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{{Short description|Medieval Hindu temple style}}
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'''Hoysala architecture''' is the distinctive building style that developed under the aegis of the ] in the state of ], ] between the 11th century and 14th century. The Hoysalas dominated Southern Deccan while at their peak in the 13th century. The many temples built in this era, large and small are the notable relics of the architectural idiom. The most notable examples of their art are the ] at ], the ] at ], and the ] at ], all in present-day ]. Other examples of fine Hoysala workmanship are the temples at ], ],] etc. One of the most popular tourist destinations in Karnataka, Hoysala temples offer an excellent opportunity to marvel at medieval Hindu architecture in the ''Karnata Dravida'' tradition for pilgrims and students of architecture alike. Medieval Kannada language inscriptions displayed prominently at most temple locations give details of the temple and valuable information to the student about the of history of the powerful Hoysala dynasty.
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'''Hoysala architecture''' is the building style in ] developed under the rule of the ] between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as ], a ]. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the ] Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the ] at ], the ] at ], and the ] at ].<ref name="kdravida">Hardy (1995), pp. 243–245</ref><ref name="great">Foekema (1996), p. 47, p. 59, p. 87</ref> These three temples were accorded UNESCO world heritage site status in 2023.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web|title=Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1670 |author=UNESCO World Heritage Convention|publisher=© UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2023|work=UNESCO|access-date=2023-10-03}}</ref> Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="hardy_list">Hardy (1995), p. 320, p. 321, p. 324, p. 325, p. 329, p. 332, p. 334, p. 339, p. 340, p. 346</ref><ref name="foekema_list">Foekema (1996), p. 53, p. 37, p. 71, p. 81, p. 41, p. 43, p. 83</ref> Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible ] influence while the impact of ]n style is more distinct.<ref name="distinct">] in Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref>


Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to ] but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the ] (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.<ref name="nativehome">Hardy (1995), p. 244</ref>
==Dedication==
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The Hoysalas built temples as dedication to either Lord ] or Lord ], occasionally choosing a different deity. The followers of Shiva are called Shaivas or ]s and the followers of Vishnu are called ]s. While King ] and his followers were Vaishnava by faith,<ref name="vaishnava">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (Reprinted 2002), p132</ref> records indicate the Hoysalas built as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did for Vishnu, maintaining religious harmony.<ref name="equal">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p19</ref> Most of these temples are however secular with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. Examples of each type are the famous ] at ], dedicated to ] and the ] at ], dedicated to ]. The Keshava temple at ] temple is however different in that it is strictly Vaishnava.<ref name="secular">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Most of the Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava or Chennakeshava (Beautiful Vishnu) and some to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha with ], consort of Vishnu seated at his feet. The Shaiva temples have a ''Shiva linga'', the universal symbol of Shiva in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples end with the suffix ''eshwara'' meaning ''Lord of''.
The ] Lakshmi Devi temple is an exception which neither deifies Vishnu nor Shiva. The Hoysalas also built some Jain temples, a few have survived in Halebidu.
==Basic elements of Hoysala architecture==
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{{Main|Hoysala Empire}}
Hoysala temples have many parts that are always connected together to form a whole. This is one main difference with temples of Tamil country where different parts of a temple stand independently.<ref name="parts">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p21</ref> All Hoysala temples have a strong resemblance to each other, even though they may look unique. The temples are made of a very soft ] (Chloritic schist), a material that is favourable to intricate carving and exhibit several architectural features that set them apart from other temple architectures of South India.<ref name="soap">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p136</ref> What looks complicated to a casual onlooker though is the profusion of sculpture that decorates all parts of the temple.


Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar ] as part of the ''Karnata Dravida'' tradition, a trend within ] in the Deccan that is distinct from the ] style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are ], and Chalukya architecture, divided into early ] and the ] which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the ] of ], developed further under the ] during the 9th and 10th centuries and the ] (or Later Chalukyas) of ] in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries.<ref name="flourish">Hardy (1995), pp. 6–7, section ''Introduction-Dynasties and Periods''</ref> Medieval inscriptions displayed prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details.<ref name="epigraph">Foekema (2003), p. 18</ref>
The temples often have a covered entrance porch which are rather plain but supported by lathe turned (circular or bell shaped) pillars. Many temples have a stepped entrance onto the ''jagati'' (platform) with an additional set of steps leading to a ''mantapa'' (hall) which is open (with only parapet walls) unless the temple is small where only a closed mantapa exists (walls extending all the way to the ceiling). Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the ''jagati'' walking in clockwise direction before entering the ''mantapa'', the sculptural depictions of the hindu epics afollows a clockwise direction as well. The height of the ''jagati'' is at least a meter. Temples that are not built on a ''jagati'' have steps with parapets (decorated with an elephant on either side) leading to the ''mantapa'' from ground level. The open ''mantapa'' have seating areas made of stone with the parapet wall of the ''mantapa'' acting as back rest. The seats may follow the staggered-square shape of the parapet wall. The entrance to the ''mantapa'' normally have a highly ornate overhead decoration called ''makaratorana''.<ref name="makara">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p135</ref> In temples that have two shrines (''dvikuta''), the ''vimana'' (shrine or cella) may be placed next to each other or opposite to each other.<ref name="adjacent>The Hoysaleswara shrine and Shantaleswara shrine in the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu is an example, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p59</ref> The Lakshmidevi temple at ] has minor shrines at the four corners of the walled temple complex in addition to five major shrines. Most temples exhibit minor shrines with their own tower. Pillars and wall sculptures are most attractive features of Hoysala temples.


===Jagati=== ==Temple deities==
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Many Hoysala Temples were normally built upon a raised platform called ''jagati''. The ''jagati'' apart from giving a raised look to the temple serves as a ''Pradakshinapatha'' for circumambulation around the temple as the ''garbagriha'' (inner sanctum) provides no such feature.<ref name="pradakshina">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p135</ref> Some temples however do not exhibit the raised platform, like the ''Bucheshwara'' temple in Korvangla, ]. The ''jagati'' which is in unity with the rest of the temple<ref name="prefect">According to Gerard Foekema, ''A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples'', p25</ref> follows a star-shape design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.<ref name=innovate">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
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Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy.

Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu ]. The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to ] or ] (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called ] and worshippers of Vishnu are called ]s.<ref name="worship">Foekema (1996), pp. 19–20, chapter-''The dedications and names of temples''</ref><ref name="iconography">Hardy (1995), p. 245</ref> While King ] and his descendants were Vaishnava by faith,<ref name="vaishnava">Kamath (2001), p. 132</ref> records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.<ref name="equal">Foekema (1996), p. 19</ref>

Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous ] at ] dedicated to Vishnu and in the ] at ] dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple at ] is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to ] (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha both being ]s, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu) with ], consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity.<ref name="ramayana1"/>

The ] temples have a ], symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the ]. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix ''eshwara'' meaning "Lord of". The name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci.<ref name="name">Foekema (1996), p. 19–20</ref> The most striking sculptural decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed ], and intricately carved images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.<ref name="horizontal">Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref>

The ] Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain ] (of present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of ] and ] in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in ].<ref name="jain">Kamath (2001), pp 112, 132</ref> However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were ] and ]. The Hoysalas built ] temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in ] containing icons of Jain ]. They constructed stepped wells called ''Pushkarni'' or ''Kalyani'', the ornate ] at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.<ref name="tank">Foekema (1996), plate 27</ref>

The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a ] and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated.<ref name="Shiva">Foekema (1996), p. 31, chapter:''Recognizing the most important deities''</ref> Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, ]. Various depictions of ] exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such as slaying a demon (]) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (]) and holding its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown with ] the bull. He may be represented as ], another of Shiva's many manifestations.<ref name="Shiva"/>

A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a ] (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, ]. In all of the depictions Vishnu is holding four objects: a conch, a wheel, a ] and a ] (mace). These can be held in any of the icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name.<ref name="vishnu">Foekema (1996), p. 32, chapter:''Recognizing the most important deities''</ref> Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ], which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as ]), Vishnu with Lakshmi seated on his lap (]), with the head of a lion disembowelling a demon on his lap (]), with head of a boar walking over a demon (]), in the ] avatar (as ] or the cow herder playing the ] (flute), dancing on the head of the snake ], lifting a hill such as ]), with his feet over head of a small figure ('']''), along with ] riding an elephant, with ] seated on ], and the eagle (stealing the ]).<ref name="vishnu"/>

==Temple complex==
{{See also|Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Hoysaleswara temple|Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura}}
]
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] at ]]]

The focus of a temple is the centre or ] (]) where the image of the deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for ] and halls or chambers ('']s'') that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached.
Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of ] where different parts of a temple stand independently.<ref name="cross-in-square">Foekema (1996), p. 21</ref> Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft ] (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate ], executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.<ref name="soap">Kamath (2001), p. 136</ref>

Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance ] supported by ] turned (circular or bell-shaped) ] which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a "]". The ''jagati'', apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a '']patha'' or "] path" for circumambulation around the temple, as the '']'' (]) provides no such feature.<ref name="pradakshina">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref> Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open '']'' (open hall) with ] walls. A good example of this style is the ] at ]. The ''jagati'' which is in unity with the rest of the temple<ref name="inaccurate">Foekema (1996), p. 25</ref> follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.<ref name="innovate">{{Cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |author=Arthikaje |publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc |access-date=13 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104123316/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka32.htm |archive-date=4 November 2006 |url-status=unfit}}</ref>

Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the ''jagati'' starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the ''mantapa'', following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced ] on the outer temple walls depicting a sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a ''jagati'' can have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (]s) that lead to the ''mantapa'' from ground level. An example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the ''Bucesvara'' temple in Korvangla, ]. In temples with two shrines (''dvikuta''), the '']'' (the shrines or ]e) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides.<ref name="adjacent">The Hoysaleswara shrine and the Shantaleswara shrine in the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu are examples. (Foekema 1996, p. 59)</ref> The Lakshmidevi temple at ] is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva).<ref name="panchakuta">Foekema (1996), p. 25, p. 57, section:''Dodda Gadduvalli''</ref> In addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard ('']'').<ref name="courtyard">Hardy (1995), p. 246</ref>

==Architectural elements==


===Mantapa=== ===Mantapa===
] over mantapa entrance in Chennakeshava temple, Belur]]
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], a common feature in Hoysala temples]]
The ''mantapa'' is the hall where small groups of people gather during prayers. Closed ''mantapa'' which is well decorated inside and outside is larger than the vestibule that connects the shrine and the ''mantapa'' and have four lathe turned pillars to support the ceiling which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays.<ref name="bay">A bay is a square or rectangular compartment in the hall, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p93</ref> The nine bays result in nine ceilings which are also well decorated.
The open ''mantapa'' is the largest part of the temple and is the place that can support larger congregations of people. The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open ''mantapa'' is best described as staggered square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples.<ref name="stagger">This is also called "cross-in-square" style and is not a square, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p22</ref> Even the smallest open hall has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof allowing plenty of light entry making all the sculptural details visible. The ''mantapa'' ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contain sculputral depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.<ref name="banana">{{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might -Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=U.B Githa|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> The Amritheswara temple in ] has forty eight domes in the ''mahamantapa'' (great open hall). A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa consisting of an awning supported by two half pillars and two parapets all of which are richly decorated. The ''mantapa'' is connected to the shrine(s) by a vestibule. It is a square area that connects the shrines also. Its outer walls are well decorated but because the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the ''sukanasi'' or "nose" <ref name="nose"> It is called "nose" because it looks like an extension of the main tower, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p22</ref> upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In ] and ], these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways. The '']'' is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to the ''mantapa'' normally has a highly ornate overhead ] called a ''makaratorana'' (''makara'' is an imaginary beast and ''torana'' is an overhead decoration).<ref name="pradakshina" /> The open ''mantapa'' which serves the purpose of an outer hall (outer ''mantapa'') is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed ''mantapa'' and the shrines. The open ''mantapas'' which are often spacious have seating areas (''asana'') made of stone with the ''mantapa's'' parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall.<ref name="space">Foekema (1996), pp. 22–23</ref><ref name="quad"/> The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays.<ref name="bay">A bay is a square or rectangular compartment in the hall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)</ref> The shape of the open ''mantapa'' is best described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples.<ref name="stagger">This is also called "cross-in-square" style and is not a square (Foekema, 1996, p. 22)</ref> Even the smallest open ''mantapa'' has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The ''mantapa'' ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.<ref name="banana">{{Cite web |title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might—Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html |author=Githa U.B. |publisher=Chitralakshana |work=] |date=11 May 2004 |access-date=13 November 2006 |archive-date=4 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204180025/http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

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If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed ''mantapa'' (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed ''mantapa'', well decorated inside and out, is larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the ''mantapa'' and has four lathe-turned pillars to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings.<ref name="nine">The four pillars and nine bays of a closed ''mantapa'' is a norm in Hoysala temples (Foekema 1996, p. 22)</ref> Pierced stone screens ('']'' or ]) that serve as windows in the ''navaranga'' (hall) and ''Sabhamantapa'' (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.<ref name="pradakshina">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref>

A porch adorns the entrance to a closed ''mantapa'', consisting of an awning supported by two half-pillars (]s) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed ''mantapa'' is connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the '']'' or "nose" upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In ] and ], these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways.<ref name="nose">It is called a "nose" because it projects from the main tower over the entrance to it (Foekema 1996, p. 22)</ref>

The outer and inner ''mantapa'' (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars<ref name="lathe">This is a common feature of Western Chalukya-Hoysala temples: (Kamath 2001, p. 117)</ref> having four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called '']'' or ''madanika''. The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike.<ref name="unique">It is possible that the Hoysalas encouraged different groups of artists to execute pillars and these groups may have been in competition to produce unique pillars, (Sastri 1955, p. 429)</ref> This is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the ], who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example.<ref name="lightreflection">{{Cite web |title=Architecture in Hoysala Empire |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |author=Arthikaje |publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc |access-date=28 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=4 November 2006}}</ref> According to Brown, the pillars with four monolithic brackets above them carry images of ''salabhanjikas'' and ''madanikas'' (sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable feature" of Hoysala art.<ref name="madanika">Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref><ref name="capital">Sastri (1955), p. 429</ref>


===Vimana=== ===Vimana===
]]] ]]]
The ''vimana'' is also called the cella and contains the shrine. The ''vimana'' often bears a tower on top which are quite different outside and inside. Inside the cella is plain and square while outside it is profusely decorated. The outside of the vimana is either star shaped or staggered square or a star-square design and exude many projections and recesses making it multigonal.<ref name="cross-in-square">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p21</ref> Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation, rhythmic and repetitive comprising of of blocks and mouldings. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence number of towers), the temples are classified as ''ekakuta'' (one), ''dvikuta'' (two), ''trikuta'' (three), ''chatushkuta'' (four) and ''panchakuta'' (five). Most Hoysala temples are ''ekakuta'', ''dvikuta'' or ''trikuta''.<ref name=kuta">Sometimes a ''trikuta'' may not literally mean three towers as only the central shrine has a tower, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p25</ref> In temples with multiple shrines, all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance. There are cases where a temple is ''trikuta'' but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology ''trikuta'' may not be literally true. Smaller shrines attached to the outer walls and facing outwards from a larger ''vimana'' is a common feature.


The '']'', also called the ], contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. The ''vimana'' is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as the light falls on it.<ref name="cross-in-square" /> Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and ], obscuring the tower profile. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as ''ekakuta'' (one), ''dvikuta'' (two), ''trikuta'' (three), ''chatushkuta'' (four) and ''panchakuta'' (five). Most Hoysala temples are ''ekakuta'', ''dvikuta'' or ''trikuta'', the Vaishnava ones mostly being ''trikuta''.<ref name="iconography">Hardy (1995), p. 245</ref><ref name="kuta">Sometimes a ''trikuta'' may not literally mean "three towers", as only the central shrine has a tower (Foekema 1996, p. 25)</ref> There are cases where a temple is ''trikuta'' but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology ''trikuta'' may not be literally accurate.<ref name="inaccurate">Foekema (1996), p. 25</ref> In temples with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at ], all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance.<ref name="quad">Sastri (1955), p. 428</ref><ref name="twintemples">Foekema (1996), p. 81, section:''Mosale''</ref>
The highest point of the temple is called ''kalasa'', has the shape of a beautiful water pot and stands on top of the tower. Often due to age, this portion of the ''vimana'' is lost and replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the ''kalasa'' is a large highly sculptured dome like structure which is actually made from large stones and looks like a helmet.<ref name="helmet">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p27</ref> It may be 2&nbsp;m by 2&nbsp;m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are many more domed roofs of square plan all of them much smaller and crowned with small ''kalasas''. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are finely decorated. The tower of the shrine mostly has 3 or 4 tiers of these rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the ''sukanasi'' has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower ("nose"). One tier of decorated roof runs on top of the wall of a closed ''mantapa'', above the heavy eaves of an open ''mantapa'' and above porches.


The highest point of the temple (''kalasa'') has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the tower. This portion of the ''vimana'' is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the ''kalasa'' is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is made from large stones and looks like a helmet.<ref name="helmet">Foekema (1996), p. 27</ref> It may be 2&nbsp;m by 2&nbsp;m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small ''kalasas''. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the ''sukanasi'' has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed ''mantapa'' above the heavy eaves of an open ''mantapa'' and above the porches.<ref name="nosy">Foekema (1996), p. 22, p. 28, section:''The plan of the temples''</ref>
===Pillars===

]]]
]]]
The outer and inner ''mantapa'' (open and closed) have numerous circular ] turned pillars<ref name="lathe">This is a common feature of Western Chalukya-Hoysala temples, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p117</ref> which have four brackets at the top. Atop each bracket stands sculptured figure(s) called ''salabhanjika'' or ''madanika''. The pillars exibit fine ornamental carvings as well on the surface and no two pillars are alike.<ref name="unique">It is possible that the Hoysalas encouraged different groups of artists to execute pillars and these groups may have been in competition to produce unique pillars, Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p429</ref> This is where Hoysala art is different from the work of their early overlords, the ] who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and let the top be plain. The lathe turned pillars are either 16, 32 or 64 pointed, some are bell shaped and have light reflection properties. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example.<ref name="lightreflection">{{cite web|title=Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje|publisher=1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-12-28}}</ref> The shaft of the pillar is a monolith with the base left as a square while beautifully sculptured figures adorn the top of the pillar.

Below the superstructure of the '']'' are temple "]s"<ref name="eave">under the projecting roof overhanging the wall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)</ref> projecting half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is broadly termed "horizontal treatment".<ref name="horizontal">Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref> The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and '']'' scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of '']''s or ''makara''s (imaginary beasts) and ''hamsas'' (swans). The ''vimana'' (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.<ref name="yali">Art critic ] calls this one of the distinguishing features of Hoysala art. (Kamath 2001, p. 134)</ref>


===Sculpture=== ===Sculpture===
]]] ]]]
]]] ] at ]]]
Hoysala artists are famous for their sculptural detail, be it the depiction of the ] epics, deities, eroticism or daily life. Their workmanship shows a weakness for minutiae and attention to detail. Everything down to the finger nail or toe nail was finished to detail.


In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western (Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style.<ref name="iconography">Hardy (1995), p. 245</ref> Hoysala artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from the ] epics and deities or in their use of ]s such as ''yali'', '']'' (gargoyles), ] (miniature decorative towers) on ], ''makara'' (aquatic monster), birds (''hamsa''), spiral foliage, animals such as lions, elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue.<ref name="attention">Sastri (1955), pp. 428–429; Foekema (1996), pp. 28–29; Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref>
''Madanika'' or ''salabhanjika'', a common form of Hoysala sculpture are an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. ''Sala'' is the Sala tree and ''bhanjika'' the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, ''madanika'' figures are decorative objects, put at an angle on the outer walls of the temples near the roof so worshipers who circumambulate the temple could view them.<ref name="shila">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> They served the purpose of bracket figures to pillars inside the ''mantapa'' also. These ''madanika'' were sculpted to exhibit artistic skills such as music (holding musical instruments) and dance. ''Kirthimukhas'' (demon faces) adorn the towers of ] in some temples. Sometimes, the artists left behind their signature on the sculpture they created.


The ''sthamba buttalikas'' are essentially pillar images and are in fact traces of ] art in Hoysala temples bearing Chalukyan touches. It is believed that some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country. The image of ''mohini'' on one of the pillars in the ''mantapa'' (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is a fine specimen of Chola art.<ref name="sthamba">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S. Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> '']'', a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. ''Sala'' is the ] and {{transliteration|hi|bhanjika}} is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, ''madanika'' figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.<ref name="ramayana1">{{Cite web |title=Hoysala Heritage |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm|author=Settar S |publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu |work=Frontline, Volume 20 – Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003 |access-date=13 November 2006}}</ref>


The {{transliteration|hi|sthamba buttalikas}} are pillar images that show traces of ] art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of ''mohini'' on one of the pillars in the '']'' (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of Chola art.<ref name="ramayana1"/>
Broad themes of life are depicted on wall panels. The way the horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, rows of animals like lions, elephants and such (where no two animals are identical) are standard features. Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the epics ] and ] more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.<ref name="ramayana">The epic frieze is the most exciting feature of their sculptures, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p29</ref><ref name="ramayana1">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S.Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>


General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the ] and ] epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.<ref name="ramayana1"/><ref name="ramayana">The epic ] is the most exciting feature of their sculptures (Foekema 1996, p. 29)</ref>
Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches and are generally miniature in form making them inconspicuous. Many of the erotic representations are associated with the ''Shakta'' practice. The temple doorway is heavily engraved with decoration called ''Makaratorana'' (''makara'' or imaginary beast) and either side of the doorway exhibit sculptured ''Salabanjika'' (maidens).


Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the ''Shakta'' practice.<ref name="ramayana1"/>
Below the superstructure of the ''vimana'' run "eaves" all round the temple.<ref name="eave">An eaves is a projecting roof, overhanging the wall, Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p93</ref> It projects about half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes are found depending on whether the temples were built in early or later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eaves and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below this eaves followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples, there is a second eaves running about a meter below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This broadly is called "horizontal treatment".<ref name="horizontal">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p134</ref> The six mouldings of the base is divided into two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains procession of elephants, above which are a horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions from the Hindu epics and ''puranic'' scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of ''yalis'' (or ''makara'', an imaginary beast) and ''hamsas'' (swans). The ''vimana'' (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.<ref name="yali"> Art critic Percy Brown calls this one of the distinguishing features of Hoysala art, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p134,</ref><br>


Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the ] epics (commonly the ] and the ]) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance.<ref name="clockwise">Foekema (1996), p. 29</ref> The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero ] shooting fish, the elephant-headed god ], the Sun god ], the weather and war god ], and ] with ] are common. Also frequently seen in these temples is ], with several arms holding weapons given to her by other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and ] (a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.<ref>{{Cite book
===Depiction of Deities===
| first= Binda
]]]
| last= Thapar
]]]
| year= 2004
The most striking sculptural decoration of Hoysala architecture is the horizontal row of outer wall panel images of Gods, Goddesses and their attendants. The two main types of deities found in Hoysala sculpture are Lord ] and Lord ] in various forms and ''avatars''. Shiva is normally depicted with four arms holding among other things, a trident and a small drum.<ref name="Shiva">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p31</ref> Any male icon seen with this depiction is Shiva and even a female icon is sometimes seen with these attributes and considered Shiva's consort, ]. Various depictions of Lord ] include him dancing, slaying a demon, with his consort ], with ] the bull or dancing on the head of an elephant or Bhairava, another of ]'s many manifestations.
| title= Introduction to Indian Architecture
| publisher= Periplus Editions
| location=Singapore
| pages= 69
| isbn= 0-7946-0011-5}}</ref>


==Research==
If any male icon is depicted holding a conch and a wheel, it is ]. If a female icon is with these attributes, it is considered his consort ]. In all, Vishnu is depicted with four attributes, conch, wheel, lotus and mace. These attributes can be in any of the hands making possible twenty four different icon types and forms of Visnu each with an unique name.<ref name="vishnu">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p32</ref> Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten ] which include, Vishnu with Anantha (sitting on a coil of snake), ] (with Lakshmi seated on his lap), ] (with the head of a lion), ] (disemboweling a demon on his lap), ] (with head of a boar walking over a demon), ] (playing a flute as Venugopala, dancing on a head ''Kaliya'' snake, lifting a mountain as Govardhana), ] (Vishnu with his feet over head of a small figure), Vishnu with ] seated on ], the eagle (stealing the parijata tree).
]'' decoration (demon faces) on tower at ]]]
] at Harihar]]


According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date.<ref name="vaishnava" /><ref name="records">1,500 temples in 958 centres were built, according to historical records, between 1000 and 1346 CE. {{Cite web |title=Hoysala Heritage |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm|author=Settar S |publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu |work=Frontline, Volume 20 – Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003 |access-date=13 November 2006}}</ref> The Hoysala style is an offshoot of the ], which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="horizontal" /> It is distinctively ], and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style.<ref name="independent">According to Percy Brown, Hoysala architecture and sculpture have been called a "phenomenal effort of human concentration, skill, and religious consciousness" (] in Kamath 2001, p. 134)</ref> While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of ''Karnata'' like the ], ]. These features included the use of chloritic schist or ] as a basic building material.<ref name="schist">Kamath (2001) p. 136</ref><ref name="schist1">{{Cite web |title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996 |url=http://www.indoarch.org/ |author=Kamiya Takeo |publisher=Gerard da Cunha |work=Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India |access-date=13 November 2006}} – The ] carvings were done in greenschist (soapstone), a technique adopted by the Hoysalas</ref>
Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from ] an ] are common, sculptured in clockwise direction.<ref name="clockwise">Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, p29</ref> These sequences go right to left, in the direction of circumambulation by devotees. Depictions from mythology like that of ] shooting fish, the elephant headed God ], ] the sun God, ], ] with ] are also common. Apart from these, ] with several arms holding weapons given to her by many Gods and killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and ] (fusion Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel and trident is seen in some temples.


Other features were the stepped style of ''vimana'' tower called the ''Kadamba shikhara'', which was inherited from the ].<ref name="kadambashikara">The most prominent feature of ] architecture is their '']'', called "Kadamba shikhara". The ''shikhara'' is pyramid-shaped and rises in steps without any decoration and has a ''stupika'' or ''kalasha'' on the top (Kamath 2001, p. 38)</ref> Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples.<ref name="ramayana1"/> The artistry of the Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.<ref name="capital">Sastri (1955), p. 429</ref>
==Research notes==
]]]
Of the 1500 structures said to have been built by the Hoysalas, about a hundred temples have survived to date.<ref name="records">Around 1,500 temples in 958 centres were built, according to historical records, during the Hoysala period - between ]-] CE. {{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S.Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> The Hoysala style in many ways is an offshoot of the ] style.<ref name="offshoot">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p134</ref><ref name="offshoot1"> James Fergusson and Henry Cousens also opine the Hoysala style has many features in common to Western Chalukya style, {{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=© 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> It is distinctively ] and owing to its many unique features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style.<ref name="independent">According to art critic Percy Brown, Hoysala architecture and sculpture is a phenomenal effort of human concentration, skill and religious consciousness, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p134</ref> While the Hoysalas introduced many innovative features into their architecture they also borrowed many features from the earlier great builders of Karnataka like the ], ]. These features were the use of Chloritic schist or ] as basic building material,<ref name="schist">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p136</ref><ref name="schist1">The ] carvings were done on green schist (Soapstone), a technique adopted by the Hoysalas too.{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Takeyo Kamiya|publisher=Gerard da Cunha|work=Architecture Autonomous
, Bardez, Goa, India|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> pierced window screens which were very popular in Hoysala temples,<ref name="window">This is very commonly found in earlier Western Chalukya temples also, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p116</ref> and the ] which follows a star shaped pattern.<ref name="star">The ] architecture has a star-shaped plan for the ''vimana''. The ''Doddabasappa'' temple in Dambal has so many star points that it almost looks circular, {{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Takeyo Kamiya|publisher=Gerard da Cunha|work=Architecture Autonomous
, Bardez, Goa, India|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> All these features were very popular with their early overlords, the ]. Other features were the stepped style of ] tower called the ''Kadamba Shikhara'' which was inherited from the ].<ref name="kadambashikara">Early Hoysala temples such as the Lakshmidevi temple at ] in ] have three undecorated stepped towers and one decorated tower in a ''chatushkuta'' construction (four shrined). The most prominent feature of the ] architecture, basic as it was, is their ] called Kadamba Shikhara. The Shikhara is pyramid shaped and rises in steps without any decoration with a ''stupika'' or ''kalasha'' at the top, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p38</ref> Engrained in the craftsmanship of Hoysala sculptors was their knowledge of the effect of light and shade on carved walls which they used to maximum effect in their sculptures in the numerous projections and recesses. The Hoysala sculpture in all its richness is said to be a challenge to photography.<ref name="light">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=S.Settar|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12 - 25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> The art of the Hoysalas on stone is compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewelry worn by the sculpted figures, the variety of hairstyles and head dresses depicted gives a fair idea of the social life styles of the Hoysala times.<ref name"hair">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p429</ref>


==Famous architects== ==Notable craftsmen==
]. A temple plan without ''jagati'' at Korvangla]]
]]]
]'' shrine at the ] complex, ]]]
While the Hoysalas had the services of many great architects and sculptors, some names stand out in their history. While medieval Indian artists preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artists proudly signing their works, which has given researchers fascinating details of their lives, family, guild etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds like goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, silversmiths have also contributed their bit to the completion of temples. The artists were from diverse geographical backgrounds including famous locals. Famous local architects were ],<ref name="famous">{{cite web|title=In need of support|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp|author=Srinidhi Raghavendra|publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Deccan Herald, Spectrum, Tuesday, August 9, 2005|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> a native of Kaidala in ] who built temples for the ] as well, Ruvari Malithamma who built the Kesava temple at ] and worked on forty other monuments including the Amriteshwara temple at ]. His expertise was in ornamentation in a contribution spanning six decades, his sculptures usually signed in shorthand as ''Malli'' or just ''Ma''.<ref name="ruvari"> {{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might -Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=U.B Githa|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref><ref name="ruvari1">{{cite web|title=Architectural marvel
|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan202004/spt6.asp|author=B.P. Premkumar
|publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Spectrum, Deccan Herald, Tuesday, January 20, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Dasoja and his son Chavana from ] were the architects of ] at ], Kedaroja was the chief architect of the ] at ].<ref name="dasoja">Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p135</ref> Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama,<ref name="architect">Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p299</ref><ref name="architect1"> Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(Reprinted 2002), p135</ref> and artists from ] in ] were Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja.<ref name="balli> {{cite web|title=A glimpse of the lost grandeur|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan252005/spt7.asp|author=Raghavendra Chandragutti|publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Spectrum, Deccan Herald, Tuesday, January 25, 2005|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Other locals were Masanithamma, Chameya, Rameya and artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari, Cholavachari etc.<ref name="local">{{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might -Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=U.B Githa|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
<br clear="all">
==Famous temples==
{{See also|Chennakesava Temple|Hoysaleswara temple|Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura|Hassan District}}
{{Famous Hoysala temples}}
]]]
]]]
] ]]
]]]


While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included ],<ref name="famous">{{Cite web |title=In need of support |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |author=Raghavendra, Srinidhi |work=Deccan Herald|date=9 August 2005|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007194352/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |archive-date=7 October 2011}}</ref> a native of Kaidala in ], who also built temples for the ]. ] built the Kesava Temple at ] and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in shorthand as ''Malli'' or simply ''Ma''.<ref name="ruvari">{{Cite web |title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html |author=Githa U.B. |publisher=Chitralakshana |work=Deccan Herald |date=11 May 2004 |access-date=13 November 2006 |archive-date=4 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204180025/http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ruvari1">{{Cite web |title=Architectural marvel|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/jan202004/spt6.asp |author=Premkumar P.B.|work=Deccan Herald|date=20 January 2004 |access-date=13 November 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080122161428/http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/jan202004/spt6.asp | archive-date = 22 January 2008}}</ref>
<br clear="all">

Dasoja and his son Chavana from ] were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the ] at ].<ref name="pradakshina" /> Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama,<ref name="pradakshina" /><ref name="architect">Sastri (1955), p. 299</ref> Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja,<ref name="balli">{{Cite web |title=A glimpse of the lost grandeur |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan252005/spt7.asp |author=Chandragutti, Raghavendra |work=Deccan Herald|date=25 January 2005 |access-date=13 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214010904/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan252005/spt7.asp |archive-date=14 December 2014}}</ref> Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari.<ref name="local">{{Cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html|author=Githa U.B.|work=Deccan Herald|date=11 May 2004|access-date=13 November 2006|archive-date=4 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204180025/http://www.chitralakshana.com/hoysalas.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==List of notable temples from the Hoysala era==
{{See also|List of Hoysala temples}}
]]]
]]]
] plan of shrine in ], Karnataka]]

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Location !! Period !! King !! Deity
|-
|]<ref name="dodda">Foekema (1996), p. 57</ref><ref name="dodda1">Hardy (1995), p. 326</ref>
|Doddagaddavalli
|1113
|Vishnuvardhana
|Lakshmi
|-
|]<ref name="belurchenna">Foekema (1996), p. 47</ref><ref name="belurchenna1">Hardy (1995), p. 325</ref>
|]
|1117
|]
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="halebiduhoysala">Foekema (1996), p. 59</ref><ref name="halebiduhoysala1">Hardy (1995), p. 329</ref>
|]
|1120
|Vishnuvardhana
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="halebiduhoysala1"/><ref name="bastigroup">{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.in/parsvanatha-basti-halebid|title=Parsvanatha Basti|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle|publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle|access-date=17 November 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118222232/http://asibengalurucircle.in/parsvanatha-basti-halebid|archive-date=18 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="santinatha">{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.in/shantinatha-basti-halebid|title=Shantinatha Basti|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle|publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle|access-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128195429/http://asibengalurucircle.in/shantinatha-basti-halebid|archive-date=28 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="adinatha">{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.in/adinatha-basti-halebid|title=Adinatha Basti|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle|publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle|access-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418145223/http://asibengalurucircle.in/adinatha-basti-halebid|archive-date=18 April 2016}}</ref>
|Halebidu
|1133, 1196
|Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II
|], ], ]
|-
|]<ref name="shanti"/><ref name="ramakudli">{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.org/shimoga-17.html|title=Rameshvara Temple|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle|publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle|access-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029212127/http://asibengalurucircle.org/shimoga-17.html|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref>
|]
|12th c.
|Vishnuvardhana
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="shanti"/><ref name="brahma">Foekema (2003), p. 59, p. 72</ref>
|Kikkeri
|1171
|Narasimha I
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="shanti"/><ref name="kora">Foekema (1996), p. 77</ref>
|Koravangala
|1173
|Veera Ballala II
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="akka">Hardy (1995), p. 343</ref><ref name="akkakabasti">Foekema (2003), p. 37</ref>
|]
|1181
|Veera Ballala II
|Parshvanatha
|-
|]<ref name="amrit">Foekema (1996), p. 37</ref><ref name="amrit1">Hardy (1995), p. 320</ref>
|]
|1196
|]
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="shanti">Hardy (1995), p. 334</ref>
|Jinanathapura
|1200
|Veera Ballala II
|Shantinatha
|-
|]<ref name="mosal">Foekema (1996), p. 81</ref><ref name="mosal1">Hardy (1995), p. 339</ref>
|Mosale
|1200
|Veera Ballala II
|Shiva, Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="bela">Foekema (1996), p. 53</ref><ref name="basaru1"/>
|]
|1200
|Veera Ballala II
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="halebiduhoysala1"/><ref name="halebidukedar">Foekema (1996), pp. 62–63</ref>
|]
|1200
|Veera Ballala II
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="arasi">Foekema (1996), p. 41</ref><ref name="arachenna1"/>
|]
|1220
|Veera Ballala II
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="hariandhara">Hardy (1995), p. 331</ref><ref name="hariandhara1">Cousens (1926), p. 93</ref>
|]
|1224
|Vira Narasimha II
|Shiva, Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="basaru1">Hardy (1995), p. 324</ref><ref name="basaru">Foekema (1996), p. 43</ref>
|]
|1234
|]
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="hariandhara"/><ref name="haranhallisoma">Foekema (1996), p. 67</ref>
|]
|1235
|]
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="hariandhara"/><ref name="haranhallisoma"/>
|]
|1235
|Vira Someshwara
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="govinda">Hardy (1995), p. 328</ref><ref name="panchalinga">{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.org/mandya-3.html|title=Panchalingeshvara Temple|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle|publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle|access-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502190310/http://asibengalurucircle.org/mandya-3.html|archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>
|Govindanhalli
|1238
|Vira Someshwara
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="nuggelak">Foekema (1996), p. 83</ref><ref name="nuggelak1">Hardy (1995), p. 340</ref>
|]
|1246
|Vira Someshwara
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="nuggelak"/><ref name="nuggelak1"/>
|Nuggehalli
|1249
|Vira Someshwara
|Shiva
|-
|]<ref name="hosaholalulak">Foekema (1996), p. 71</ref><ref name="hosaholalulak1">Hardy (1995), p. 332</ref>
|Hosaholalu
|1250
|Vira Someshwara
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="java">Foekema (1996), p. 73</ref><ref name="java1">Hardy (1995), p. 333</ref>
|Javagallu
|1250
|Vira Someshwara
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="arachenna1">Hardy (1995), p. 321</ref><ref name="arachenna">Foekema (1996), p. 39</ref>
|]
|1250
|]
|Vishnu
|-
|]<ref name="somachenna">Foekema (1996), p. 87</ref><ref name="nsomechanne1">Hardy (1995), p. 346</ref>
|]
|1268
|]
|Vishnu
|-
|}


==See also== ==See also==
]<br> * ]
* ]
]<br>
{{Clear}}
]<br>
]


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
<div class="references-small">

<references/>
</div>
==References== ==References==
{{commons category|Architecture of the Hoysala Empire}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<div class="references-small">
* Gerard Foekema, A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples, 1996, Abhinav, ISBN 81-7017-345-0
* Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprinted 2002), OCLC: 7796041.
* Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
* {{cite web |url=http://www.hoysalatourism.com/belur.htm |title=Landmarks in Hoysala architecture|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |title=Historian Prof. Settar, Hoysala heritage|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
</div>
{{col-2}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala.htm |title=The Hoysala Dynasty, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |title=History of Karnataka, Arthikaje|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.indoarch.org|title=Architecture of Indian Subcontinent, Takeyo Kamiya|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |title=Article on Jakanachari|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm |title=U.B. Githa, Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no10217.htm|title=Indian Temple Architecture : Form and Transformation--The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries/Adam Hardy|accessdate=2006-11-12 |format= |work= }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |title=In need of support, an article by Srinidhi Raghavendra, Spectrum, Deccan Herald, Tuesday, August 9, 2005|accessdate=2006-11-13 |format= |work= }}
</div>
{{col-end}}


===Book===
]
]
]
]


{{refbegin}}
]
* {{cite book|author=Cousens, Henry|title= The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts|orig-date= 1926|year= 1996|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |location= New Delhi|oclc = 37526233}}
* {{Cite book |last=Foekema |first=Gerard |title=Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples |year=1996 |publisher=Abhinav |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7017-345-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Foekema |first=Gerard |title= Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD |orig-date=2003 |year=2003 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd |location= New Delhi |isbn= 81-215-1089-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hardy|first=Adam|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|orig-date=1995 |year=1995|publisher=Abhinav|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7017-312-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kamath |first=Suryanath U. |title=A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present |orig-date=1980 |year=2001 |publisher=Jupiter books |location=Bangalore |oclc=7796041 |lccn=80905179}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sastry |first=K.A. Nilakanta|title=A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar |orig-date=1955 |year=2002 |publisher=Indian Branch, Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |isbn=0-19-560686-8}}
{{refend}}

===Web===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite web |author=Settar S |title=Hoysala heritage |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm|publisher=Frontline |work=history and craftsmanship of Belur and Halebid temples |access-date=13 November 2006}}
*{{cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.org/monuments.html |title=Monuments of Bangalore Circle |work=Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle |publisher=ASI Bengaluru Circle |access-date=15 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625060519/http://asibengalurucircle.org/monuments.html |archive-date=25 June 2012}}
* {{Cite web|author=Arthikaje |title=Architecture in Hoysala Empire |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |publisher=OurKarnataka.Com |work=History of karnataka |access-date=13 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |archive-date=4 November 2006}}
* {{Cite web |author=Kamiya Takeo |title=Architecture of Indian Subcontinent |url=http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D0%2BM%3D0 |publisher=Architecture Autonomous |work=Indian Architecture |access-date=13 November 2006}}
* {{Cite web |author=Ragavendra, Srinidhi |title=In need of support |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |publisher=Spectrum |access-date=13 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007194352/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp |archive-date=7 October 2011}}
* {{Cite web |author=Githa U.B. |title=Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614044346/http://chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm |archive-date=14 June 2006 |publisher=chitralakshana |work=History of Indian art |access-date=13 November 2006 |url-status=dead}}
*Review by: Ajay J. Sinha of {{cite journal |author=Hardy, Adam |title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation—The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries |journal=Art History |jstor=3250027 |volume=58 |pages=358–362}}
* {{Cite web |author=Premakumar, B.P. |title=Architectural marvel |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan202004/spt6.asp |publisher=Spectrum |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=12 November 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611035817/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/jan202004/spt6.asp |archive-date=11 June 2012}}
{{refend}}

{{Architecture of Karnataka}}
{{Architecture of India}}
{{History of architecture}}

{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hoysala Architecture}}
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Latest revision as of 19:45, 16 August 2024

Medieval Hindu temple style

Profile of a Hoysala temple at Somanathapura

Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. These three temples were accorded UNESCO world heritage site status in 2023. Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.

Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.

Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and 10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries. Medieval inscriptions displayed prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details.

Temple deities

Vishnu with Lakshmi (Lakshminarayana) at Halebidu
Shiva, Parvati, Nandi at Halebidu

Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy.

Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Shiva or Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants were Vaishnava by faith, records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.

Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu) with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity.

The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning "Lord of". The name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels.

The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.

The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati. Various depictions of Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations.

A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all of the depictions Vishnu is holding four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name. Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the eagle (stealing the parijata tree).

Temple complex

See also: Chennakeshava Temple, Belur; Hoysaleswara temple; and Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura
Hoysala stepped temple tank (Kalyani) at Hulikere, Karnataka
Temple profile – staggered square plan mantapa at Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi
Akkana Basadi at Shravanbelgola

The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers (mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached. Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.

Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a "jagati". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a pradakshinapatha or "circumambulation path" for circumambulation around the temple, as the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature. Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the temple follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.

Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa, following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides. The Lakshmidevi temple at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram).

Architectural elements

Mantapa

Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance in Chennakeshava temple, Belur
Ornate bay ceiling in mantapa in the Veera Narayana Temple, Belavadi, a common feature in Hoysala temples

The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration). The open mantapa which serves the purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples. Even the smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.

Open Mantapa with shining, lathe-turned pillars at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura

If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings. Pierced stone screens (Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall) and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.

A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two half-pillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or "nose" upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways.

The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika. The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable feature" of Hoysala art.

Vimana

Star shaped Vimana (shrine) at Hosaholalu

The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate. In temples with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance.

The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and above the porches.

Outer wall panel with six horizontal mouldings at Somanathapura

Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple "eaves" projecting half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is broadly termed "horizontal treatment". The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls.

Sculpture

Sthamba buttalika, Hoysala art at Belur
Madanika bracket at Belur

In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western (Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers) on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions, elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue.

Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them.

The sthamba buttalikas are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of Chola art.

General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.

Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice.

Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance. The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India.

Research

Kirtimukha decoration (demon faces) on tower at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura
Ornate lintel and door jamb relief at entrance to inner mantapa in the Harihareshwara Temple at Harihar

According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist or soapstone as a basic building material.

Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples. The artistry of the Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times.

Notable craftsmen

Elephant balustrades in the Bucesvara temple. A temple plan without jagati at Korvangla
Vasantha mantapa, an ornate 13th century contribution from the Hoysala era to the pre-existing Uma-Maheshvara shrine at the Bhoga Nandeeshwara Temple complex, Chikkaballapura district

While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi Jakanachari, a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in shorthand as Malli or simply Ma.

Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja, Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari.

List of notable temples from the Hoysala era

See also: List of Hoysala temples
Kadamba shikara (tower)with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top at Lakshmi Devi Temple, Doddagaddavalli
Pierced stone window screens at Somanathapura
Stellate plan of shrine in Chennakeshava Temple, Aralaguppe, Karnataka
Name Location Period King Deity
Lakshmidevi Doddagaddavalli 1113 Vishnuvardhana Lakshmi
Chennakesava Belur 1117 Vishnuvardhana Vishnu
Hoysaleswara Halebidu 1120 Vishnuvardhana Shiva
Basadi complex Halebidu 1133, 1196 Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II Parshvanatha, Shantinatha, Adinatha
Rameshvara Koodli 12th c. Vishnuvardhana Shiva
Brahmeshwara Kikkeri 1171 Narasimha I Shiva
Bucheshvara Koravangala 1173 Veera Ballala II Shiva
Akkana Basadi Shravanabelagola 1181 Veera Ballala II Parshvanatha
Amruteshwara Amruthapura 1196 Veera Ballala II Shiva
Shantinatha Basadi Jinanathapura 1200 Veera Ballala II Shantinatha
Nageshvara-Chennakeshava Mosale 1200 Veera Ballala II Shiva, Vishnu
Veeranarayana Belavadi 1200 Veera Ballala II Vishnu
Kedareshwara Halebidu 1200 Veera Ballala II Shiva
Ishvara (Shiva) Arsikere 1220 Veera Ballala II Shiva
Harihareshwara Harihar 1224 Vira Narasimha II Shiva, Vishnu
Mallikarjuna Basaralu 1234 Vira Narasimha II Shiva
Someshvara Haranhalli 1235 Vira Someshwara Shiva
Lakshminarasimha Haranhalli 1235 Vira Someshwara Vishnu
Panchalingeshwara Govindanhalli 1238 Vira Someshwara Shiva
Lakshminarasimha Nuggehalli 1246 Vira Someshwara Vishnu
Sadashiva Nuggehalli 1249 Vira Someshwara Shiva
Lakshminarayana Hosaholalu 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu
Lakshminarasimha Javagallu 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu
Chennakesava Aralaguppe 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu
Kesava Somanathapura 1268 Narasimha III Vishnu

See also

Notes

  1. Hardy (1995), pp. 243–245
  2. Foekema (1996), p. 47, p. 59, p. 87
  3. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. "Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas". UNESCO. © UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2023. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  4. Hardy (1995), p. 320, p. 321, p. 324, p. 325, p. 329, p. 332, p. 334, p. 339, p. 340, p. 346
  5. Foekema (1996), p. 53, p. 37, p. 71, p. 81, p. 41, p. 43, p. 83
  6. Percy Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 134
  7. Hardy (1995), p. 244
  8. Hardy (1995), pp. 6–7, section Introduction-Dynasties and Periods
  9. Foekema (2003), p. 18
  10. Foekema (1996), pp. 19–20, chapter-The dedications and names of temples
  11. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 245
  12. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 132
  13. Foekema (1996), p. 19
  14. ^ Settar S. "Hoysala Heritage". Frontline, Volume 20 – Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003. Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  15. Foekema (1996), p. 19–20
  16. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 134
  17. Kamath (2001), pp 112, 132
  18. Foekema (1996), plate 27
  19. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 31, chapter:Recognizing the most important deities
  20. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 32, chapter:Recognizing the most important deities
  21. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 21
  22. Kamath (2001), p. 136
  23. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 135
  24. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 25
  25. Arthikaje. "History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  26. The Hoysaleswara shrine and the Shantaleswara shrine in the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu are examples. (Foekema 1996, p. 59)
  27. Foekema (1996), p. 25, p. 57, section:Dodda Gadduvalli
  28. Hardy (1995), p. 246
  29. Foekema (1996), pp. 22–23
  30. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 428
  31. A bay is a square or rectangular compartment in the hall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)
  32. This is also called "cross-in-square" style and is not a square (Foekema, 1996, p. 22)
  33. Githa U.B. (11 May 2004). "Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might—Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura". Deccan Herald. Chitralakshana. Archived from the original on 4 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  34. The four pillars and nine bays of a closed mantapa is a norm in Hoysala temples (Foekema 1996, p. 22)
  35. It is called a "nose" because it projects from the main tower over the entrance to it (Foekema 1996, p. 22)
  36. This is a common feature of Western Chalukya-Hoysala temples: (Kamath 2001, p. 117)
  37. It is possible that the Hoysalas encouraged different groups of artists to execute pillars and these groups may have been in competition to produce unique pillars, (Sastri 1955, p. 429)
  38. Arthikaje. "Architecture in Hoysala Empire". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  39. Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 135
  40. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 429
  41. Sometimes a trikuta may not literally mean "three towers", as only the central shrine has a tower (Foekema 1996, p. 25)
  42. Foekema (1996), p. 81, section:Mosale
  43. Foekema (1996), p. 27
  44. Foekema (1996), p. 22, p. 28, section:The plan of the temples
  45. under the projecting roof overhanging the wall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)
  46. Art critic Percy Brown calls this one of the distinguishing features of Hoysala art. (Kamath 2001, p. 134)
  47. Sastri (1955), pp. 428–429; Foekema (1996), pp. 28–29; Kamath (2001), p. 135
  48. The epic frieze is the most exciting feature of their sculptures (Foekema 1996, p. 29)
  49. Foekema (1996), p. 29
  50. Thapar, Binda (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. p. 69. ISBN 0-7946-0011-5.
  51. 1,500 temples in 958 centres were built, according to historical records, between 1000 and 1346 CE. Settar S. "Hoysala Heritage". Frontline, Volume 20 – Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003. Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  52. According to Percy Brown, Hoysala architecture and sculpture have been called a "phenomenal effort of human concentration, skill, and religious consciousness" (Percy Brown in Kamath 2001, p. 134)
  53. Kamath (2001) p. 136
  54. Kamiya Takeo. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996". Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Gerard da Cunha. Retrieved 13 November 2006. – The Western Chalukya carvings were done in greenschist (soapstone), a technique adopted by the Hoysalas
  55. The most prominent feature of Kadamba architecture is their shikhara, called "Kadamba shikhara". The shikhara is pyramid-shaped and rises in steps without any decoration and has a stupika or kalasha on the top (Kamath 2001, p. 38)
  56. Raghavendra, Srinidhi (9 August 2005). "In need of support". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011.
  57. Githa U.B. (11 May 2004). "Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura". Deccan Herald. Chitralakshana. Archived from the original on 4 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  58. Premkumar P.B. (20 January 2004). "Architectural marvel". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 22 January 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  59. Sastri (1955), p. 299
  60. Chandragutti, Raghavendra (25 January 2005). "A glimpse of the lost grandeur". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 14 December 2014. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  61. Githa U.B. (11 May 2004). "Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 4 December 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
  62. Foekema (1996), p. 57
  63. Hardy (1995), p. 326
  64. Foekema (1996), p. 47
  65. Hardy (1995), p. 325
  66. Foekema (1996), p. 59
  67. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 329
  68. "Parsvanatha Basti". Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle. ASI Bengaluru Circle. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
  69. "Shantinatha Basti". Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle. ASI Bengaluru Circle. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  70. "Adinatha Basti". Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle. ASI Bengaluru Circle. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  71. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 334
  72. "Rameshvara Temple". Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle. ASI Bengaluru Circle. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  73. Foekema (2003), p. 59, p. 72
  74. Foekema (1996), p. 77
  75. Hardy (1995), p. 343
  76. Foekema (2003), p. 37
  77. Foekema (1996), p. 37
  78. Hardy (1995), p. 320
  79. Foekema (1996), p. 81
  80. Hardy (1995), p. 339
  81. Foekema (1996), p. 53
  82. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 324
  83. Foekema (1996), pp. 62–63
  84. Foekema (1996), p. 41
  85. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 321
  86. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 331
  87. Cousens (1926), p. 93
  88. Foekema (1996), p. 43
  89. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 67
  90. Hardy (1995), p. 328
  91. "Panchalingeshvara Temple". Archaeological Survey of India, Bengaluru Circle. ASI Bengaluru Circle. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  92. ^ Foekema (1996), p. 83
  93. ^ Hardy (1995), p. 340
  94. Foekema (1996), p. 71
  95. Hardy (1995), p. 332
  96. Foekema (1996), p. 73
  97. Hardy (1995), p. 333
  98. Foekema (1996), p. 39
  99. Foekema (1996), p. 87
  100. Hardy (1995), p. 346

References

Book

  • Cousens, Henry (1996) . The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. OCLC 37526233.
  • Foekema, Gerard (1996). Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples. New Delhi: Abhinav. ISBN 81-7017-345-0.
  • Foekema, Gerard (2003) . Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-215-1089-9.
  • Hardy, Adam (1995) . Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries. New Delhi: Abhinav. ISBN 81-7017-312-4.
  • Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) . A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 80905179. OCLC 7796041.
  • Sastry, K.A. Nilakanta (2002) . A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.

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