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	{{~~short~~ description\|~~Austro-Asiatic~~ ~~language~~ ~~spoken~~ ~~in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal~~}}		{{Short description\|Language of South Asia}}
	{{EngvarB\|date=February ~~2017~~}}		{{EngvarB\|date=February 2020}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=~~February~~ ~~2017~~}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2023}}
	~~{{Unreliable sources\|date=December 2019}}~~{{Infobox language		{{Infobox language
	\| name = Santali		\| name = Santali
	\| nativename = ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ		\| nativename = ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ
	\| states = ], ]		\| states = ], ], ]
	\| ethnicity = ]		\| ethnicity = ]
	\| speakers = {{sigfig\|7.645\|2}} million<!--7.~~368M~~ all varieties in India 2011 census, 49k Nepal 2011 census, 225k + 3k Mahali in Bangladesh 2011-->		\| speakers = {{sigfig\|7.645\|2}} million<!--7.368 M all varieties in India 2011 census, 49k Nepal 2011 census, 225k + 3k Mahali in Bangladesh 2011-->
	\| date = 2011 census<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html\|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011\|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India\|website=www.censusindia.gov.in\|access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref>		\| date = 2011 census<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html\|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011\|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India\|website=www.censusindia.gov.in\|access-date=7 July 2018\|archive-date=16 July 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716072837/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html\|url-status=live}}</ref>
	\| ref = e21		\| ref = e21
	\| image = Santali written in Ol Chiki script.svg		\| image = Santali written in Ol Chiki script.svg
			\| imagescale =
	\| imagesize = 200px
	\| imagecaption = The word "Santali" in ]		\| imagecaption = The word ''Santali'' in Ol Chiki script
	\| familycolor = Austroasiatic		\| familycolor = Austroasiatic
	\| fam2 = ]		\| fam2 = ]
	\| fam3 = ]		\| fam3 = East
	\| fam4 = ]		\| fam4 = Kherwarian
			\| fam5 = Santal
	\| dia1 = Mahali (Mahli)
			\| dia1 = Mahali (Mahili)
	\| script = ], ], ]<ref>http://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/sat/</ref>, ], ]
			\| dia2 = Kamari-Santali
	\| nation = {{flag\|India}}
			\| dia3 = Khole
	\| iso2 = sat
			\| dia4 = Lohari-Santali
	\| lc1 = sat
			\| dia5 = Manjhi
	\| ld1 = Santali
			\| dia6 = Paharia
	\| lc2 = mjx
			\| script = *] (official)<ref>{{cite web \|title=P and AR & e-Governance Dept. \|url=http://wbpar.gov.in/writereaddata/Issue%20of%20Gazette%20Notification%20issued%20on%2027.02.2014.pdf \|website=wbpar.gov.in \|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref><br />
	\| ld2 = Mahali
			*]<ref>{{Cite web\| url=http://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/sat/\| title=Redirected\| date=19 November 2019\| access-date=9 May 2019\| archive-date=9 May 2019\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509014159/http://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/sat/\| url-status=live}}</ref>
	\| glotto = sant1410
			*]
	\| glottoname = Santali
			*]
	\| glotto2 = maha1291
			*]
	\| glottoname2 = Mahali
			\| nation = *]
			**] (additional)
			**] (additional)
			\| iso2 = sat
			\| lc1 = sat
			\| ld1 = Santali
			\| lc2 = mjx
			\| ld2 = Mahali
			\| glotto = sant1410
			\| glottoname = Santali
			\| glotto2 = maha1291
			\| glottoname2 = Mahali
			\| map = File:Santali official in India.svg
			\| mapcaption = States where Santali is additional official language — ] and ]
			\|map2 = File:Munda_languages_map.svg
			\|mapcaption2 = Distribution map of Santali language and other Munda languages
	}}		}}

	]- A girl speaking Santali.]]		]
			]
			'''Santali''' ({{IPA-all\|santaɽi\|Pronounced:\|lang=sat}}, {{Langx\|sat\|ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ\|label=]}}, {{Langx\|bn\|সাঁওতালী\|label=]}}, {{Langx\|or\|ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ\|label=]}}, {{Langx\|hi\|संताली\|label=]}}), also known as '''Santal''' or '''Santhali''', is the most widely-spoken language of the ] subfamily of the ], related to ] and ], spoken mainly in the Indian states of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]<ref name="e18"/> by ]. It is a recognised regional language of India as per the ] of the Indian Constitution.<ref name="2001census" /> It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in ], ], ] and ], making it the third most-spoken ] language after ] and ].{{Infobox language/ref\|e18\|lc1=sat\|ld1=Santali\|lc2=mjx\|ld2=Mahali\|refname=}}

			Santali was a mainly oral language until developments were made by European missionaries to write it in ], ] and Roman scripts. Eventually, the ] was developed by ] in 1925. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts, and is now widely used to write Santali in India.
	'''Santali''' (]: {{Lang\|sat\|ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ}}), also known as '''Santhali''', is the most widely-spoken language of the ] subfamily of the ], related to ] and ], spoken mainly in the Indian states of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="e18"/> It is a recognized regional language of India per the ] of the Indian Constitution.<ref name="2001census" /> It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in ], ], ] and ], making it the third most-spoken ] language after ] and ].{{Infobox language/ref\|e18\|lc1=sat\|ld1=Santhali\|lc2=mjx\|ld2=Mahali\|refname=}}

	Santali was a mainly oral language until the development of ] by Pandit ] in 1925. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts, and is now widely used to write Santali in India.

	==History==		==History==
	According to linguist ], ] probably arrived on coast of ] from ] about 4000–3500 years ago after ] to Odisha.<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2018. . Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May ~~22,~~ 2018.</ref>		According to linguist ], ] probably arrived on the coast of ] from ] about 4000–3500 years ago, and spread after the ] to ].<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2018. . {{webarchive \|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522203539/https://www.academia.edu/36689736/Austroasiatic_Studies_state_of_the_art_in_2018 \|date=22 May 2018}} Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, 22 May 2018.</ref>

	Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no ] and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the ] led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. ], ] and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, ] and ]. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.		Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no ] and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the ] led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. ], ] and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, ] and ]. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.

	The ] was created for Santali by ] poet ] in 1925 and first ~~publicized~~ in 1939.<ref name="Hembram">{{cite book\|last1=Hembram\|first1=Phatik Chandra\|title=Santhali, a Natural Language\|date=2002\|publisher=U. Hembram\|page=165\|url=https://books.google.~~co.uk~~/books?id=XIlkAAAAMAAJ\|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kundu94">{{cite book\|last1=Kundu\|first1=Manmatha\|title=Tribal Education, New Perspectives\|date=1994\|publisher=Gyan Publishing House\|isbn=9788121204477\|page=37\|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8EJLAAAAYAAJ\|language=en}}</ref>		The ] was created for Santali by ] poet ] in 1925 and first publicised in 1939.<ref name="Hembram">{{cite book\|last1=Hembram\|first1=Phatik Chandra\|title=Santhali, a Natural Language\|date=2002\|publisher=U. Hembram\|page=165\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIlkAAAAMAAJ\|language=en}}</ref>

	Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.<ref name="scriptsource">{{cite web \|url=http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Olck \|title=Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali) \|website=Scriptsource.org \|~~accessdate~~=19 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="andovar">{{cite web \|url=http://www.andovar.com/resource-center/languages/santali-localization/ \|title=Santali Localization \|website=Andovar.com \|~~accessdate~~=19 March 2015}}</ref> However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.		Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in ], ], and ], Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.<ref name="scriptsource">{{cite web \|url=http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Olck \|title=Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali) \|website=Scriptsource.org \|access-date=19 March 2015 \|archive-date=27 November 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127020321/http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Olck \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="andovar">{{cite web\|url=http://www.andovar.com/resource-center/languages/santali-localization/\|title=Santali Localization\|website=Andovar.com\|access-date=19 March 2015\|archive-date=17 March 2016\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317004624/http://www.andovar.com/resource-center/languages/santali-localization/\|url-status=live}}</ref> However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.{{Dubious\|date=July 2024\|reason=As far as I know, it is actually the Latin script that is more common in Bangladesh for the Santali language, but I might be wrong. In any case, this requires a reference. --Amire80 / Amir E. Aharoni}}

			Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the ] decided to introduce the language in the ] to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.ugcnetonline.in/Subject_Code_95.pdf \|title=Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013 \|access-date=4 January 2020 \|archive-date=6 November 2018 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106223817/https://ugcnetonline.in/Subject_Code_95.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref>

	== Geographic distribution ==		== Geographic distribution ==
	{{Update section\|date=December 2019}}
	The highest concentrations of Santali speakers are in the ] and ] districts of southeastern ]; ] and ] districts of ]; ], ], ], ], and ] districts of ]; and in the ] and ] districts of ]. Santali speakers are also in ], ], and ] states.<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat</ref><ref name="ht">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/santhali-becomes-india-s-first-tribal-language-to-get-own-wikipedia-edition/story-fUP5LRZI0lEBlVGNCjW5cK.html\|title=Santhali becomes India’s first tribal language to get own Misplaced Pages edition\|date=2018-08-09\|work=Hindustan Times\|language=en\|access-date=2019-02-22}}</ref>

			{{Pie chart
	Santali is spoken by over seven million people across ], ], ], and ].<ref name="e18"/> Most of its speakers live in India, the 2001 census listing 6,469,600 speakers in the states of ] (2.8 million), ] (2.2 million), ] (0.70 million), ] (0.39 million), ] (0.24 million), and a few thousand in each of ], ] and ].
			\|caption=Distribution of Santali language in the states of India<ref>{{cite web\|title=C-16: Population by mother tongue, India - 2011 \|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10191/download/13303/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0000.XLSX \|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>
			\|value1 = 44.4
			\|label1 = Jharkhand
			\|value2 = 33
			\|label2 = West Bengal
			\|value3 = 11.7
			\|label3 = Odisha
			\|value4 = 6.2
			\|label4 = Bihar
			\|value5 = 2.9
			\|label5 = Assam
			\|value6 = 1.4
			\|label6 = Maharashtra
			\|value7 = 0.2
			\|label7 = Chhattisgarh
			\|value8 = 0.1
			\|label8 = Tripura
			\|other = yes
			\|other-label = Other states
			\|other-color = orange
			\|footer =
			}}
			]

			Santali is spoken by over seven million people across ], ], ], and ], with India being its native country and having the largest number of speakers.<ref name="e18" /> According to ], India has a total of 7,368,192 Santali speakers (including 358,579 ], 26,399 ]).<ref>{{cite web \|title=SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011 \|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-4.pdf \|website=census.gov.in \|access-date=17 December 2019 \|archive-date=9 October 2022 \|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Language-2011/Statement-4.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=ABSTRACT OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH OF LANGUAGES AND MOTHER TONGUES - 2011 \|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf \|website=census.gov.in \|access-date=17 December 2019 \|archive-date=14 November 2018 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073412/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> State wise distribution is ] (2.75 million), ] (2.43 million), ] (0.86 million), ] (0.46 million), ] (0.21 million) and a few thousand in each of ], and in ] states ], ], ].<ref>{{cite web \|title=PART-A: DISTRIBUTION OF THE 22 SCHEDULED LANGUAGES-INDIA/STATES/UNION TERRITORIES - 2011 CENSUS \|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf \|website=census.gov.in \|access-date=17 December 2019 \|archive-date=15 April 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415174433/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref>

			The highest concentrations of Santali language speakers are in ], as well as ] and ] districts of ], the ] region of ] (], ] and ] districts) and ] of ].

			Smaller pockets of Santali language speakers are found in the northern ] plateau (], ], ], ] and ] districts), ] and ] districts of Odisha, and throughout western and northern ] (], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] districts), ] and ] of Bihar (], ], ] and ] districts), and tea-garden regions of Assam (], ], ] and ] districts). Outside India, the language is spoken in pockets of ] and ] divisions of northern Bangladesh as well as the ] and ] districts in the ] of ] in ].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat\|title=Santhali\|website=Ethnologue\|access-date=4 January 2020\|archive-date=25 May 2020\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525220301/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ht">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/santhali-becomes-india-s-first-tribal-language-to-get-own-wikipedia-edition/story-fUP5LRZI0lEBlVGNCjW5cK.html\|title=Santhali becomes India's first tribal language to get own Misplaced Pages edition\|date=9 August 2018\|work=Hindustan Times\|language=en\|access-date=22 February 2019\|archive-date=22 February 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222174300/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/santhali-becomes-india-s-first-tribal-language-to-get-own-wikipedia-edition/story-fUP5LRZI0lEBlVGNCjW5cK.html\|url-status=live}}</ref>

	=== Official status ===		=== Official status ===
	Santali is one of India's 22 scheduled languages.<ref name="2001census">{{cite web\|title=Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages \|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/parta.htm\|website=censusindia.gov.in \|publisher=Census of India\|date=20 May 2013}}</ref> It is also ~~recognized~~ as the ~~second~~ ~~state~~ language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Second language \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/second-official-language-of-jharkhand-governor-syed-ahmad-143959-2011-10-22 \|~~accessdate~~=5 November 2019 \|work=India Today \|date=22 October 2011 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=Roy \|first1=Anirban \|title=West Bengal to have six more languages for official use \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/story/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-languages-134507-2011-05-27 \|~~accessdate~~=5 November 2019 \|work=India Today \|date=27 May 2011 \|language=en}}</ref>		Santali is one of India's ].<ref name="2001census">{{cite web\|title=Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages\|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/parta.htm\|website=censusindia.gov.in\|publisher=Census of India\|date=20 May 2013\|access-date=26 February 2018\|archive-date=7 February 2013\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207163538/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/parta.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also recognised as the additional official language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Second language \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/second-official-language-of-jharkhand-governor-syed-ahmad-143959-2011-10-22 \|access-date=5 November 2019 \|work=India Today \|date=22 October 2011 \|language=en \|archive-date=14 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214083406/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/second-official-language-of-jharkhand-governor-syed-ahmad-143959-2011-10-22 \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=Roy \|first1=Anirban \|title=West Bengal to have six more languages for official use \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/story/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-languages-134507-2011-05-27 \|access-date=5 November 2019 \|work=India Today \|date=27 May 2011 \|language=en \|archive-date=6 March 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306100207/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/story/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-languages-134507-2011-05-26 \|url-status=live }}</ref>

	=== Dialects ===		=== Dialects ===
	Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, ~~Karmali (~~Khole), Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.<ref name="e18"/><ref>{{cite web\|title=Glottolog 3.2 – Santali\|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sant1410\|website=glottolog.org\|language=en}}</ref><ref name="GRN">{{cite web\|title=Santali: Paharia language\|url=http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/16318\|website=Global recordings network\|~~accessdate~~=26 February 2018\|language=en}}</ref>		Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Khole, Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.<ref name="e18"/><ref>{{cite web\|title=Glottolog 3.2 – Santali\|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sant1410\|website=glottolog.org\|language=en\|access-date=26 February 2018\|archive-date=9 July 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709154251/http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sant1410\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="GRN">{{cite web\|title=Santali: Paharia language\|url=http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/16318\|website=Global recordings network\|access-date=26 February 2018\|language=en\|archive-date=3 December 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203202736/http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/16318\|url-status=live}}</ref>

	== Phonology ==		== Phonology ==
Line 74:		Line 119:
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]		! colspan="2" \| ]
	\| {{IPA\|m}}		\| {{IPA link\|m}}
	\| {{IPA\|n}}		\| {{IPA link\|n}}
	\| ({{IPA\|ɳ}})*		\| ({{IPA link\|ɳ}})*
	\| {{IPA\|ɲ}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɲ}}
	\| {{IPA\|ŋ}}		\| {{IPA link\|ŋ}}
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \| ]		! rowspan="2" \| ]
	! {{small\|]}}		! {{small\|]}}
	\| {{IPA\|p (pʰ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|p}} ({{IPA link\|pʰ}})
	\| {{IPA\|t (tʰ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|t}} ({{IPA link\|tʰ}})
	\| {{IPA\|ʈ (ʈʰ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|ʈ}} ({{IPA link\|ʈʰ}})
	\| {{IPA\|c (cʰ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|c}} ({{IPA link\|cʰ}})
	\| {{IPA\|k}}		\| {{IPA link\|k}} ({{IPA link\|kʰ}})
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! {{small\|]}}		! {{small\|]}}
	\| {{IPA\|b (bʱ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|b}} ({{IPA link\|bʱ}})
	\| {{IPA\|d (dʱ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|d}} ({{IPA link\|dʱ}})
	\| {{IPA\|ɖ (ɖʱ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɖ}} ({{IPA link\|ɖʱ}})
	\| {{IPA\|ɟ (ɟʱ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɟ}} ({{IPA link\|ɟʱ}})
	\| {{IPA\|ɡ (ɡʱ)}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɡ}} ({{IPA link\|ɡʱ}})
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]		! colspan="2" \| ]
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|s}}		\| {{IPA link\|s}}
	\|		\|
	\|		\|
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|h}}		\| {{IPA link\|h}}
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]		! colspan="2" \| ]/]
	\|
	\| {{IPA\|r}}
	\|		\|
			\| {{IPA link\|r}}
			\| {{IPA link\|ɽ}}
	\|		\|
	\|		\|
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]		! colspan="2" \| ]
			\| {{IPA link\|w}}
			\| {{IPA link\|l}}
	\|		\|
			\| {{IPA link\|j}}
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|ɽ}}
	\|		\|
	\|
	\|
	\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]
	\|
	\| {{IPA\|l}}
	\|
	\|
	\|
	\|
	\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ]
	\| {{IPA\|w}}
	\|
	\|
	\| {{IPA\|j}}
	\|
	\|
	\|-
	\|}		\|}
	:<small>*{{IPA\|ɳ}} only appears as an allophone of {{IPA\|/n/}} before {{IPA\|/ɖ/}}.</small>		:<small>*{{IPA link\|ɳ}} only appears as an allophone of /{{IPA link\|n}}</small>/ <small>before /{{IPA link\|ɖ}}</small>/<small>.</small>

	In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.		In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.

	=== Vowels ===		=== Vowels ===
	Santali has eight ~~non-nasal~~ and six ]s.		Santali has eight oral and six ] vowel phonemes. With the exception of /e o/, all oral vowels have a nasalized counterpart.

	{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"		{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Line 154:		Line 182:
	\|-		\|-
	! ]		! ]
	\| {{IPA\|i ĩ}}		\| {{IPA link\|i}} {{IPA link\|ĩ}}
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|u ũ}}		\| {{IPA link\|u ũ}}
	\|-		\|-
	! ]		! ]
	\| {{IPA\|e}}		\| {{IPA link\|e}}
	\| {{IPA\|ə ə̃}}		\| {{IPA link\|ə}} {{IPA link\|ə̃}}
	\| {{IPA\|o}}		\| {{IPA link\|o}}
	\|-		\|-
	! ]		! ]
	\| {{IPA\|ɛ ɛ̃}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɛ}} {{IPA link\|ɛ̃}}
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|ɔ ɔ̃}}		\| {{IPA link\|ɔ}} {{IPA link\|ɔ̃}}
	\|-		\|-
	! ]		! ]
	\|		\|
	\| {{IPA\|a ã}}		\| {{IPA link\|a}} {{IPA link\|ã}}
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
Line 178:		Line 206:

	== Morphology ==		== Morphology ==
	Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing ].		Santali, like all ] languages, is a suffixing ].

	=== Nouns ===		=== Nouns ===
			Nouns are inflected for number and case.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=32}}

	==== Number ====		==== Number ====
	Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.		Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|pp=32–33}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
	! Singular		! Singular
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱥᱮᱛᱟ}} (seta)
	\| seta.
	\| 'dog'		\| 'dog'
	\|-		\|-
	! Dual		! Dual
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼ'''ᱠᱤᱱ'''}}(seta-ken)
	\| seta-'''bariya''', '''setakin'''
	\| 'two dogs'		\| 'two dogs'
	\|-		\|-
	! Plural		! Plural
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼ'''ᱠᱚ'''}}(seta-kɔ)
	\| seta-'''ko'''
	\| 'dogs'		\| 'dogs'
	\|-
	\|}		\|}

	==== Case ====		==== Case ====
	The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:		The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|pp=34–38}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
Line 210:		Line 238:
	! Function		! Function
	\|-		\|-
	! Nominative		! ]
	\| -Ø		\| -Ø
	\| Subject and object		\| Subject and object
	\|-		\|-
	! Genitive		! ]
	\| ~~-rɛn~~ (animate)<br>~~-ak'~~, ~~-rɛak'~~ (inanimate)		\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱨᱮᱱ}} (animate)<br/>{{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱟᱜ}}, {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱨᱮᱭᱟᱜ}} (inanimate)
	\| Possessor		\| Possessor
	\|-		\|-
	! Comitative		! Comitative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱴᱷᱮᱱ}}/ {{lang\|sat\|-ᱴᱷᱮᱡ}}
	\| -ʈhɛn/-ʈhɛc'
	\| ~~goal~~, place		\| Goal, place
	\|-		\|-
	! Instrumental-Locative		! Instrumental-Locative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱛᱮ}}
	\| -tɛ
	\| Instrument, cause, motion		\| Instrument, cause, motion
	\|-		\|-
	! Sociative		! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱥᱟᱶ}}
	\| -são
	\| Association		\| Association
	\|-		\|-
	! Allative		! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱥᱮᱱ}}/{{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱥᱮᱡ}}
	\| -sɛn/-sɛc'
	\| Direction		\| Direction
	\|-		\|-
	! Ablative		! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱱ}}/{{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱡ}}
	\| -khɔn/-khɔc'
	\| Source, origin		\| Source, origin
	\|-		\|-
	! Locative		! Locative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ᱼᱨᱮ}}
	\| -rɛ
	\| Spatio-temporal location		\| Spatio-temporal location
			\|}

			Transcript version:
			{\| class="wikitable"
			\|-
			! Case
			! Marker
			! Function
			\|-
			! ]
			\| -Ø
			\| Subject and object
	\|-		\|-
			! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-rɛn}} (animate)<br/>{{lang\|sat\|-ak'}}, {{lang\|sat\|-rɛak'}} (inanimate)
			\| Possessor
			\|-
			! Comitative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-ʈhɛn}}/{{lang\|sat\|-ʈhɛc'}}
			\| Goal, place
			\|-
			! Instrumental-Locative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-tɛ}}
			\| Instrument, cause, motion
			\|-
			! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-são}}
			\| Association
			\|-
			! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-sɛn}}/{{lang\|sat\|-sɛc'}}
			\| Direction
			\|-
			! ]
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-khɔn}}/{{lang\|sat\|-khɔc'}}
			\| Source, origin
			\|-
			! Locative
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-rɛ}}
			\| Spatio-temporal location
	\|}		\|}

	==== Possession ====		==== Possession ====
	Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person '''-ɲ''', 2nd person '''-m''', 3rd person '''-t'''. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.		Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person ''-ɲ'', 2nd person ''-m'', 3rd person ''-t''. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=38}}

	=== Pronouns ===		=== Pronouns ===
	The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.		The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=41}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
			\|+ Personal pronouns
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~ ~~		! colspan="2" \|
	! Singular		! Singular
	! Dual		! Dual
	! Plural		! Plural
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \| ~~First~~ person		! rowspan="2" \| 1st person
			! exclusive
	! Exclusive
			\| rowspan="2" \| {{lang\|sat\|iɲ}}
	\| iń
			\| {{lang\|sat\|əliɲ}}
	\| ɘliɲ
	\| alɛ		\| {{lang\|sat\|alɛ}}
	\|-		\|-
			! inclusive
	! Inclusive
			\| {{lang\|sat\|alaŋ}}
	\|
			\| {{lang\|sat\|abo}}
	\| alaṅ
	\| abo
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~Second~~ person		! colspan="2" \| 2nd person
	\| am		\| {{lang\|sat\|am}}
	\| aben		\| {{lang\|sat\|aben}}
	\| apɛ		\| {{lang\|sat\|apɛ}}
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \| ~~Third~~ person		! rowspan="2" \| 3rd person
	! Anaphoric		! Anaphoric
	\| ac'		\| {{lang\|sat\|ac'}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|əkin}}
	\| ɘkin
	\| ako		\| {{lang\|sat\|ako}}
	\|-		\|-
	! Demonstrative		! Demonstrative
	\| uni		\| {{lang\|sat\|uni}}
	\| unkin		\| {{lang\|sat\|unkin}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|onko}}
	\| oṅko
	\|-
	\|}		\|}

	The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.		The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=43}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
			\|+ Interrogative pronouns
	\|-		\|-
			!
	!
	! Animate		! Animate
	! Inanimate		! Inanimate
	\|-		\|-
	! Referential		! Referential
	\| ɔkɔe		\| {{lang\|sat\|ɔkɔe}}
	\| oka		\| {{lang\|sat\|oka}}
	\|-		\|-
	! Non-referential		! Non-referential
	\| cele		\| {{lang\|sat\|cele}}
	\| cet'		\| {{lang\|sat\|cet'}}
	\|-
	\|}		\|}

	The indefinite pronouns are:		The indefinite pronouns are:{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=44}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
			\|+ Indefinite pronouns
	\|-		\|-
	!		!
Line 313:		Line 380:
	\|-		\|-
	\| 'any'		\| 'any'
	\| jãheã		\| {{lang\|sat\|jãheã}}
	\| jãhã		\| {{lang\|sat\|jãhã}}
	\|-		\|-
	\| 'some'		\| 'some'
	\| adɔm		\| {{lang\|sat\|adɔm}}
	\| adɔmak		\| {{lang\|sat\|adɔmak}}
	\|-		\|-
	\| 'another'		\| 'another'
	\| ɛʈak'ic'		\| {{lang\|sat\|ɛʈak'ic'}}
	\| ɛʈak'ak'		\| {{lang\|sat\|ɛʈak'ak'}}
	\|-
	\|}		\|}

	The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.		The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=45}}

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
			\|+ Demonstratives
	\|-		\|-
			! rowspan="2" \|
	! Simple
			! colspan="2" \| Simple
	! Animate
			! colspan="2" \| Particular
	! Inanimate
	\|-		\|-
			! Animate \|\| Inanimate
	! Proximate
			! Animate \|\| Inanimate
	\| nui
	\| noa
	\|-
	! Distal
	\| uni
	\| ona
	\|-
	! Remote
	\| həni
	\| hana
	\|-
	\|}

	{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-
	! Particular
	! Animate
	! Inanimate
	\|-		\|-
	! Proximate		! Proximate
			\| {{lang\|sat\|nui}}
	\| nii
			\| {{lang\|sat\|noa}}
	\| niə
			\| {{lang\|sat\|nii}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|niə}}
	\|-		\|-
	! Distal		! Distal
			\| {{lang\|sat\|uni}}
	\| ini
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ona}}
	\| inə
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ini}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|inə}}
	\|-		\|-
	! Remote		! Remote
			\| {{lang\|sat\|həni}}
	\| enko
			\| {{lang\|sat\|hana}}
	\| inəko
			\| {{lang\|sat\|hini}}
	\|-
			\| {{lang\|sat\|hinə}}
	\|}		\|}

			=== Numerals ===
	'''Numbers'''
			The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/Santali.htm \|title=Santali \|publisher=The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany) \|date=2001 \|access-date=27 November 2017 \|archive-date=1 December 2017 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040627/https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/Santali.htm \|url-status=dead }}</ref> are:
	{\| class="wikitable"

			{\| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;"
	\|-		\|-
			! 1
	! Number !! Word
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱢᱤᱫ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|mit'}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 2
	\| 1\|\|ᱢᱤᱫ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱵᱟᱨ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|bar}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 3
	\| 2\|\|ᱵᱟᱨ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱯᱮ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|pɛ}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 4
	\| 3\|\|ᱯᱮ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱯᱩᱱ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|pon}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 5
	\| 4\|\|ᱯᱳᱱ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱢᱚᱬᱮ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|mɔ̃ɽɛ̃}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 6
	\| 5\|\|ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|turui}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 7
	\| 6\|\|ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱮᱭᱟᱭ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|ɛyae}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 8
	\| 7\|\|ᱮᱭᱟᱭ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|irəl}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 9
	\| 8\|\|ᱤᱨᱟ.ᱞ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱟᱨᱮ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|arɛ}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 10
	\| 9\|\|ᱟᱨᱮ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱜᱮᱞ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|gɛl}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 20
	\| 10\|\|ᱜᱮᱞ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱤᱥᱤ}}
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-isi}}
	\|-		\|-
			! 100
	\| 11\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱢᱤᱫ
			\| {{wikt-lang\|sat\|ᱥᱟᱭ}}
	\|-
			\| {{lang\|sat\|-sae}}
	\| 12\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱵᱟᱨ
	\|-
	\| 13\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱯᱮ
	\|-
	\| 14\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱯᱳᱱ
	\|-
	\| 15\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ
	\|-
	\| 16\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ
	\|-
	\| 17\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱮᱭᱟᱭ
	\|-
	\| 18\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱤᱨᱟ.ᱞ
	\|-
	\| 19\|\| ᱜᱮᱞ ᱟᱨᱮ
	\|-
	\| 20\|\| ᱵᱟᱨ ᱜᱮᱞ
	\|-
	\|50
	\|ᱢᱚᱬᱮᱸ ᱜᱮᱞ
	\|-
	\|100
	\|ᱢᱤᱫ ᱥᱟᱮ
	\|-
	\|1000
	\|ᱢᱤᱫ ᱦᱟᱡᱟᱨ
	\|-
	\|10,000
	\|ᱜᱮᱞ ᱦᱟᱡᱟᱨ
	\|}		\|}

			The numerals are used with ]s. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. ''babar'' 'two each'.
	=== Numerals ===
	The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/Santali.htm \|title= Santali\|publisher=The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany) \|date= 2001\|accessdate=27 November 2017}}</ref> are:

			Numbers basically follow a ] pattern. Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by addition, "gel" ('10') followed by the single-digit number (1 through 9). Multiples of ten are formed by multiplication: the single-digit number (2 through 9) is followed by "gel" ('10'). Some numbers are part of a base-20 number system. 20 can be "bar gel" or "isi".
	{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-
	\| 1
	\| 2
	\| 3
	\| 4
	\| 5
	\| 6
	\| 7
	\| 8
	\| 9
	\| 10
	\| 20
	\| 100
	\|-
	\| ᱢᱤᱫ mit'
	\| ᱵᱟᱨ bar
	\| ᱯᱮ pɛ
	\| ᱯᱩᱱ pon
	\| ᱢᱚᱬᱮ mɔ̃ɳɛ̃
	\| ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ turui
	\| ᱮᱭᱟᱭ eae
	\| ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ irəl
	\| ᱟᱨᱮ arɛ
	\| ᱜᱮᱞ gɛl
	\| ᱤᱥᱤ isi
	\| ᱥᱟᱭ sae
	\|-
	\|}

			{{fs interlinear\|lang=sat\|indent=3
	The numerals are used with ]s. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. ''babar'' 'two each'.
			\|ᱯᱮ {} ᱜᱮᱞ { {{indent\|10}} } or { {{indent\|10}} } (ᱢᱤᱫ) {} ᱤᱥᱤ {} ᱜᱮᱞ
			\|pe {} gel {} or {} (mit’) {} isi {} gel
			\|({{no gloss\|3}} × {{no gloss\|10}}) {} or {} (({{no gloss\|1}}) × {{no gloss\|20}} + {{no gloss\|10}})
			\|30}}

	=== Verbs ===		=== Verbs ===
	Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject.		Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject and sometimes of the object.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=53ff.}}

	==== Subject markers ====		==== Subject markers ====
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~ ~~		! colspan="2" \|
			! singular
	! Singular
	! ~~Dual~~		! dual
	! ~~Plural~~		! plural
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \| ~~First~~ person		! rowspan="2" \| 1st person
			! exclusive
	! Exclusive
	\| -ɲ(iɲ)		\| rowspan="2" \| ''-ɲ(iɲ)''
	\| -liɲ		\| ''-liɲ''
	\| -lɛ		\| ''-lɛ''
	\|-		\|-
			! inclusive
	! Inclusive
			\| ''-laŋ''
	\|
	\| -~~laŋ~~		\| ''-bon''
	\| -bon
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~Second~~ person		! colspan="2" \| 2nd person
	\| -m		\| ''-m''
	\| -ben		\| ''-ben''
	\| -pɛ		\| ''-pɛ''
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~Third~~ person		! colspan="2" \| 3rd person
	\| -e		\| ''-e''
	\| -kin		\| ''-kin''
	\| -ko		\| ''-ko''
	\|-		\|-
	\|}		\|}
Line 500:		Line 525:
	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~ ~~		! colspan="2" \|
			! singular
	! Singular
	! ~~Dual~~		! dual
	! ~~Plural~~		! plural
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \| ~~First~~ person		! rowspan="2" \| 1st person
			! exclusive
	! Exclusive
	\| -iɲ-		\| rowspan="2" \| ''-iɲ-''
	\| -liɲ-		\| ''-liɲ-''
	\| -lɛ-		\| ''-lɛ-''
	\|-		\|-
			! inclusive
	! Inclusive
			\| ''-laŋ-''
	\|
	\| -~~laŋ~~-		\| ''-bon-''
	\| -bon-
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~Second~~ person		! colspan="2" \| 2nd person
	\| -me-		\| ''-me-''
	\| -ben-		\| ''-ben-''
	\| -pɛ-		\| ''-pɛ-''
	\|-		\|-
	! colspan="2" \| ~~Third~~ person		! colspan="2" \| 3rd person
	\| -e-		\| ''-e-''
	\| -kin-		\| ''-kin-''
	\| -ko-		\| ''-ko-''
	\|-		\|-
	\|}		\|}

	== ~~Syntax~~ ==		====Finiteness====
			Any finite verbs will attach ''-a'', except the imperative and in the subordinate clause.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=66}}
	Santali is an ] language, though topics can be fronted.

			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|noa-rɛak mit ʈaŋ kɘhɘni lɘi-ad-iɲ-'''a'''-e\|this-GEN one CLF story tell-APPL.PST.A-1SG.OBJ-'''FIN'''-3SG.SUBJ\|'he told me a story about this'}}
	==Influence on other languages==
	Santali, belonging to the Austroasiatic family, has retained its distinct identity and co-existed with languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan family, in Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and other states. This affiliation is generally accepted, but there are many cross-questions and puzzles.{{clarify \|date=April 2019}}

			====Causative====
	Borrowing between Santali and other Indian languages has not yet been studied fully. In modern Indian languages like Western Hindi the steps of evolution from Midland Prakrit Sauraseni could be traced clearly. In the case of ] such steps of evolution are not always clear and distinct, and one has to look at other influences that moulded Bengali's essential characteristics.{{cn\|date=June 2019}}
			There are two causative markers: ''a-'' and ''-oco''. ''-oco'' is attached on every type of verb stems, and ''a-'' is restricted to two transitive verbs ''jɔm'' ('eat') and ''ɲu'' ('drink').{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=68}}

			====Reciprocal====
	A notable work in this field was initiated by linguist ] in the 1960s. Chakrabarti investigated the complex process of assimilation of Austroasiatic family, particularly Santali elements, into Bengali. He showed the overwhelming influence of Bengali on Santali. His formulations are based on the detailed study of two-way influences on all aspects of both languages and tried to bring out the unique features of the languages. More research is awaited in this area.{{Citation needed\|date=December 2019}}
			Infix ''-pV-'' turns transitive and ditransitive verb roots into reciprocal meaning, but in many verbs it also conveys that the action is done together by two participants.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=69}}

			''dal'' ('beat') > ''dapal'' ('beat each other')
	Notable linguist ] authored the '<nowiki/>''Santali Bangla Samasabda Abhidhan''' ({{Lang\|bn\|সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান}}), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. ' ({{Lang\|bn\|বাংলা সাঁওতালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক}}) is a collection of essays in ] format authored by him and dedicated to linguist ] on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.

			''landa'' ('laugh') > ''lapanda'' ('laugh together')
	==Rising significance of Santali==

	Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the ] decided to introduce the language in the ] to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.<ref></ref>
			====Benefactive====
			The benefactive for transitive and ditransitive stems is ''-ka'' in Northern Santali dialect and ''-ka-k'' in Southern Santali. In Southern Santali, if the object is animate, the last ''-k'' will be replaced by pronominal clitics.

			''tɔl'' ('bind') > ''tɔlka'' ('to bind for somebody')

			== Syntax ==
			Santali is an ], though topics can be fronted.{{sfnp\|Ghosh\|2008\|p=74}} The subject marker may appear enclitic to the verb itself if there is no preceding word.

			{{Interlinear\|indent=3\|ir-ke-t-ta-e-a-ko\|cut-ASP-TR-POSS-3SG.OBJ-FIN-3PL.SUBJ\|'they have cut his (paddy)'}}

			==Influence on other languages==
			{{unreferenced section\|date=July 2021}}
			{{Advert section\|date=July 2022}}

			Notable linguist ] authored the ''Santali Bangla Samashabda Abhidhan<nowiki/>'' ({{Lang\|bn\|সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান}}), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. ' ({{Lang\|bn\|বাংলা সান্তালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক}}) is a collection of essays in ] format authored by him and dedicated to linguist ] on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.

	== See also ==		== See also ==
Line 553:		Line 593:
	==References==		==References==
	{{Reflist\|30em}}		{{Reflist\|30em}}

			===Works cited===
			{{Refbegin}}
			* {{cite book \|last=Ghosh \|first=Arun \|year=2008 \|chapter=Santali \|editor-last=Anderson \|editor-first=Gregory D.S. \|title=The Munda Languages \|location=London \|publisher=Routledge \|pages=11–98}}
			{{Refend}}

	==Further reading==		==Further reading==
	* ] (1992). ''A comparative study of Santali and Bengali''. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. {{ISBN\|81-7074-128-9}}		* ] (1992). ''A comparative study of Santali and Bengali''. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. {{ISBN\|81-7074-128-9}}
	* Ghosh, A. (2008). ''Santali''. In: Anderson, G. ''The Munda Languages''. London: Routledge.
	* Hansda, Kali Charan (2015). ''Fundamental of Santhal Language''. Sambalpur.		* Hansda, Kali Charan (2015). ''Fundamental of Santhal Language''. Sambalpur.
	* Hembram, P. C. (2002). ''Santali, a natural language''. New Delhi: U. Hembram.		* Hembram, P. C. (2002). ''Santali, a natural language''. New Delhi: U. Hembram.
Line 562:		Line 606:
	* Mitra, P. C. (1988). ''Santali, the base of world languages''. Calcutta: Firma KLM.		* Mitra, P. C. (1988). ''Santali, the base of world languages''. Calcutta: Firma KLM.
	* Зограф Г. А. (1960/1990). Языки Южной Азии. М.: Наука (1-е изд., 1960).		* Зограф Г. А. (1960/1990). Языки Южной Азии. М.: Наука (1-е изд., 1960).
	* Лекомцев, Ю. K. (1968). Некоторые характерные черты сантальского предложения // Языки Индии, Пакистана, Непала и Цейлона: материалы научной конференции. М: Наука, ~~311—321~~.		* Лекомцев, Ю. K. (1968). Некоторые характерные черты сантальского предложения // Языки Индии, Пакистана, Непала и Цейлона: материалы научной конференции. М: Наука, 311–321.
	* {{Linguistic Survey of India\|4}}		* {{Linguistic Survey of India\|4}}
	* Maspero, Henri. (1952). ''Les langues mounda''. Meillet A., Cohen M. (dir.), Les langues du monde, P.: CNRS.		* Maspero, Henri. (1952). ''Les langues mounda''. Meillet A., Cohen M. (dir.), Les langues du monde, P.: CNRS.
Line 575:		Line 619:
	\| year = 2011 }}		\| year = 2011 }}
	* ] (1969). ''Untersuchungen zum Bau zentral-süd-asiatischer Sprachen (ein Beitrag zur Sprachbundfrage)''. Heidelberg: J. Groos.		* ] (1969). ''Untersuchungen zum Bau zentral-süd-asiatischer Sprachen (ein Beitrag zur Sprachbundfrage)''. Heidelberg: J. Groos.
			* 2006-d. Santali. In E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.

	=== Dictionaries ===		=== Dictionaries ===
Line 599:		Line 644:
	=== Literature ===		=== Literature ===
	* Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1925) ronor : Mayurbhanj, Odisha Publisher ASECA, Mayurbhanj		* Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1925) ronor : Mayurbhanj, Odisha Publisher ASECA, Mayurbhanj
	* Bodding, Paul O., (ed.) (~~1923—1929~~) ''Santali Folk Tales''. Oslo: Institutet for sammenlingenden kulturforskning, Publikationen. Vol. I—III.		* Bodding, Paul O., (ed.) (1923–1929) ''Santali Folk Tales''. Oslo: Institutet for sammenlingenden kulturforskning, Publikationen. Vol. I—III.
	* {{Cite book		* {{Cite book
	\| last = Campbell, A.		\| last = Campbell, A.
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	==External links==		==External links==
			{{InterWiki\|code=sat}}
			{{Incubator\|mjx\|lang=Mahali}}
	*		*
	*		*
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	{{DEFAULTSORT:Santali Language}}		{{DEFAULTSORT:Santali Language}}
	]		]
	]		]
	]		]
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	]		]
	]		]
			]
	]		]
			]
			]
			]

Latest revision as of 19:46, 30 December 2024

Language of South Asia

‹ The template Infobox language is being considered for merging. ›

Santali
ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ
The word Santali in Ol Chiki script
Native to	India, Bangladesh, Nepal
Ethnicity	Santal
Native speakers	7.6 million (2011 census)
Language family	Austroasiatic Munda East Kherwarian Santal Santali
Dialects	Mahali (Mahili) Kamari-Santali Khole Lohari-Santali Manjhi Paharia
Writing system	Ol Chiki script (official) Bengali-Assamese script Odia script Devanagari Roman script
Official status
Official language in	India Jharkhand (additional) West Bengal (additional)
Language codes
ISO 639-2	`sat`
ISO 639-3	Either: `sat` – Santali `mjx` – Mahali
Glottolog	`sant1410` Santali `maha1291` Mahali
States where Santali is additional official language — Jharkhand and West Bengal
Distribution map of Santali language and other Munda languages

A girl speaking Santali.

Santali (Pronounced: [santaɽi], Ol Chiki: ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ, Bengali: সাঁওতালী, Odia: ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ, Devanagari: संताली), also known as Santal or Santhali, is the most widely-spoken language of the Munda subfamily of the Austroasiatic languages, related to Ho and Mundari, spoken mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal by Santals. It is a recognised regional language of India as per the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, making it the third most-spoken Austroasiatic language after Vietnamese and Khmer.

Santali was a mainly oral language until developments were made by European missionaries to write it in Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts. Eventually, the Ol Chiki script was developed by Raghunath Murmu in 1925. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts, and is now widely used to write Santali in India.

History

According to linguist Paul Sidwell, Munda languages probably arrived on the coast of Odisha from Indochina about 4000–3500 years ago, and spread after the Indo-Aryan migration to Odisha.

Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no written language and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the languages of India led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, Lars Skrefsrud and Paul Bodding. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.

The Ol Chiki script was created for Santali by Mayurbhanj poet Raghunath Murmu in 1925 and first publicised in 1939.

Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language. However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.

Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the University Grants Commission of India decided to introduce the language in the National Eligibility Test to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.

Geographic distribution

Distribution of Santali language in the states of India

Jharkhand (44.4%) West Bengal (33%) Odisha (11.7%) Bihar (6.2%) Assam (2.9%) Maharashtra (1.4%) Chhattisgarh (0.2%) Tripura (0.1%) Other states (0.1%)

Santali is spoken by over seven million people across India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal, with India being its native country and having the largest number of speakers. According to 2011 census, India has a total of 7,368,192 Santali speakers (including 358,579 Karmali, 26,399 Mahli). State wise distribution is Jharkhand (2.75 million), West Bengal (2.43 million), Odisha (0.86 million), Bihar (0.46 million), Assam (0.21 million) and a few thousand in each of Chhattisgarh, and in north-eastern states Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram.

The highest concentrations of Santali language speakers are in Santhal Pargana division, as well as East Singhbhum and Seraikela Kharsawan districts of Jharkhand, the Jangalmahals region of West Bengal (Jhargram, Bankura and Purulia districts) and Mayurbhanj district of Odisha.

Smaller pockets of Santali language speakers are found in the northern Chota Nagpur plateau (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Ramgarh, Bokaro and Dhanbad districts), Balesore and Kendujhar districts of Odisha, and throughout western and northern West Bengal (Birbhum, Paschim Medinipur, Hooghly, Paschim Bardhaman, Purba Bardhaman, Malda, Dakshin Dinajpur, Uttar Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts), Banka district and Purnia division of Bihar (Araria, Katihar, Purnia and Kishanganj districts), and tea-garden regions of Assam (Kokrajhar, Sonitpur, Chirang and Udalguri districts). Outside India, the language is spoken in pockets of Rangpur and Rajshahi divisions of northern Bangladesh as well as the Morang and Jhapa districts in the Terai of Koshi Province in Nepal.

Official status

Santali is one of India's 22 scheduled languages. It is also recognised as the additional official language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.

Dialects

Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Khole, Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.

Phonology

Consonants

Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur primarily, but not exclusively, in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n	(ɳ)*	ɲ	ŋ
Stop	voiceless	p (pʰ)	t (tʰ)	ʈ (ʈʰ)	c (cʰ)	k (kʰ)
Stop	voiced	b (bʱ)	d (dʱ)	ɖ (ɖʱ)	ɟ (ɟʱ)	ɡ (ɡʱ)
Fricative			s				h
Trill/Flap			r	ɽ
Approximant		w	l		j

*ɳ only appears as an allophone of /n/ before /ɖ/.

In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.

Vowels

Santali has eight oral and six nasal vowel phonemes. With the exception of /e o/, all oral vowels have a nasalized counterpart.

	Front	Central	Back
High	i ĩ		u ũ
Mid-high	e	ə ə̃	o
Mid-low	ɛ ɛ̃		ɔ ɔ̃
Low		a ã

There are numerous diphthongs.

Morphology

Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing agglutinating language.

Nouns

Nouns are inflected for number and case.

Number

Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.

Singular	ᱥᱮᱛᱟ (seta)	'dog'
Dual	ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼᱠᱤᱱ(seta-ken)	'two dogs'
Plural	ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼᱠᱚ(seta-kɔ)	'dogs'

Case

The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:

Case	Marker	Function
Nominative	-Ø	Subject and object
Genitive	ᱼᱨᱮᱱ (animate) ᱼᱟᱜ, ᱼᱨᱮᱭᱟᱜ (inanimate)	Possessor
Comitative	ᱼᱴᱷᱮᱱ/ -ᱴᱷᱮᱡ	Goal, place
Instrumental-Locative	ᱼᱛᱮ	Instrument, cause, motion
Sociative	ᱼᱥᱟᱶ	Association
Allative	ᱼᱥᱮᱱ/ᱼᱥᱮᱡ	Direction
Ablative	ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱱ/ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱡ	Source, origin
Locative	ᱼᱨᱮ	Spatio-temporal location

Transcript version:

Case	Marker	Function
Nominative	-Ø	Subject and object
Genitive	-rɛn (animate) -ak', -rɛak' (inanimate)	Possessor
Comitative	-ʈhɛn/-ʈhɛc'	Goal, place
Instrumental-Locative	-tɛ	Instrument, cause, motion
Sociative	-são	Association
Allative	-sɛn/-sɛc'	Direction
Ablative	-khɔn/-khɔc'	Source, origin
Locative	-rɛ	Spatio-temporal location

Possession

Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person -ɲ, 2nd person -m, 3rd person -t. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.

Pronouns

The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.

Personal pronouns
		Singular	Dual	Plural
1st person	exclusive	iɲ	əliɲ	alɛ
1st person	inclusive	iɲ	alaŋ	abo
2nd person		am	aben	apɛ
3rd person	Anaphoric	ac'	əkin	ako
3rd person	Demonstrative	uni	unkin	onko

The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.

Interrogative pronouns
	Animate	Inanimate
Referential	ɔkɔe	oka
Non-referential	cele	cet'

The indefinite pronouns are:

Indefinite pronouns
	Animate	Inanimate
'any'	jãheã	jãhã
'some'	adɔm	adɔmak
'another'	ɛʈak'ic'	ɛʈak'ak'

The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.

Demonstratives
	Simple		Particular
	Animate	Inanimate	Animate	Inanimate
Proximate	nui	noa	nii	niə
Distal	uni	ona	ini	inə
Remote	həni	hana	hini	hinə

Numerals

The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA) are:

1	ᱢᱤᱫ	mit'
2	ᱵᱟᱨ	bar
3	ᱯᱮ	pɛ
4	ᱯᱩᱱ	pon
5	ᱢᱚᱬᱮ	mɔ̃ɽɛ̃
6	ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ	turui
7	ᱮᱭᱟᱭ	ɛyae
8	ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ	irəl
9	ᱟᱨᱮ	arɛ
10	ᱜᱮᱞ	gɛl
20	ᱤᱥᱤ	-isi
100	ᱥᱟᱭ	-sae

The numerals are used with numeral classifiers. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. babar 'two each'.

Numbers basically follow a base-10 pattern. Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by addition, "gel" ('10') followed by the single-digit number (1 through 9). Multiples of ten are formed by multiplication: the single-digit number (2 through 9) is followed by "gel" ('10'). Some numbers are part of a base-20 number system. 20 can be "bar gel" or "isi".

ᱯᱮ

(3‍

ᱜᱮᱞ

gel

10‍)

(ᱢᱤᱫ)

(mit’)

((1‍)

ᱤᱥᱤ

isi

20‍

ᱜᱮᱞ

gel

10‍)

ᱯᱮ {} ᱜᱮᱞ {
} or {
} (ᱢᱤᱫ) {} ᱤᱥᱤ {} ᱜᱮᱞ

pe {} gel {} or {} (mit’) {} isi {} gel

(3‍ × 10‍) {} or {} ((1‍) × 20‍ + 10‍)

Verbs

Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject and sometimes of the object.

Subject markers

		singular	dual	plural
1st person	exclusive	-ɲ(iɲ)	-liɲ	-lɛ
1st person	inclusive	-ɲ(iɲ)	-laŋ	-bon
2nd person		-m	-ben	-pɛ
3rd person		-e	-kin	-ko

Object markers

Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.

		singular	dual	plural
1st person	exclusive	-iɲ-	-liɲ-	-lɛ-
1st person	inclusive	-iɲ-	-laŋ-	-bon-
2nd person		-me-	-ben-	-pɛ-
3rd person		-e-	-kin-	-ko-

Finiteness

Any finite verbs will attach -a, except the imperative and in the subordinate clause.

noa-rɛak

this-GEN

mit

one

ʈaŋ

CLF

kɘhɘni

story

lɘi-ad-iɲ-a-e

tell-APPL.PST.A-1SG.OBJ-FIN-3SG.SUBJ

noa-rɛak mit ʈaŋ kɘhɘni lɘi-ad-iɲ-a-e

this-GEN one CLF story tell-APPL.PST.A-1SG.OBJ-FIN-3SG.SUBJ

'he told me a story about this'

Causative

There are two causative markers: a- and -oco. -oco is attached on every type of verb stems, and a- is restricted to two transitive verbs jɔm ('eat') and ɲu ('drink').

Reciprocal

Infix -pV- turns transitive and ditransitive verb roots into reciprocal meaning, but in many verbs it also conveys that the action is done together by two participants.

dal ('beat') > dapal ('beat each other')

landa ('laugh') > lapanda ('laugh together')

Benefactive

The benefactive for transitive and ditransitive stems is -ka in Northern Santali dialect and -ka-k in Southern Santali. In Southern Santali, if the object is animate, the last -k will be replaced by pronominal clitics.

tɔl ('bind') > tɔlka ('to bind for somebody')

Syntax

Santali is an SOV language, though topics can be fronted. The subject marker may appear enclitic to the verb itself if there is no preceding word.

ir-ke-t-ta-e-a-ko

cut-ASP-TR-POSS-3SG.OBJ-FIN-3PL.SUBJ

ir-ke-t-ta-e-a-ko

cut-ASP-TR-POSS-3SG.OBJ-FIN-3PL.SUBJ

'they have cut his (paddy)'

Influence on other languages

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Notable linguist Khudiram Das authored the Santali Bangla Samashabda Abhidhan (সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. 'Bangla Santali Bhasha Samparka (বাংলা সান্তালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক) is a collection of essays in E-book format authored by him and dedicated to linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.

References

"Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
"P and AR & e-Governance Dept" (PDF). wbpar.gov.in. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
"Redirected". 19 November 2019. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
Santali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
Mahali at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
^ Santali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Mahali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
^ "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages". censusindia.gov.in. Census of India. 20 May 2013. Archived from the original on 7 February 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018. Archived 22 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, 22 May 2018.
Hembram, Phatik Chandra (2002). Santhali, a Natural Language. U. Hembram. p. 165.
"Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali)". Scriptsource.org. Archived from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
"Santali Localization". Andovar.com. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
"Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
"C-16: Population by mother tongue, India - 2011". Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.
"SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011" (PDF). census.gov.in. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
"ABSTRACT OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH OF LANGUAGES AND MOTHER TONGUES - 2011" (PDF). census.gov.in. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
"PART-A: DISTRIBUTION OF THE 22 SCHEDULED LANGUAGES-INDIA/STATES/UNION TERRITORIES - 2011 CENSUS" (PDF). census.gov.in. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
"Santhali". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
"Santhali becomes India's first tribal language to get own Misplaced Pages edition". Hindustan Times. 9 August 2018. Archived from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2019.
"Second language". India Today. 22 October 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
Roy, Anirban (27 May 2011). "West Bengal to have six more languages for official use". India Today. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
"Glottolog 3.2 – Santali". glottolog.org. Archived from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
"Santali: Paharia language". Global recordings network. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
Anderson, Gregory D.S. (2007). The Munda verb: typological perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Ghosh (2008), p. 32.
Ghosh (2008), pp. 32–33.
Ghosh (2008), pp. 34–38.
Ghosh (2008), p. 38.
Ghosh (2008), p. 41.
Ghosh (2008), p. 43.
Ghosh (2008), p. 44.
Ghosh (2008), p. 45.
"Santali". The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany). 2001. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
Ghosh (2008), p. 53ff..
Ghosh (2008), p. 66.
Ghosh (2008), p. 68.
Ghosh (2008), p. 69.
Ghosh (2008), p. 74.

Works cited

Ghosh, Arun (2008). "Santali". In Anderson, Gregory D.S. (ed.). The Munda Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 11–98.

External links

v t e Languages of Bangladesh
Official language	Bengali
Indo-European	Assamese Goalpariya Kamrupi Bengali Chittagonian Dhakaiya Kutti Dobhashi Eastern Bengali Noakhailla Rangpuri Rarhi Sylheti Varendri Bihari Bishnupriya Chakma English Bangladeshi English Hajong Hindustani Dhakaiya Urdu Hindi Urdu Khotta Odia Persian Rohingya Sadri (Nagpuri)
Sino-Tibetan	Shö A'Tong Bawm Sak Kukish Falam Garo Hakha Chin (Laiholh) Khumi Koch Kokborok Megam Meitei (Manipuri) Mizo Mru Pangkhu Rakhine (Marma) Rengmitca Tanchangya
Austroasiatic	Khasi Koda Kol Mundari Pnar Santali War-Jaintia
Dravidian	Kurukh Sauria Paharia
Afro-Asiatic	Arabic
Sign	Indo-Pakistani Sign Language

Languages of India

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8th schedule to the
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Classical	Assamese Bengali Kannada Malayalam Marathi Odia Sanskrit Tamil Telugu
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100,000 – 1 million speakers	Adi Angami Ao Badaga Dimasa Halbi Karbi Khotta Kodava Kolami Konyak Korku Koya Kui Kuvi Ladakhi Lotha Malto Mising Nishi Phom Rabha Sema Sora Tangkhul Thadou

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languages

Sino-Tibetan

Kiranti	Bahing Bantawa Belhare Chamling Dumi Limbu Sampang Sunwar Thulung Vayu Waling Yakkha
Magaric	Bhujel Chepang Dura Kham Magar
Tamangic	Chantyal Gurung Manang Tamang
Tibetic	Jirel Kagate Kyirong Lepcha Mugomt Naapa Nubri Sherpa Sikkimese Yolmo
Other	Baram Dhimal Kaike Lepcha Newar Raji Raute Thangmi

Indo-Aryan

Sign language

Other

Austroasiatic languages

Bahnaric

North

West

Central

Alak Tariang Tampuan
South	Chrau Koho Stieng Raʼong Mnong Mel-Khaonh Thmon

Others

Cua (East)

Katuic

West	Kuy Bru
Katu	Katu Phuong
Others	Pacoh Ta'Oi

Vietic

Viet-Muong	Vietnamese Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern [vi] in China [vi] in the US Mường Nguồn
Chut	Arem Mày Ruc Sach
Kri	Maleng Kri Thavưng
Phong–Liha	Phong Liha
Others	Cuối

Khmuic

Phay-Pram	Prai Mal Ksingmul Oʼdu Phong-Kniang
Others	Khmu Mlabri

Pearic

Pear

Western
(Chong)

Central	Central Chong Samre Kasong
Southern	Suoi Sa'och
Others	Somray (Northern Chong) Western Chong

Khasi–
Palaungic

Khasic

Khasi-Pnar-Lyngngam	Khasi Pnar Lyngngam Maharam
Others	War

Palaungic

West

East

Angkuic	Hu U Man Met Mok Muak Va
Waic	Blang Lawa Wa Meung Yum Savaiq
Bit-Khang	Bit Quảng Lâm Kháng Bumang
Lamet	Lamet Kiorr

Others

Munda

North

Korku

Kherwarian

Mundaric	Korwa Asur Birjia Birhor Ho Mundari Koda Majhwar Turi Agariya
Santalic	Santali Kol

South

Sora-Gorum	Gorum Sora Juray Lodhi
Gutob-Remo	Bonda Gutob
Others	Gtaʼ Juang Kharia

Nicobarese

Chaura-Teresa	Chaura Teressa
Central	Nancowry Camorta Katchal
Southern	Car Southern Nicobarese Shompen

Aslian

Jahaic (Northern)	Batek Cheq Wong Jahai Jedek Kensiu Kintaq Minriq Mintil Ten'edn Wila'
Senoic (Central)	Lanoh Sabüm Semai Semnam Temiar
Semelaic (Southern)	Mah Meri Semaq Beri Semelai Temoq
Others	Jah Hut Kenaboi (unclassified; possibly a language isolate)

Others

Proto-
languages

Italics indicate extinct languages
Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

Categories:

Latest revision as of 19:46, 30 December 2024

History

Geographic distribution

Official status

Dialects

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Morphology

Nouns

Number

Case

Possession

Pronouns

Numerals

Verbs

Subject markers

Object markers

Finiteness

Causative

Reciprocal

Benefactive

Syntax

Influence on other languages

See also

References

Works cited

Further reading

Dictionaries

Grammars and primers

Literature

External links