballah Cavalcade: Quwat Sahl Nīnawā: Iraq’s Shia Shabak Get Their Own Militia|work=JIHADOLOGY: A clearinghouse for jihādī primary source material, original analysis, and translation service|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/tastekin-iraqi-turkmen-isis-kirkuk-mosul-arms-itf.html|title=Iraqi Turkmen take up arms in Kirkuk - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East|work=Al-Monitor|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref> On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, arguing that the move was to combat the ] and Kurdification of Iraqi minorities. The Iraqi government voted against the proposition.<ref name="jihadology.net">{{cite web|url=http://jihadology.net/2015/01/12/hizballah-cavalcade-quwat-sahl-ninawa-iraqs-shia-shabak-get-their-own-militia/|title=Hizballah Cavalcade: Quwat Sahl Nīnawā: Iraq's Shia Shabak Get Their Own Militia|work=JIHADOLOGY: A clearinghouse for jihādī primary source material, original analysis, and translation service|access-date=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/tastekin-iraqi-turkmen-isis-kirkuk-mosul-arms-itf.html|title=Iraqi Turkmen take up arms in Kirkuk - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East|work=Al-Monitor|access-date=23 April 2016|date=2014-06-18}}</ref>


===After 2011=== ===After 2011===
Kurdification has been an open policy of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq since 2003, according to Gareth Stansfield, a professor of Middle East politics at the University of Exeter.<ref name="rebeccacollard/makhmour">{{cite web|url=http://time.com/3182347/kurds-sunni-arabs-iraq-isis-erbil/|title=Kurds and Sunni Arabs Fall Out in the Wake of ISIS Fight|author=Rebecca Collard / Makhmour|work=Time|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref> The ''Haaretz'' newspaper had reported on 24 December 2014 that the Kurds object to the establishment of a protected Christian enclave, because they want to annex the Nineveh Valley, most of whose residents are Christians.<ref>https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/14007-assyrians-need-protection-from-islamisation-and-kurdification, Haaretz newspaper on 24 December 2010</ref> Some Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq also complained that construction plans are "aimed at affecting a demographic change that divides Assyrian blocs". Also some Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens have reported that they are facing a policy of cultural and security control against them, especially in areas which belonged to the Kurds before Saddam's ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iraq-kurdistan-region-protect-minority-rights.html|title=Iraqi Kurdistan Must Ensure Minority Rights |work=Al-Monitor|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref> Some Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq complained that construction plans are "aimed at affecting a demographic change that divides Assyrian blocs". Also some Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens have reported that they are facing a policy of cultural and security control against them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iraq-kurdistan-region-protect-minority-rights.html|title=Iraqi Kurdistan Must Ensure Minority Rights |work=Al-Monitor|access-date=23 April 2016|date=2013-09-23 }}</ref>

⚫ According to Sweden-based economist David Ghanim, the goal of some tactics of the KRG had been to push ] and ] communities to identify as ], which has been strongly denied by KRG authorities. He also claimed that the Kurdish authorities are working to impose Kurdish identity on the Yazidis and the Shabaks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghanim|first1=David|title=Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ076ls9unQC&q=Iraq%27s+Dysfunctional+Democracy|isbn=9780313398025|date=2011-09-12|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref>

The Kurdish regional government has also been accused of trying to Kurdify other regions such as the ] and ] by providing financial support for Kurds who want to settle in those areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hashim|first=Ahmed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6pHkXuYNw4C&pg=PT251|title=Insurgency and counter-insurgency in Iraq|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8014-4452-4|page=223|access-date=2015-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107174842/https://books.google.com/books?id=C6pHkXuYNw4C&pg=PT251|archive-date=2016-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Taneja|first=Preti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2otAQAAIAAJ|title=Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|year=2007|page=20|isbn=9781904584605|access-date=2015-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107174842/https://books.google.com/books?id=P2otAQAAIAAJ&q|archive-date=2016-01-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Kirkuk ====
{{See also|Kirkuk Massacre of 1959}}
While Kurdish forces held the city of ], Kurdish authorities attempted to Kurdify the city. Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple ] reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iraq: Kirkuk Security Forces Expel Displaced Turkmen|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/05/07/iraq-kirkuk-security-forces-expel-displaced-turkmen|website=Human Rights Watch|date=7 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=KRG: Kurdish Forces Ejecting Arabs In Kirkuk|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/11/03/krg-kurdish-forces-ejecting-arabs-kirkuk|website=Human Rights Watch|date=3 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Iraq: Arab's homes destroyed in Kirkuk|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7ykOzhXU58 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/W7ykOzhXU58 |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|website=Human Rights Watch}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

] reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uncertain Refuge, Dangerous Return: Iraq's Uprooted Minorities|url=https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/old-site-downloads/download-710-Download-full-report.pdf|website=Minority Rights Group International}}</ref>

==Iran==

=== Karapapakhs ===
In ], many ] were Kurdified.<ref>Turkic Peoples Of The World, Margaret Bainbridge, 2013, pp. 149</ref>

=== Küresunni Turks ===
In the southwest of ], there are Kurdicized groups of ] Turks.<ref name="iranica"></ref>

=== Tilku Tribe ===
A group of Kurdicized Tilku Turks live around ] and Zagheh of ].<ref></ref>


==Syria==
In 2016, David Romano, Professor of Middle East Politics, said that without the ] and ], the Assyrians of northern Syria and Iraq would likely all be dead, lying in some ]-dug mass grave.<ref>{{cite news|title=http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/21012016?ctl00_phMainContainer_phMain_ControlComments1_gvCommentsChangePage=3_20|url=http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/21012016?ctl00_phMainContainer_phMain_ControlComments1_gvCommentsChangePage=3_20|accessdate=5 May 2016|agency=Rudaw}}</ref> Another view is that the Kurdish militia (Peshmerga) quickly abandoned their positions at the beginning of the ] occupation of the city of ], and that the Peshmerga, who had disarmed Assyrians and left them defenseless, retreated without informing the indigenous Christian population, leaving them uninformed and unarmed.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Parker|first1=Ned|last2=Coles|first2=Isabel|last3=Salman|first3=Raheem |title=Special Report: How Mosul fell – An Iraqi general disputes Baghdad's story|url=http:// uk.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-gharawi-spe- cial-report-idUSKCN0I30Z820141014|agency=Reuters|date=2014-10-14}}</ref>


During the ], the ], have been accused of Kurdification. <ref name="cfr">{{Cite news |date=2019-11-14 |title=The Future of the Kurds in Syria |language=en |work=] |url=https://www.cfr.org/conference-calls/future-kurds-syria |access-date=2021-02-16}}</ref><ref name="thenation">{{Cite news |date=2017-02-07 |title=Have the Syrian Kurds Committed War Crimes? |language=en |work=] |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/have-the-syrian-kurds-committed-war-crimes/ |access-date=2021-02-16}}</ref> During 2016, ] reported that the PYD was aiming to connect Kobane and Afrin cantons in the Manbij area between the Euphrates River and Afrin, where Kurds represent less than a quarter of the population, believing that various Kurdification methods could help subdue a large portion of the Turkmen and Arab population.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Balanche |first1=Fabrice |title=Rojava's Sustainability and the PKK's Regional Strategy |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/rojavas-sustainability-and-pkks-regional-strategy |website=The Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref> ] of the Washington Post stated: {{Quote|text="The Kurds formally renamed ] with a Kurdish name, "Gire Spi", and proclaim its new identity in signs throughout the town — written in the Latin script used by Turkish Kurds but not readily understood by Syrian Kurds or Arabs. They have also unilaterally detached it from the existing Syrian province of Raqqa and made it a part of their newly formed autonomous enclave, carved from areas traditionally inhabited by Kurds but steadily encroaching also on territories that were historically Arab."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the-challenges-of-governing-after-the-islamic-state/2015/10/30/8985938c-7673-11e5-a5e2-40d6b2ad18dd_story.html|title= They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it|newspaper=The ]|date=2015 |access-date= 30 October 2015 }}</ref>|author=Liz Sly|title="They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it."|source=The Washington Post}}Likewise, YPG is accused of Kurdifying the names of the villages, especially the Arab villages in Raqqa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sivrikaya |first1=Halil Atilla |title=ARAP BAHARI'NIN SURİYE SAHASINDA ARAP DİLİNE OLAN YANSIMALARI: PYD/YPG ÖRNEĞİ |journal=Güvenlik Bilimleri Dergisi |date=November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=335 |doi=10.28956/gbd.646356 |s2cid=213975513 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/854266 |access-date=16 July 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref> ] has also accused PYD of Kurdifying the region and terrorizing the Christians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kurdish PYD-YPG Shamelessly Terrorizes Christian Churches In Northeast Syria |url=https://wca-ngo.org/wca-news/press-releases/656-kurdish-pyd-ypg-shamelessly-terrorizes-christian-churches-in-northeast-syria |website=World Council of Arameans (Syriacs) |access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum published news which argued that the Yazidis have frequently been pressured to assimilate to both Arab and Kurdish ethnicities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/confront-genocide/cases/iraq/background/people-of-the-book|title=The People of the Book and the Hierarchy of Discrimination|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|access-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Other sources have stated that Yazidis already speak ] which is one of the two major dialects of Kurdish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yezidisinternational.org/abouttheyezidipeople/glossary/|title=Yezidi Language|work=Yezidis|access-date=2017-02-28|language=en-US}}</ref>


More recently during the ], many states, NGOs such as Human Rights Watch,<ref name="Phillips">{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT224 |title=The Great Betrayal: How America Abandoned the Kurds and Lost the Middle East |date=2019 |publisher=I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd |location=New York |page=224 |isbn=9781786725769 |access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> and more than a dozen of Syrian rebel groups<ref name="tna">{{cite web |title=Syrian refugees 'return to Tal Abyad' after IS defeat |url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/syrian-refugees-return-tal-abyad-after-defeat |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=The New Arab|date=17 June 2015 }}</ref> accused the ] of Kurdifying traditional ]<ref name="cfr" /><ref name="thenation" /> and Turkmen lands.<ref name="tna" /><ref name="Phillips" /> In 2015, ] disclosed allegations of unjustified forced displacement, demolition of homes, and the seizure and destruction of property of Arabs and Turkmens (including the destruction of entire villages in some cases) through a field research.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria: 'We had nowhere to go' – Forced displacement and demolitions in Northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/2503/2015/en/ |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Amnesty International|date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>
During the ], Iraqi army troops fled their posts around the Nineveh Plains while ISIL attacked. Later, ] forces, with the support of coalition airstrikes, captured these areas from ISIL. Since then, there have been disputes between pro-government Assyrians and Kurds, as the former have either asked the Kurds to leave or promised them autonomy.


In a report published by the ]' ] on 10 March 2017, the Commission refuted Amnesty International's reports of ethnic cleansing, stating that "'though allegations of 'ethnic cleansing' continued to be received during the period under review, the Commission found no evidence to substantiate reports that YPG or SDF forces ever targeted Arab communities on the basis of ethnicity."<ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2017 |title=Syria and Islamist groups guilty of war crimes, YPG cleared: UN report |url=https://komnews.com/syria-and-islamist-groups-guilty-of-war-crimes-ypg-cleared-un-report/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054645/https://komnews.com/syria-and-islamist-groups-guilty-of-war-crimes-ypg-cleared-un-report/ |archive-date=17 March 2017 |work=Kom News}}</ref><ref name="UN report counters">{{cite web |last=Antonopoulos |first=Paul |date=15 March 2017 |title=UN report counters Amnesty International's claim that Kurds are ethnically cleansing in Syria |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/un-report-counters-amnesty-internationals-claim-that-kurds-are-ethnically-cleansing-in-syria/ |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-date=18 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518193449/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/un-report-counters-amnesty-internationals-claim-that-kurds-are-ethnically-cleansing-in-syria/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="refutes">{{cite web |date=14 March 2017 |title=UN report refutes ethnic cleansing claims against Syrian Kurdish YPG, SDF |url=http://ekurd.net/ypg-changing-demographics-2017-03-14 |access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref> In interviews, YPG spokespersons acknowledged that a number of families were in fact displaced. However, they placed the number at no more than 25, and stated military necessity.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=October 2015 |title=We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE2425032015ENGLISH.pdf |access-date=20 October 2021 |website=] |page=28 |quote=In some dangerous areas there are some specific cases that are very small, resulting from the terrorist threat, where families were sent away from the area ... Only 25 families were forced to leave across Rojava ... (They are told) 'Folks, remove your things please, and if you leave from this area until the war ends it will be a good thing ...' You have terrorists in al-Raqqa and their families – the uncle, and brother, and sister – are here, and they are in communication, giving them information. We were forced to distance these families. Not detain them. Distance them. Take them outside of the area.}}</ref> They stated that the family members of terrorists maintained communications with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger.<ref name=":1" /> They further stated that IS was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2015 |title=We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE2425032015ENGLISH.pdf |access-date=20 October 2021 |website=] |page=29 |quote=He added that IS was benefiting from the presence of civilians in these areas, and using them to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.}}</ref>
⚫ In 2011, some Yazidi activists voiced their "concern over forced assimilation into Kurdish identity". Some have accused the Kurdish and Iraqi parties of diverting US $12 million of reconstruction funds allocated for Yazidi areas in ] to a Kurdish village and marginalizing them politically. According to Sweden-based economist David Ghanim, the goal of some tactics of the KRG had been to push ] and ] communities to identify as ], which has been strongly denied by KRG authorities. He also claimed that the Kurdish authorities are working to impose Kurdish identity on the Yazidis and the Shabaks.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghanim|first1=David|title=Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ076ls9unQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Iraq%27s+Dysfunctional+Democracy&hl=tr&sa=X&ei=qsHsU9n8I4rmyQPLs4DYCg&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Iraq's%20Dysfunctional%20Democracy&f=false}}</ref> Assyrian politicians of some towns have been replaced with Kurdish ones.<ref name="aina.org1">{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/news/20140614185547.htm|title=Assyrian, Yezidi and Shabak Villages Are Now Under Kurdish Control in North Iraq|publisher=|accessdate=23 April 2016}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|Kurdistan
}}
*] *]
*] *]
*] *]
*] *]
*] by David McDowall


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


==General References== ==General references==
* "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003" * "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003"
*Park, Bill, ''The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq'' The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held" *Park, Bill, ''The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq'' The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held"
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Latest revision as of 07:20, 10 January 2025

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (January 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Adoption of Kurdish culture or language
  Part of a series on

Kurdish history and Kurdish culture
People
Population
  • Homeland
History

Ancient

Karduchian dynasties

Corduene
Zabdicene
Cyrtians
Moxoene

Medieval

Modern
Culture
Languages
Religion

Kurdification is a cultural change in which people, territory, or language gradually become Kurdish. Historically, Kurdification has happened naturally, as in Turkish Kurdistan, or as a deliberate government policy (as in Iraqi Kurdistan after 2003 invasion of Iraq).

The notion of Kurdification is different from country to country. In Turkish Kurdistan, many ethnic Armenians had Kurdified after converting to Islam, while many ethnic Bulgarians, Circassians, Chechens, Ingushs, and Ossetians were Kurdified as a result of fleeing to the region and having subsequently assimilated to the Kurdish culture and language.

Turkey

Caucasian refugees (1860s–1910s)

Main article: Chechen Kurds

When refugees from Caucasus reached the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople decided not to settle these in Kurdistan due to the extreme poverty and lack of material resources for the refugees. Yet after some time, the Ottomans started seeing the refugees as a chance to diminish the Kurdish claim to the region and allowed the refugees to settle in the region. In 1862, Circassian refugees from the Shapsug tribe arrived in the Kurdish areas of Ahlat and Adilcevaz and settled in the three Kurdish villages of Yoğurtyemez, Xanik (Çukurtarla), Develik and founded the village of Koxiş (Yolçatı).

The first big wave of Caucasian refugees to Kurdistan was in 1864 when 15,000 to 20,000 refugees settled in Sarıkamış, founding new villages and settling in abandoned Greek and Armenian villages. The largest group of refugees were Circassias who fled the Circassia region (part of the Russian Empire) during the ethnic cleansing of Circassians. Concurrently with the Circassian migration, Ossetians settled in the villages of Xulik (Otluyazı) and Ağcaviran (Akçaören) in Ahlat. According to the Russian intelligence officer Aleksandr Kolyubakin, no less than 1,500 Ossetians lived in the Sanjak of Muş in the late 1880s.

Chechens and Ingushs mostly settled in Varto area, in the villages of Arincik (Kıyıbaşı), Çarbuhur (Bağiçi), Tepeköy, Artet (Serinova), Ulusırt and Arinç (Çöğürlü).

From early stage on, these Caucasians went through a process of Kurdification and thereby had Kurdish as their mother tongue.

Urbanization of Kurds

With the departure of non-Muslim populations of many cities in regions with significant Kurdish population, the native urban Muslim populations also migrated to cities such as Gaziantep, İzmir, Adana, Ankara, and Istanbul. The tractorization in rural Kurdish communities during the 1950s and the later abandonment of villages due to the Kurdish-Turkish conflict caused many Kurds to migrate to nearby cities that were losing their native population such as Diyarbakır but also to distant cities like Mersin, either mostly or partially Kurdifying the ethnic makeup. The aim of the resettlements and depopulation of the Kurdish population from villages to the cities were the Turkification of the Kurdish population or according to İsmail Beşikçi the destruction of the Kurdish nation.

Iraq

Shabaks

On 21 August 2006, Shabak Democratic Party leader Hunain Qaddo, proposed the creation of a separate province within the borders of the Nineveh Plain, arguing that the move was to combat the Arabization and Kurdification of Iraqi minorities. The Iraqi government voted against the proposition.

After 2011

Some Assyrians in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq complained that construction plans are "aimed at affecting a demographic change that divides Assyrian blocs". Also some Yazidis, Shabaks and Turkmens have reported that they are facing a policy of cultural and security control against them.

According to Sweden-based economist David Ghanim, the goal of some tactics of the KRG had been to push Shabak and Yazidi communities to identify as Kurds, which has been strongly denied by KRG authorities. He also claimed that the Kurdish authorities are working to impose Kurdish identity on the Yazidis and the Shabaks.

The Kurdish regional government has also been accused of trying to Kurdify other regions such as the Nineveh Plains and Kirkuk by providing financial support for Kurds who want to settle in those areas.

Kirkuk

See also: Kirkuk Massacre of 1959

While Kurdish forces held the city of Kirkuk, Kurdish authorities attempted to Kurdify the city. Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple Human Rights Watch reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process.

United Nations reports since 2006 have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture.

Iran

Karapapakhs

In West Azerbaijan, many Karapapakhs were Kurdified.

Küresunni Turks

In the southwest of Khoy, there are Kurdicized groups of Küresünni Turks.

Tilku Tribe

A group of Kurdicized Tilku Turks live around Santeh and Zagheh of Saqqez County.

Syria

During the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Democratic Forces, have been accused of Kurdification. During 2016, Fabrice Balanche reported that the PYD was aiming to connect Kobane and Afrin cantons in the Manbij area between the Euphrates River and Afrin, where Kurds represent less than a quarter of the population, believing that various Kurdification methods could help subdue a large portion of the Turkmen and Arab population. Liz Sly of the Washington Post stated:

"The Kurds formally renamed Tal Abyad with a Kurdish name, "Gire Spi", and proclaim its new identity in signs throughout the town — written in the Latin script used by Turkish Kurds but not readily understood by Syrian Kurds or Arabs. They have also unilaterally detached it from the existing Syrian province of Raqqa and made it a part of their newly formed autonomous enclave, carved from areas traditionally inhabited by Kurds but steadily encroaching also on territories that were historically Arab."

— Liz Sly, "They freed a Syrian town from ISIS. Now they have to govern it.", The Washington Post

Likewise, YPG is accused of Kurdifying the names of the villages, especially the Arab villages in Raqqa. World Council of Arameans has also accused PYD of Kurdifying the region and terrorizing the Christians.

More recently during the Syrian Civil War, many states, NGOs such as Human Rights Watch, and more than a dozen of Syrian rebel groups accused the Syrian Democratic Forces of Kurdifying traditional Arab and Turkmen lands. In 2015, Amnesty International disclosed allegations of unjustified forced displacement, demolition of homes, and the seizure and destruction of property of Arabs and Turkmens (including the destruction of entire villages in some cases) through a field research.

In a report published by the United Nations' Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic on 10 March 2017, the Commission refuted Amnesty International's reports of ethnic cleansing, stating that "'though allegations of 'ethnic cleansing' continued to be received during the period under review, the Commission found no evidence to substantiate reports that YPG or SDF forces ever targeted Arab communities on the basis of ethnicity." In interviews, YPG spokespersons acknowledged that a number of families were in fact displaced. However, they placed the number at no more than 25, and stated military necessity. They stated that the family members of terrorists maintained communications with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger. They further stated that IS was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.

See also

References

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  2. Al-Ali, Pratt, Nadje Sadig, Nicola Christine (2009). What kind of liberation?: women and the occupation of Iraq. University of California Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-520-25729-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. Preti Taneja, Minority Rights Group International (2007). Assimilation, exodus, eradication: Iraq's minority communities since 2003. Minority Rights Group International. p. 19.
  4. Outcasting Armenians: Tanzimat of the Provinces, Talin Suciyan, Path to Open, 2023, pp. 84
  5. Harmen van der Wilt. The Genocide Convention: The Legacy of 60 Years. p. 147.
  6. ^ Yeldar Barış Kalkan (2006). Çerkes halkı ve sorunları: Çerkes tarih, kültür, coğrafya ve siyasetine sınıfsal yaklaşım. p. 175.
  7. ^ Caucasian battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828–1921. Cambridge University Press. 2011-02-17. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-108-01335-2.
  8. Janet Klein (2011). The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7775-9.
  9. "Unutulmuş Ahlat Çerkesleri-1" (in Turkish). Cerkes-Fed. 16 August 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  10. Georgi Chochiev and Bekir Koç (2006). "Migrants from the North Caucasus in Eastern Anatolia: Some Notes on Their Settlement and Adaptation". Journal of Asian History. 40 (183). Harrassowitz Verlag.
  11. Anita L. P. Burdett (1998). Armenia: Political and Ethnic Boundaries 1878–1948. Archive Ed. p. 1017. ISBN 978-1-85207-955-0.
  12. ^ Anthony Gorman (2015-05-29). Diasporas of the Modern Middle East. ISBN 978-0-7486-8611-7.
  13. Çerkes fıkraları (in Turkish). University of Wisconsin – Madison. 1994. p. 10.
  14. Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012
  15. Dursun Gümüşoğlu (2008). Anadolu'da bir köy: Eskikonak : antropolojik inceleme.
  16. Yanmış, Mehmet (11 April 2017). Yakın Dönemde Kürtler: Kimlik, Din, Gelenek. eKitap Projesi & Cheapest Books. pp. 81, 82, 121. ISBN 9786059496377. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  17. ^ Jongerden, Joost (2009). "Crafting Space, Making People: The Spatial Design of Nation in Modern Turkey". European Journal of Turkish Studies.
  18. Jongerden, Joost (2009).p.2
  19. "Hizballah Cavalcade: Quwat Sahl Nīnawā: Iraq's Shia Shabak Get Their Own Militia". JIHADOLOGY: A clearinghouse for jihādī primary source material, original analysis, and translation service. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
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  22. Ghanim, David (2011-09-12). Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy. Abc-Clio. p. 34. ISBN 9780313398025.
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  29. Turkic Peoples Of The World, Margaret Bainbridge, 2013, pp. 149
  30. The most important Kurdish tribes in that region are ..., Korahsunni Kurdicized Turks, southwest of Ḵoy
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  42. Antonopoulos, Paul (15 March 2017). "UN report counters Amnesty International's claim that Kurds are ethnically cleansing in Syria". Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  43. "UN report refutes ethnic cleansing claims against Syrian Kurdish YPG, SDF". 14 March 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  44. ^ "We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria" (PDF). Amnesty International. October 2015. p. 28. Retrieved 20 October 2021. In some dangerous areas there are some specific cases that are very small, resulting from the terrorist threat, where families were sent away from the area ... Only 25 families were forced to leave across Rojava ... (They are told) 'Folks, remove your things please, and if you leave from this area until the war ends it will be a good thing ...' You have terrorists in al-Raqqa and their families – the uncle, and brother, and sister – are here, and they are in communication, giving them information. We were forced to distance these families. Not detain them. Distance them. Take them outside of the area.
  45. "We had nowhere else to go, Forced displacement and demolition in northern Syria" (PDF). Amnesty International. October 2015. p. 29. Retrieved 20 October 2021. He added that IS was benefiting from the presence of civilians in these areas, and using them to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG.

General references

  • A. Bazzaz, turkmen.nl "The Kurdification procedure was soon implemented by the Kurdish leadership after toppling Saddam down in April 2003"
  • Park, Bill, The Kurds and post-Saddam political arrangements in Iraq The Adelphi Papers (2005), Taylor & Francis: "The Kurds, who are intent on the further ‘Kurdification’ of Kirkuk before any census is held"
  • Park, Bill, Iraqi scenarios, The Adelphi Papers, Volume 45, Number 374, May 2005, pp. 49–66
  • PKK Iran - Strategic Comments, 2004 - informaworld.com "recent months Turkish intelligence has begun to report Turcoman frustration with Ankara’s failure to prevent the increasing ‘Kurdification’ of northern Iraq"
Cultural assimilation
Assimilation by religions
Assimilation by writings
Opposite trends
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