Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 51.158.69.142 (talk) at 17:33, 8 January 2019 (important). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Arctic fox
Conservation status
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Family:	Canidae
Genus:	Vulpes
Species:	V. lagopus
Binomial name
Vulpes lagopus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Arctic fox range
Synonyms
List Alopex lagopus (Linnaeus, 1758) Canis lagopus Linnaeus, 1758 Canis fuliginosus Bechstein, 1799 Canis groenlandicus Bechstein, 1799 Vulpes arctica Oken, 1816 Vulpes hallensis Merriam, 1900 Vulpes pribilofensis Merriam, 1903 Vulpes beringensis Merriam, 1903

The Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), also known as the white fox, polar fox, or snow fox, is a small fox native to the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and common throughout the Arctic tundra biome. It is well adapted to living in cold environments, and is best known for its thick, warm fur that is also used as camouflage. On average, Arctic foxes only live 3–4 years in the wild. Its body length ranges from 46 to 68 cm (18 to 27 in), with a generally rounded body shape to minimize the escape of body heat.

The Arctic fox preys on many small creatures such as lemmings, voles, ringed seal pups, fish, waterfowl, and seabirds. It also eats carrion, berries, seaweed, and insects and other small invertebrates. Arctic foxes form monogamous pairs during the breeding season and they stay together to raise their young in complex underground dens. Occasionally, other family members may assist in raising their young. Natural predators of the Arctic fox are golden eagles, polar bears, wolverines, red foxes, wolves, and grizzly bears.

BIG CHUNGUS OVER ALL

Adaptations

The Arctic fox lives in some of the most frigid extremes on the planet, but they do not start to shiver until the temperature drops to −70 °C (−94 °F). Among its adaptations for survival in the cold is its dense, multilayered pelage, which provides excellent insulation. Additionally, the Arctic fox is the only canid whose foot pads are covered in fur. There are two genetically distinct coat color morphs: white and blue. In the winter the white morph is white in color and turns brown along the back with light grey around the abdomen in summer. The blue morph is often a dark blue, brown, or grey color year-round. Although the blue allele is dominant over the white allele, 99% of the Arctic fox population is the white morph. The fur of the Arctic fox provides the best insulation of any mammal.

The fox has a low surface area to volume ratio, as evidenced by its generally compact body shape, short muzzle and legs, and short, thick ears. Since less of its surface area is exposed to the Arctic cold, less heat escapes from its body.

Sensory modalities

The Arctic fox has a functional hearing range between 125 Hz–16 kHz with a sensitivity that is ≤ 60 dB in air, and an average peak sensitivity of 24 dB at 4 kHz. Overall, the Arctic foxes hearing is less sensitive than the dog and the kit fox. The Arctic fox and the kit fox have a low upper-frequency limit compared to the domestic dog and other carnivores. The Arctic fox can easily hear lemmings burrowing under 4-5 inches of snow. When it has located its prey, it pounces and punches through the snow to catch its victim.

The Arctic fox also has a keen sense of smell. They can smell carcasses that are often left by polar bears anywhere from 10–40 km. It is possible that they use their sense of smell to also track down polar bears. Additionally, Arctic foxes can smell and find frozen lemmings under 46–77 cm of snow, and can detect a subnivean seal lair under 150 cm of snow.

Physiology

The Arctic fox contains advantageous genes to overcome extreme cold and starvation periods. Transcriptome sequencing has identified two genes that are under positive selection: Glycolipid transfer protein domain containing 1 (GLTPD1) and V-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 2 (AKT2). GLTPD1 is involved in the fatty acid metabolism, while AKT2 pertains to the glucose metabolism and insulin signaling.

The average mass specific BMR and total BMR are 37% and 27% lower in the winter than the summer. The Arctic fox decreases its BMR via metabolic depression in the winter to conserve fat storage and minimize energy requirements. According to the most recent data, the lower critical temperature of the Arctic fox is at -7 °C in the winter and 5 °C in the summer. It was commonly believed that the Arctic fox had a lower critical temperature below -40 °C. However, some scientists have concluded that this stat is not accurate since it was never tested using the proper equipment.

About 22% of the total body surface area of the Arctic fox dissipates heat readily compared to red foxes at 33%. The regions that have the greatest heat loss are the nose, ears, legs, and feet, which is useful in the summer for thermal heat regulation. Also, the Arctic fox has a beneficial mechanism in their nose for evaporative cooling like dogs, which keeps the brain cool during the summer and exercise. The thermal conductivity of Arctic fox fur in the summer and winter is the same; however, the thermal conductance of the Arctic fox in the winter is lower than the summer since fur thickness increases by 140%. In the summer, the thermal conductance of the Arctic foxes body is 114% higher than the winter, but their body core temperature is constant year-round.

One way that Arctic foxes regulate their body temperature is by utilizing a countercurrent heat exchange in the blood of their legs. Arctic foxes can constantly keep their feet above the tissue freezing point (-1 °C) when standing on cold substrates without losing mobility or feeling pain. They do this by increasing vasodilation and blood flow to a capillary rete in the pad surface, which is in direct contact with the snow rather than the entire foot. They selectively vasoconstrict blood vessels in the center of the foot pad, which conserves energy and minimizes heat loss. Arctic foxes maintain the temperature in their paws independently from the core temperature. If the core temperature drops, the pad of the foot will remain constantly above the tissue freezing point.

Size

The average head-and-body length of the male is 55 cm (22 in), with a range of 46 to 68 cm (18 to 27 in), while the female averages 52 cm (20 in) with a range of 41 to 55 cm (16 to 22 in). In some regions, no difference in size is seen between males and females. The tail is about 30 cm (12 in) long in both sexes. The height at the shoulder is 25 to 30 cm (9.8 to 11.8 in). On average males weigh 3.5 kg (7.7 lb), with a range of 3.2 to 9.4 kg (7.1 to 20.7 lb), while females average 2.9 kg (6.4 lb), with a range of 1.4 to 3.2 kg (3.1 to 7.1 lb).

Taxonomy

Vulpes lagopus is a 'true fox' belonging to the genus Vulpes of the fox tribe Vulpini, which consists of 12 extant species. It is classified under the subfamily Caninae of the canid family Canidae. Although it has previously been assigned to its own monotypic genus Alopex, recent genetic evidence now places it in the genus Vulpes along with the majority of other foxes.

It was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 as Canis lagopus. The type specimen was recovered from Lapland, Sweden. The generic name vulpes is Latin for "fox". The specific name lagopus is derived from Ancient Greek λαγώς (lagōs, "hare") and πούς (pous, "foot"), referring to the hair on its feet similar to those found in cold-climate species of hares.

Looking at the most recent phylogeny, the Arctic fox diverged from the domesticated dog (Canis lupus familiaris) at approximately 12 MYA. The Arctic fox and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) diverged approximately 3.17MYA. Additionally, the Arctic fox diverged from its sister group, the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), at about 0.9MYA.

Origins

The origins of the Arctic fox have been described by the “out of Tibet” hypothesis. On the Tibetan Plateau, fossils of the extinct ancestral Arctic fox (Vulpes qiuzhudingi) from the early Pliocene (5.08-3.6 MYA) were found along with many other precursors of modern mammals that evolved during the Pliocene (5.3-2.6 MYA). It is believed that this ancient fox is the ancestor of the modern Arctic fox. Globally, the Pliocene was about 2-3 °C warmer than today, and the Arctic during the summer in the mid-Pliocene was 8 °C warmer. By using stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of fossils, researchers claim that the Tibetan Plateau experienced tundra-like conditions during the Pliocene and harbored cold-adapted mammals that later spread to North America and Eurasia during the Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million-11,700 years ago).

Subspecies

Besides the nominate subspecies, the common Arctic fox, V. l. lagopus, four other subspecies of this fox have been described:

• Bering Islands Arctic fox, V. l. beringensis
• Greenland Arctic fox, V. l. foragoapusis
• Iceland Arctic fox, V. l. fuliginosus
• Pribilof Islands Arctic fox, V. l. pribilofensis

Distribution and habitat

The Arctic fox has a circumpolar distribution and occurs in Arctic tundra habitats in northern Europe, northern Asia, and North America. Its range includes Greenland, Iceland, Fennoscandia, Svalbard, Jan Mayen (where it was hunted to extinction) and other islands in the Barents Sea, northern Russia, islands in the Bering Sea, Alaska, and Canada as far south as Hudson Bay. In the late 19th century, it was introduced into the Aleutian Islands southwest of Alaska. However, the population on the Aleutian Islands is currently being eradicated in conservation efforts to preserve the local bird population. It mostly inhabits tundra and pack ice, but is also present in Canadian boreal forests (northeastern Alberta, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, Northern Ontario, Northern Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador) and the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska. They are found at elevations up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level and have been seen on sea ice close to the North Pole.

The Arctic fox is the only land mammal native to Iceland. It came to the isolated North Atlantic island at the end of the last ice age, walking over the frozen sea. The Arctic Fox Center in Súðavík contains an exhibition on the Arctic fox and conducts studies on the influence of tourism on the population. Its range during the last ice age was much more extensive than it is now, and fossil remains of the Arctic fox have been found over much of northern Europe and Siberia.

The color of the fox's coat also determines where they are most likely to be found. The white morph mainly lives inland and blends in with the snowy tundra, while the blue morph occupies the coasts because its dark color blends in with the cliffs and rocks.

• Arctic fox in winter pelage, Iceland
• Arctic fox

Migrations and travel

During the winter, 95.5% of Arctic foxes utilize commuting trips, which remain within the fox's home range. Commuting trips in Arctic foxes last less than 3 days and occur between 0-2.9 times a month. Nomadism is found in 3.4% of the foxes, and loop migrations (where the fox travels to a new range, then returns to its home range) are the least common at 1.1%. Arctic foxes in Canada that undergo nomadism and migrations voyage from the Canadian archipelago to Greenland and northwestern Canada. The duration and distance traveled between males and females is not significantly different.

Arctic foxes closer to goose colonies (located at the coasts) are less likely to migrate. Meanwhile, foxes experiencing low-density lemming populations are more likely to make sea ice trips. Residency is common in the Arctic fox population so that they can maintain their territories. Migratory foxes have a mortality rate >3 times higher than resident foxes. Nomadic behavior becomes more common as the foxes age.

Conservation status

The conservation status of the species is in general good and several hundred thousand individuals are estimated to remain in total. The IUCN has assessed it as being of "least concern". However, the Scandinavian mainland population is acutely endangered, despite being legally protected from hunting and persecution for several decades. The estimate of the adult population in all of Norway, Sweden, and Finland is fewer than 200 individuals. As a result, the populations of arctic fox have been carefully studied and inventoried in places such as the Vindelfjällens Nature Reserve (Sweden), which has the arctic fox as its symbol.

The abundance of the Arctic fox tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings and voles (a 3- to 4-year cycle). The populations are especially vulnerable during the years when the prey population crashes, and uncontrolled trapping has almost eradicated two subpopulations.

The pelts of Arctic foxes with a slate-blue coloration were especially valuable. They were transported to various previously fox-free Aleutian Islands during the 1920s. The program was successful in terms of increasing the population of blue foxes, but their predation of Aleutian Canada geese conflicted with the goal of preserving that species.

The Arctic fox is losing ground to the larger red fox. This has been attributed to climate change—the camouflage value of its lighter coat decreases with less snow cover. Red foxes dominate where their ranges begin to overlap by killing Arctic foxes and their kits. An alternative explanation of the red fox's gains involves the gray wolf. Historically, it has kept red fox numbers down, but as the wolf has been hunted to near extinction in much of its former range, the red fox population has grown larger, and it has taken over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern Europe, programs are in place that allow the hunting of red foxes in the Arctic fox's previous range.

As with many other game species, the best sources of historical and large-scale population data are hunting bag records and questionnaires. Several potential sources of error occur in such data collections. In addition, numbers vary widely between years due to the large population fluctuations. However, the total population of the Arctic fox must be in the order of several hundred thousand animals.

The world population of Arctic foxes is thus not endangered, but two Arctic fox subpopulations are. One is on Medny Island (Commander Islands, Russia), which was reduced by some 85–90%, to around 90 animals, as a result of mange caused by an ear tick introduced by dogs in the 1970s. The population is currently under treatment with antiparasitic drugs, but the result is still uncertain.

The other threatened population is the one in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula). This population decreased drastically around the start of the 20th century as a result of extreme fur prices, which caused severe hunting also during population lows. The population has remained at a low density for more than 90 years, with additional reductions during the last decade. The total population estimate for 1997 is around 60 adults in Sweden, 11 adults in Finland, and 50 in Norway. From Kola, there are indications of a similar situation, suggesting a population of around 20 adults. The Fennoscandian population thus numbers around 140 breeding adults. Even after local lemming peaks, the Arctic fox population tends to collapse back to levels dangerously close to nonviability.

The Arctic fox is classed as a "prohibited new organism" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing it from being imported into the country.

See also

• Arctic rabies virus

References

1. ^ "'". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2014. IUCN: e.T899A57549321. 2014. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-2.RLTS.T899A57549321.en. Retrieved 17 June 2018. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
2. Linnæus, Carl (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin) (10th ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. p. 40. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
3. Oken, Lorenz (1816). Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte. Vol. 3. Jena, Germany: August Schmid und Comp. p. 1033.
4. Merriam, C. Hart (1900). "Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. I. Descriptions of twenty-six new mammals from Alaska and British North America". Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 2: 15–16. JSTOR 24525852. Archived from the original on 4 March 2018. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
5. Merriam, C. Hart (1902). "Four New Arctic Foxes". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 15: 171. Archived from the original on 4 March 2018. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
6. Merriam 1902, pp. 171–172.
7. ^ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 532–628. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
8. ^ Lai, Sandra; Bety, Joel; Berteaux, Dominique (2017). "Movement tactics of a mobile predator in a meta-ecosystem with fluctuating resources: the arctic fox in the High Arctic". Oikos. 126 (7): 937–947. doi:10.1111/oik.03948.
9. https://www.flr.gov.nl.ca/wildlife/snp/programs/education/animal_facts/mammals/arctic_fox.html Arctic Fox] at Fisheries and Land Resources
10. Arctic Fox at National Geographic
11. Gallant, Daniel; et al. (2014). "Natal den selection by sympatric arctic and red foxes on Herschel Island, Yukon, Canada". Polar Biology. 37 (3): 333–345. doi:10.1007/s00300-013-1434-1. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
12. ^ Noren, K; et al. (2012). "From monogamy to complexity: social organization of arctic foxes (Vulpes lag opus) in contrasting ecosystems". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90 (9): 1102–1116. doi:10.1139/z2012-077. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
13. ^ Alopex lagopus at the Smithsonian Archived 13 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
14. Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, Michael Hoffmann and David W. Macdonald (eds.) (2004). Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group.
15. Cite error: The named reference ReferenceD was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference dx.doi.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. "Adaptations by the arctic fox to the polar winter" (PDF). Arctic, vol.44 no.2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
18. ^ Arctic Fox Alopex lagopus Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
19. Stansbury, Amanda; et al. (2014). "Behavioral audiogram of two Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus)". Polar Biology. 37 (3): 417–422. doi:10.1007/s00300-014-1446-5. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
20. Perry, Richard (1973). The Polar Worlds (1 ed.). New York, New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., Inc. p. 188. ISBN 0800864050.
21. Lai, Sandra; Bety, Joel; Berteaux, Dominique (2015). "Spatio–temporal hotspots of satellite– tracked arctic foxes reveal a large detection range in a mammalian predato". Movement Ecology. 3 (37). doi:10.1186/s40462-015-0065-2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
22. ^ Kumar, Vikas; et al. (2015). "Genetic signatures of adaptation revealed from transcriptome sequencing of Arctic and red foxes". BMC Genomics. 16 (585): 1–12. doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1724-9. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceE was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
25. ^ Henshaw, Robert; Underwood, Larry; Casey, Timothy (1972). "Peripheral Thermoregulation: Foot Temperature in Two Arctic Canines". Science. 175 (4025): 988–990. Bibcode:1972Sci...175..988H. doi:10.1126/science.175.4025.988. JSTOR 1732725.
26. "Arctic fox: Alopex lagopus". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
27. Boitani, Luigi (1984). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books, ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1
28. Bininda-Emonds, ORP; JL Gittleman; A Purvis (1999). "Building large trees by combining phylogenetic information: a complete phylogeny of the extant Carnivora (Mammalia)". Biol. Rev. 74 (2): 143–175. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.328.7194. doi:10.1017/S0006323199005307. PMID 10396181. Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2008. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
29. Lindblad-Toh, K.; Wade, C. M.; Mikkelsen, T. S.; Karlsson, E. K.; Jaffe, D. B.; Kamal, M.; Clamp, M.; Chang, J. L.; Kulbokas, E. J.; Zody, M. C.; Mauceli, E.; Xie, X.; Breen, M.; Wayne, R. K.; Ostrander, E. A.; Ponting, C. P.; Galibert, F.; Smith, D. R.; Dejong, P. J.; Kirkness, E.; Alvarez, P.; Biagi, T.; Brockman, W.; Butler, J.; Chin, C. W.; Cook, A.; Cuff, J.; Daly, M. J.; Decaprio, D.; et al. (2005). "Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog". Nature. 438 (7069): 803–819. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..803L. doi:10.1038/nature04338. PMID 16341006.
30. ^ Audet, Alexander M.; Robbins, C. Brian; Larivière, Serge (2002). "Alopex lagopus" (PDF). Mammalian Species. 713 (713): 1–10. doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2002)713<0001:AL>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
31. Larivière, Serge (2002). "Vulpes zerda" (PDF). Mammalian Species. 714 (714): 1–5. doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2002)714<0001:VZ>2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 December 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
32. Wang, Xiaoming; et al. (2015). "Cenozoic vertebrate evolution and paleoenvironment in Tibetan Plateau: Progress and prospects". Gondwana Research. 27 (4): 1335–1354. Bibcode:2015GondR..27.1335W. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2014.10.014. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
33. The isolated beauty of Jan Mayen | Hurtigruten US
34. Angerbjörn, A; Tannerfeldt, M. "Vulpes lagopus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T899A57549321. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
35. http://www.natureconservancy.ca/en/what-we-do/resource-centre/featured-species/mammals/arctic-fox.html
36. George A. Feldhamer; Bruce C. Thompson; Joseph A. Chapman (2003). Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation. JHU Press. pp. 511–540. ISBN 978-0-8018-7416-1. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
37. "Wildlife". Iceland Worldwide. iww.is. 2000. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
38. "The Arctic Fox Center". Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
39. ^ Angerbjörn, A.; Berteaux, D.; Ims, R. (12 November 2012). "Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)". Arctic report card: Update for 2012. NOAA Arctic Research Program. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
40. Cite error: The named reference truett was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
41. Bolen, Eric G. (1998). Ecology of North America. John Wiley and Sons. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-471-13156-4.
42. Hannah, Lee (2010). Climate Change Biology. Academic Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-12-374182-0. Archived from the original on 28 June 2014. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
43. Macdonald, David Whyte; Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio (2004). The biology and conservation of wild canids. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-851556-2. Archived from the original on 28 June 2014. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
44. Garrott, R. A.; Eberhardt, L. E. (1987). "Arctic fox". In Novak, M.; et al. (eds.). Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. pp. 395–406. ISBN 0774393653.
45. ^ Tannerfeldt, M. (1997). Population fluctuations and life history consequences in the Arctic fox. Stockholm, Sweden: Dissertation, Stockholm University.
46. Goltsman, M.; Kruchenkova, E. P.; MacDonald, D. W. (1996). "The Mednyi Arctic foxes: treating a population imperilled by disease". Oryx. 30 (4): 251–258. doi:10.1017/S0030605300021748.
47. Lönnberg, E. (1927). Fjällrävsstammen i Sverige 1926. Uppsala, Sweden: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
48. Angerbjörn, A. (1995). "Dynamics of the Arctic fox population in Sweden". Annales Zoologici Fennici. 32: 55–68. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
49. "Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 2003 – Schedule 2 Prohibited new organisms". New Zealand Government. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

Further reading

• Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). Walker's Carnivores of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-8032-7.

External links

• State of the Environment Norway: Arctic fox
• Smithsonian Institution – North American Mammals: Vulpes lagopus
• Photo Gallery by islandsmyndir.is

• Use dmy dates from June 2012
• IUCN Red List least concern species
• Arctic land animals
• Holarctic fauna
• Mammals described in 1758
• Mammals of Europe
• Mammals of Greenland
• Mammals of Iceland
• Mammals of North America
• Mammals of Russia
• Mammals of the Arctic
• Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
• Vulpes