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The '''Yolmo''' people (also ''Yholmo'', ''Hyolmo'', ''Yolmopa'', ''Hyolopa'') are an ] that natively reside in north-eastern ], situated over 120 kilometres/76 miles to the north of ]. They also have sizeable communities in some territories within ], viz. ] and ], and ]. They speak the Yolmo language. The '''Yolmo''' people (also ''Yholmo'', ''Hyolmo'', ''Yolmopa'', ''Hyolopa'') are an ] that natively reside in north-eastern ] and in regions of ] adjacent to its boundaries, most notably the ], situated over 120 kilometres/76 miles to the north of ]. They also have sizeable communities in some territories within ], viz. ] and ], and ]. They speak the ] which has a high lexical similarity to ], although it is not mutually intelligible with Tibetan.


In the 1980s, an increasing number of Yolmos began identifying themselves as the "]", even using the appellation as a surname to align themselves with the more prominent ] of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=G. E.|title=Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson|year=1980|publisher=Aris and Phillips|location=Warminster|page=79|editor=M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi}}</ref> Although this name is still used to refer to the Yolmo people and their language in certain instances, including the ] language codes,<ref>{{cite web|last=Lewis|first=M. Paul|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=scp|accessdate=17 February 2013}}</ref> very few Yolmo people would be likely to identify themselves as a subsection of the Sherpas in the current date.<ref>{{cite book|last=Desjarlais|first=Robert|title=Sensory biographies : lives and deaths among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|pages=12}}</ref> In the 1980s, an increasing number of Yolmos began identifying themselves as the "]", even using the appellation as a surname to align themselves with the more prominent ] of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=G. E.|title=Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson|year=1980|publisher=Aris and Phillips|location=Warminster|page=79|editor=M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi}}</ref> Although this name is still used to refer to the Yolmo people and their language in certain instances, including the ] language codes,<ref>{{cite web|last=Lewis|first=M. Paul|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=scp|accessdate=17 February 2013}}</ref> very few Yolmo people would be likely to identify themselves as a subsection of the Sherpas in the current date.<ref>{{cite book|last=Desjarlais|first=Robert|title=Sensory biographies : lives and deaths among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|pages=12}}</ref>


==Characteristics== ==Characteristics==
Yolmo speakers migrated from the more norther Kyirong valley some time around two to three hundred years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = A Helambu History|last = Clarke|first = Graham E.|date = 1980|journal = Journal of the Nepal Research Centre|doi = |pmid = |access-date = |issue = 4|page = 1-38}}</ref> When they arrived in the Helambu valley area the male Lamas often married local Tamang women.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Lama and Tamang in Yolmo|last = Clarke|first = Graham E.|date = 1980|journal = Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson|doi = |pmid = |access-date = |page = 79-86}}</ref>


<nowiki> </nowiki>The Yolmos are among the 59 indigenous groups officially recognized by the ] of Nepal as having a distinct ].<ref name="Indigenous Voice">{{cite web|title=Hyolmo: Who is Yolmopa/Hyolmo?|url=http://www.indigenousvoice.com/indigenous-peoples/5/hyolmo.html|publisher=Indigenous Voice|accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref> They refer to themselves as the "Yolmopa" or "Hyolopa".<ref name="Indigenous Voice" /> Their primary religion is ] of the Ningmapa school, intermixed with ] and ] in the form of Sharmanism.<ref name="Indigenous Voice" /> <nowiki> </nowiki>The Yolmos are among the 59 indigenous groups officially recognized by the ] of Nepal as having a distinct ].<ref name="Indigenous Voice">{{cite web|title=Hyolmo: Who is Yolmopa/Hyolmo?|url=http://www.indigenousvoice.com/indigenous-peoples/5/hyolmo.html|publisher=Indigenous Voice|accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref> They refer to themselves as the "Yolmopa" or "Hyolopa".<ref name="Indigenous Voice" /> Their primary religion is ] of the Ningmapa school, intermixed with ] and ] in the form of Sharmanism.<ref name="Indigenous Voice" />


Yolmo are traditionally agriculturalists, growing potatoes alongside other crops, and also yak herders.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Himalayan Herders|last = Bishop|first = Naomi|publisher = Harcourt Brace College Publishers|year = 1998|isbn = 9780534440602|location = Fort Worth; London|pages = }}</ref> The Helambu area has become a tourist trekking area in the last few decades, and some Yolmo are now employed in the tourism industry, either in their own village or as a guide. Yolmo are traditionally agriculturalists, growing potatoes alongside other crops, and also yak herders.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Himalayan Herders|last = Bishop|first = Naomi|publisher = Harcourt Brace College Publishers|year = 1998|isbn = 9780534440602|location = Fort Worth; London|pages = }}</ref> The Helambu area has become a tourist trekking area in the last few decades, and some Yolmo are now employed in the tourism industry, either in their own village or as a guide.


Yolmo speakers belong to ] clans. Yolmo used to practice a form of bride stealing, but that practice no longer occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Crossing 'capture' out: On the marginality of the capture marriage tactics in Yolmo, Nepal|last = Sato|first = Seika|date = 1997|journal = 帝京社会学第|doi = |pmid = |access-date = |edition = }}</ref> Yolmo speakers belong to ] clans. Yolmo used to practice a form of bride stealing, but that practice no longer occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Crossing 'capture' out: On the marginality of the capture marriage tactics in Yolmo, Nepal|last = Sato|first = Seika|date = 1997|journal = 帝京社会学第|doi = |pmid = |access-date = |edition = }}</ref>


==Distribution== ==Distribution==

Revision as of 21:00, 1 April 2015

The Yolmo people (also Yholmo, Hyolmo, Yolmopa, Hyolopa) are an indigenous group that natively reside in north-eastern Nepal and in regions of Tibet adjacent to its boundaries, most notably the Kyirong valleys, situated over 120 kilometres/76 miles to the north of Kathmandu. They also have sizeable communities in some territories within India, viz. Darjeeling and Sikkim, and Bhutan. They speak the Yolmo language which has a high lexical similarity to Tibetan, although it is not mutually intelligible with Tibetan.

In the 1980s, an increasing number of Yolmos began identifying themselves as the "Helambu Sherpa", even using the appellation as a surname to align themselves with the more prominent Sherpa people of the Solukhumbu District. Although this name is still used to refer to the Yolmo people and their language in certain instances, including the ISO 639-3 language codes, very few Yolmo people would be likely to identify themselves as a subsection of the Sherpas in the current date.

Characteristics

Yolmo speakers migrated from the more norther Kyirong valley some time around two to three hundred years ago. When they arrived in the Helambu valley area the male Lamas often married local Tamang women.

The Yolmos are among the 59 indigenous groups officially recognized by the government of Nepal as having a distinct cultural identity. They refer to themselves as the "Yolmopa" or "Hyolopa". Their primary religion is Tibetan Buddhism of the Ningmapa school, intermixed with animism and paganism in the form of Sharmanism.

Yolmo are traditionally agriculturalists, growing potatoes alongside other crops, and also yak herders. The Helambu area has become a tourist trekking area in the last few decades, and some Yolmo are now employed in the tourism industry, either in their own village or as a guide.

Yolmo speakers belong to patrilineal clans. Yolmo used to practice a form of bride stealing, but that practice no longer occurs.

Distribution

Nepal

According to the Nepal National Census of 2011, the population of the Yolmo people living within Nepal is 10,752, and they are distributed over 11 districts of the country. 99% from this population speak the Yolmo language. The number of monolingual Yolmo speakers is very low and on a gradual decline, as many people also speak Nepali. The largest Yolmo settlements, comprising a total of about 10,000 people, are located in the Helambu and Melamchi valleys, about 44 and 27 kilometres/27 and 17 miles to the northeast of Kathmandu, respectively. A separate group of about 700 reside in the Lamjung district and some have settled closer to Pokhora. There are also a number of villages in the Ilam district where Yolmo is spoken.

Other countries

The Yolmos are listed as a Scheduled Tribe in the states of West Bengal and Sikkim in India. The Yolmo language is also spoken by a considerable population in south-western Tibet and Bhutan.

Etymology

The term "Yolmo" or "Hyolmo" consists of two separate words — Hyol, which means "a place or area surrounded by high mountains", and Mo, "goddess", indicating a place under the protection of a female deity. For centuries, Tibetan Buddhists have referred to the Helambu region using the term "Yolmo". In more recent times, most people, Yolmos and otherwise, seem to prefer the name "Helambu" itself. It is often claimed that the name "Helambu" is derived from the Yolmo words for potatoes and radishes (Hey means "potato" and lahbu is "radish"). This etymology is disputed and often considered spurious. Some refuters of this explanation argue that "Helambu" is an ambiguation of the word "Yolmo" derived from Nepali.

There is an ongoing discussion amongst Yolmo scholars regarding the spelling of 'Yolmo' in the Latin script. Some favour 'Yolmo' while others prefer 'Hyolmo' or 'Yholmo'. The presence of the letter 'h' in the spelling is to indicate that the word is spoken with a low, breathy tone. It is worth noting that Robert R. Desjarlais and Graham E. Clarke (works cited below) both use 'Yolmo', while the Nepal Aadibasi Janajati Mahasang (Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities) uses 'Hyolmo'.

Language

Main article: Yolmo language

The Yolmo language is closely related to Kagate, another language of the Kyirong-Kagate group. Kagate speakers moved from the Yolmo area to Ramechhap further east around a century ago. The groups in Lamjung and Ilam have also historically been called Kagate but do not prefer this term now. Some will use Yolmo and Kagate as terms for both the ethnic group and language interchangeably. The varieties are mutually intelligible.

Further reading

  • Bishop, Naomi H. (1989). "From zomo to yak: Change in a Sherpa village." Human Ecology 17(2): 177-204.
  • Bishop, Naomi H. (1993). "Circular migration and families: A Yolmo Sherpa example." South Asia Bulletin 13(1 & 2): 59-66.
  • Bishop, Naomi H. (1997). Himalayan herders. Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources. with John Melville Bishop (Writers).
  • Bishop, Naomi H. (1998). Himalayan herders. Fort Worth; London: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1980). The temple and kinship amongst a Buddhist people of the Himalaya. University of Oxford, Oxford.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "A Helambu History." Journal of the Nepal Research Centre 4: 1-38.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "Lama and Tamang in Yolmo." Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson. M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi (eds). Warminster, Aris and Phillips: 79-86.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1983). "The great and little traditions in the study of Yolmo, Nepal." Contributions on Tibetan language, history and culture. E. Steinkellner and H. Tauscher (eds). Vienna, Arbeitskreis fuèr Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, University of Vienna: 21-37.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1985). "Hierarchy, status and social history in Nepal." Contexts and Levels: Anthropological essays on hierarchy. R. H. Barnes, D. De Coppet and R. J. Parkin (eds). Oxford, JASO Occasional Papers, 4(1): 193-210.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1990). "Ideas of merit (Bsod-nams), virtue (Dge-ba), blessing (byin-rlabs) and material prosperity (rten-'brel) in Highland Nepal." Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 21(2): 165-184.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1991). "Nara (na-rang) in Yolmo: A social history of hell in Helambu." Festschrift fuer Geza Uray. M. T. Much (ed.). Vienna, Arbeitskreis fuer Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, University of Vienna: 41-62.
  • Clarke, Graham E. (1995). Blood and territory as idioms of national identity in Himalayan states. Kailash, 17(3-4): 89-131.
  • Corrias, S. (2004). "Il rito sciamanico Sherpa (Helambu, Nepal)." in G.B. Sychenko et al. (eds) Music and ritual, pp. 228-239. Novosibirsk: NGK.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1989). "Healing through images: The medical flight and healing geography of Nepali Shamans." Ethos 17(3): 289-307.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1989). "Sadness, soul loss and healing among the Yolmo Sherpa." Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies: 9(2): 1-4.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1991). "Dreams, divination and Yolmo ways of knowing." Dreaming 1: 211-224.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1991). "Poetic transformations of Yolmo sadness." Culture, medicine and psychiatry 15: 387-420.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1992). "Yolmo aesthetics of body, health and "soul loss"." Social Science and Medicine 34(10): 1105-1117.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (1992). Body and emotion : the aesthetics of illness and healing in the Nepal Himalayas. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (2000). "Echoes of a Yolmo Buddhist's life, in death." Cultural Anthropology 15(2): 260-293.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (2002). "'So: Ragged woman'": The aesthetics and ethics of skilled action among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists. Ethnography 3(2): 149-175.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (2003). Sensory biographies: lives and deaths among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Desjarlais, Robert (2014). "Liberation upon hearing: Voice, morality, and death in a Buddhist world." Ethos 42(1): 101–118.
  • Ehrhard, Franz-Karl (1997). "A “Hidden Land” in the Tibetan-Nepalese Borderlands." In Alexander W. Macdonald (ed.) Mandala and Landscape, pp. 335-364. New Dehli: D.K. Printworld.
  • Ehrhard, Franz-Karl (1997). "The lands are like a wiped golden basin”: The Sixth Zhva-dmar-pa’s Journey to Nepal. In S. Karmay and P. Sagant (eds) Les habitants du Toit du monde, pp. 125-138. Nanterre: Société d’ethnologie.
  • Ehrhard, Franz-Karl (2004). “The Story of How bla-ma Karma Chos-bzang Came to Yol-mo”: A Family Document from Nepal. In Shoun Hino and Toshihiro Wada (eds) Three Mountains and Seven Rivers, p. 581-600. New Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
  • Ehrhard, Franz-Karl (2007). "A Forgotten Incarnation Lineage: The Yol-mo-ba Sprul-skus (16th to 18th Centuries)". In Ramon Prats (ed.) The Pandita and the Siddha: Tibetan Studies in Honour of E. Gene Smith, p. 25-49. Dharamsala: Amnye Machen Institute.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2010). "Lamjung Yolmo: a dialect of Yolmo, also known as Helambu Sherpa." Nepalese Linguistics 25: 34-41.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2011). Lamjung Yolmo-Nepali-English dictionary. Melbourne, Custom Book Centre; The University of Melbourne.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2011). "Reported speech in Lamjung Yolmo." Nepalese Linguistics, 26: 25-35.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2013). Lamjung Yolmo copulas in use: Evidentiality, reported speech and questions. PhD thesis, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2013). "Notes on the relationship between Yolmo and Kagate." Himalayan Linguistics 12(2), 1-27.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2014). "Similar languages, different dictionaries: A discussion of the Lamjung Yolmo and Kagate dictionary projects." In G. Zuckermann, J. Miller & J. Morley (eds.), Endangered Words, Signs of Revival. Adelaide: AustraLex.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2014). Evidentiality in Lamjung Yolmo. Journal of the South East Asian Linguistics Society 7:76-96.
  • Gawne, Lauren (2015). Language documentation and division: Bridging the digital divide. Digital Studies.
  • Gawne, Lauren (forthcoming). A sketch grammar of Lamjung Yolmo. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics.
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C.(1975). "Preliminary notes on marriage and kinship among the Sherpas of Helambu." Contributions to Nepalese studies 2(1): 57-69.
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C.(1980). "Growing old in Helambu: Aging, migration and family structure among Sherpas." Contributions to Nepalese studies 8(1): 41-56. with Cynthia M. Beall.
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C.(1983). "High altitude hypoxia, culture, and human fecundity/fertility: A comparative study." American Anthropologist 85(1): 28-49. with Paljor Tsarong & Cynthia M. Beall.
  • Grierson, George Abraham.(1909/1966). Linguistic survey of India (2d ed.). Delhi: M. Banarsidass.
  • Hári, Anna Mária (2000). Good news, the New Testament in Helambu Sherpa. Kathmandu: Samdan Publishers.
  • Hári, Anna Mária (2004). Dictionary Yolhmo-Nepali-English. Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University. with Chhegu Lama.
  • Hári, Anna Mária (2010). Yohlmo Sketch Grammar. Kathmandu: Ekta books.
  • Hedlin, Matthew (2011). An Investigation of the relationship between the Kyirong, Yòlmo, and Standard Spoken Tibetan speech varieties. Masters thesis, Payap University, Chiang Mai.
  • Mitchell, Jessica R. and Stephanie R. Eichentopf (2013). Sociolinguistic survey of Kagate: Language vitality and community desires. Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics Tribhuvan University, Nepal and SIL International.
  • Parkhomenko, N.A. and G.B. Sychenko (2004). "Shyab-ru: Round dance-Songs of the Sherpa-Yolmo of Nepal." in G.B. Sychenko et al. (eds) Music and ritual, pp. 269-285. Novosibirsk: NGK.
  • Pokharel, Binod (2005). "Adaptation and identity of Yolmo." Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology 9, 91-119.
  • Sato, Seika (2006). "Discourse and practice of Janajt-building: Creative (dis)junctions with local communities among the people from Yolmo." Studies in Nepali History and Society 11(2): 355-388.
  • Sato, Seika (2007). "I Don't Mind Being Born a Woman the status and agency of women in Yolmo Nepal."Social Dynamics in Northern South Asia, Vol. 1: Nepalis Inside and Outside Nepal. H. Ishii, D. N. Gellner & K. Nawa (eds). New Dehli: Manohar, 191-222
  • Sato, Seika (2007). "「私は行かないといった」ネパール・ヨルモ女性の結婚をめぐる語りにみる主体性 " 東洋文化研究所紀要 152: 472-424(137-185).
  • Sato, Seika (2007). "Crossing 'capture' out: On the marginality of the capture marriage tactics in Yolmo, Nepal." 帝京社会学第 20: 71-100.
  • Sato, Seika (2008). "‘We women have to get married off’: Obedience, accomodation, and resistance in the narrative of a Yolmo woman from Nepal." Studies in Nepali History and Society 13(2): 265–296.
  • Sato, Seika (2009). "彼女との長い会話 あるネパール女性のライフ・ストーリー (pt. 1)." 帝京社会学第 22: 69-104.
  • Sato, Seika (2010). "彼女との長い会話 あるネパール女性のライフ・ストーリー" (pt. 2). 帝京社会学第 23: 171-240.
  • Sychenko, G.B. (2009). "In the place, where angels live (Musical ethnographic expedition in Nepal, 2007, part 1)." in Siberian ethnological expedition: Comparative research of the process of transformation of intonational cultures of Siberia and Nepal, pp. 104-125. Novosibirsk: NGK.
  • Sychenko, G.B. and A.V. Zolotukhina (2012). "Hyolmo of Nepal: Ritual, myth, music." in Pax Sonoris N.
  • Torri, Davide (2008). "Il sacro diffuso. Religione e pratica sciamanica presso l'etnia himalayana degli Yolmo." Scritture di Storia 5: 7-32.
  • Torri, Davide (2011). "Shamanic Traditions and Music among the Yolmos of Nepal." Musikè International Journal of Ethnomusicological Studies 5, III(1): 81-93.
  • Torri, Davide (2013). "Between a rock and a hard place: Himalayanencounters with human and other-than-human opponents." Shamanism and violence: Power, repression and suffering in indigenous religious conflict. D. Riboli & D. Torri (eds.). Abingdon: Ashgate.
  • Torri, Davide (forthcoming). Il Lama e il Bombo. Sciamanismo e Buddhismo tra gli Hyolmo del Nepal. Rome: Sapienza.
  • Zolotukhina, A.V. (2011). "Rural ritual and secular traditions in the urban context: Music of Hyolmo (Kathmandu, Nepal)." in Musical urban culture as an artistic and social problem: Proceedings of the Scientific Conference (April, 2011), pp. 67-74. Novosibirsk: NGK. With G.B. Sychenko.
  • Zolotukhina, A.V. (2012). "Ritual Phurdok (pur-pa puja) and its musical features." in Music and time 1:32-36.

References

  1. Clarke, G. E. (1980). M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi (ed.). Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson. Warminster: Aris and Phillips. p. 79.
  2. Lewis, M. Paul. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition". Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  3. Desjarlais, Robert (2003). Sensory biographies : lives and deaths among Nepal's Yolmo Buddhists. California: University of California Press. p. 12.
  4. Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "A Helambu History". Journal of the Nepal Research Centre (4): 1-38.
  5. Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "Lama and Tamang in Yolmo". Tibetan Studies in honor of Hugh Richardson: 79-86.
  6. ^ "Hyolmo: Who is Yolmopa/Hyolmo?". Indigenous Voice. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
  7. Bishop, Naomi (1998). Himalayan Herders. Fort Worth; London: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ISBN 9780534440602.
  8. Sato, Seika (1997). "Crossing 'capture' out: On the marginality of the capture marriage tactics in Yolmo, Nepal". 帝京社会学第.
  9. ^ Gawne, Lauren (2013). "Report on the relationship between Yolmo and Kagate" (PDF). Himalayan Linguistics. 12(2): 1–27.
  10. List of Notified Scheduled Tribes, Census of India
  11. Clarke, Graham E. (1980). "A Helambu History". Journal of the Nepal Research Centre. 4: 1–38.
  12. Clarke, Graham E. (1980). M. Aris and A. S. S. Kyi (ed.). Lama and Tamang in Yolmo. Warminster: Aris and Phillips. pp. 79–86.
  13. Hari, Anne Marie (2010). Yolmo Grammar Sketch. Kathmandu: Ekta Books. p. 1.
  14. "Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities". Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities. Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities. 2014. Retrieved 24/11/2014. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
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