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Proto-Kam–Sui (typically abbreviated as PKS) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kam–Sui languages.

Reconstructions

A preliminary reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui has been published by Graham Thurgood (1988). Ostapirat (1994a, 1994b) addressed issues such as breathiness and preglottalized nasals in Proto-Kam-Sui. Ostapirat (2006) also proposed that presyllables in Proto-Kam–Sui had contrastive accent.

Another reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui, mostly based on Thurgood's reconstruction, was proposed by Ilia Peiros as part of his reconstruction of Tai-Kadai, which was done without taking the Kra languages into account.

A new reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui is currently being undertaken by Peter K. Norquest. Norquest (2021) reconstructs velarized consonantal onsets and retroflexes such as *ɭ in Proto-Kam–Sui.

History

Liang & Zhang (1996) consider western Guangdong to be the original homeland of Proto-Kam–Sui. According to Liang & Zhang (1996:25–29), based on evidence from Chinese written historical records, Kam-Sui languages were originally spoken in western Guangdong, but Kam-Sui peoples later started to migrate out of Guangdong during the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty (from the years 600–800). Sui and Maonan migrations were completed by the Song dynasty, around the years 1000–1100, while the Lakkia migrated to their current location in Guangxi from Huaiji County and Fengkai County, Guangdong during the beginning of the Ming dynasty (years 1300–1400).

Lexicon

Thurgood's (1988: 209–218) reconstructed Proto-Kam–Sui forms are listed below.

• *hwaːt 'angry'
• *hnaːn 'angry'
• *taːp 'to answer'
• *mwit 'ant'
• *laːk 'arm'
• *k-xiːn 'arm'
• *khjaːk 'armpit'
• *taŋ 'arrive, reach'
• *cha 'ascend'
• *phwuːk 'ashes'
• *phlaːu 'ashes'
• *pa 'aunt'
• *hlaːi 'back(bone)'
• *lun 'back, behind'
• *hwaːi 'bad, cruel'
• *thruk 'bamboo strip'
• *xwan 'bamboo'
• *pwaŋ 'bank, shore'
• *khrau 'to bark'
• *ɗuŋ 'basket, winnowing'
• *ʔaːp 'bathe'
• *ʔmuːi 'bear'
• *m-luːt 'beard'
• *hȵiŋ 'bedbug'
• *mit 'bee'
• *daːŋ 'bee'
• *ʔdlu 'bee, wasp'
• *te 'below'
• *mluk 'bird'
• *krip 'bite; chew'
• *kam 'bitter'
• *ʔnam 'black'
• *ɓuːt 'blind'
• *phlaːt 'blood'
• *hwaːt 'blow (wind)'
• *dzup 'to blow'
• *thrun 'body'
• *tlaːk 'bone'
• *cam 'bow, bend'
• *duːi 'bowl, cup'
• *ʔŋa 'branch'
• *ciŋ 'branch'
• *praːk 'break, tear'
• **kraːŋ 'bright'
• *ɣwaːi 'brother, older'
• *dzuːk 'to bundle'
• *hmuk 'bury'
• *trai 'to buy'
• *kaːt 'cabbage'
• *laːp 'candle'
• *ʔma 'carry on back'
• *kjap 'catch, grasp'
• *kaːm 'cave'
• *khryap 'centipede'
• *tak 'chest (body)'
• *hmaːk 'to chew'
• *hnaːi 'to chew'
• *kaːi 'chicken'
• *hŋlaːŋ 'young chicken'
• *hmaːk 'to chop'
• *pram 'to chop'
• *khlap 'close (eyes)'
• *m-xwa 'cloud'
• *hnu 'cold'
• *paŋ 'collapse'
• *hma 'come; return'
• *kjaːp' 'to connect'
• *duŋ 'copper'
• *ȵai' 'count'
• *hraːŋ 'a cover'
• *khruːi 'cowry (money), shell(fish)'
• *hlaːi 'to crawl'
• *da 'cross, pass'
• *ka 'a crow'
• *kat 'to cut'
• *kaːt 'to cut'
• *hŋwan 'day'
• *ɗak 'deaf'
• *ʔyam 'deep'
• *hluːi 'descend'
• *laːi 'devil, ghost'
• *pjai 'to die'
• *di 'dirt, earth'
• *ɓja 'disgusted'
• *k-hma 'dog'
• *tu 'door'
• *gwau 'dove'
• *tak 'draw water'
• *te 'draw water'
• *pwjan 'dream'
• *trwap 'to drink'
• *tuk 'drop, fall'
• *tuk 'drop, fall'
• *dip 'dull'
• *mpraːŋ 'ear of grain'
• *khra 'ear'
• *khjam 'early'
• *caːn 'eat'
• *krai 'egg'
• *pjaːt 'eight'
• *phe 'end, tip'
• *ʔȵam 'evening'
• *hlik 'exchange'
• *ke 'excrement'
• *mpiŋ 'expensive'
• *ɗap 'extinguish'
• *thla 'eye'
• *ʔna 'face, in front'
• *lai 'to fall'
• *klaːi 'far'
• *tut 'fart'
• *gjaːŋ 'feed, raise'
• *traːi 'dry field'
• *ʔra 'paddy field'
• *ʔdlyap? 'fingernail'
• *pwai 'fire'
• *kuːn 'first'
• *mlit 'fish (loach)'
• *mprai 'fish'
• *pa 'fish'
• *mum 'fish'
• *ŋu 'five'
• *k-hmat 'flea'
• *naːn 'flesh, meat'
• *nuk'' 'flower'
• *muk 'fog'
• *praːk 'forehead'
• *ɗuŋ 'forest'
• *laːm 'to forget'
• *kup 'field frog'
• *k-wai 'small frog'
• *tiːk 'full'
• *ɗai 'to get, gain'
• *ʔȵaːk 'gills'
• *khjaːi 'to give'
• *ʔuːk 'to go out, out'
• *paːi 'to go, walk'
• *mwaːŋ 'god, ghost'
• *ɗaːi 'good'
• *gju 'granary'
• *khlaːn 'grandchild'
• *thrak 'grasshopper'
• *pram 'hair, head'
• *k-mja 'hand'
• **kra 'hard'
• *pram 'to hatch'
• *ʔnaŋ 'to have'
• *me 'to have'
• *kru 'head'
• *dai 'to hit'
• *ʔŋam 'to hold in mouth'
• *ʔuːm 'hold (child)'
• *ȵam 'to hold'
• *hŋuːm 'to hold'
• *m-kwaːu 'horn'
• *ma 'horse'
• *hraːn 'house'
• *ɓjaːk 'hungry'
• *ʔre 'husband'
• *mpaːk 'insane'
• *ȵak 'to insert'
• *tshaːp 'to insert'
• *khjaːi 'intestine'
• *khlit 'iron'
• *daːp 'to kick'
• *gruk 'to kneel'
• *miːt 'knife'
• *mbra 'knife, sword'
• *khwe 'late'
• *kru 'to laugh'
• *khlut 'lazy'
• *laːn 'lazy'
• *pwa 'leaf'
• *ʔniŋ 'to lean'
• *mpliŋ 'leech'
• *kla 'left over'
• *kwa 'leg'
• *tiːn 'leg, foot'
• *lja? 'lick'
• *ljaːm? 'lick'
• *ɓau 'light, to float'
• *ʔdlaːp 'lightning'
• *maŋ 'to like'
• *tap 'liver'
• *ʔraːi 'long'
• *kraːk 'loom'
• *tuk 'to lose, misplace'
• *nan'' 'louse'
• *mprai 'louse, chicken'
• *mprum 'to love (child)'
• *thram 'low'
• **ʔnuːn 'maggot'
• *mpaːn 'male (person)'
• *ʔme 'mark'
• *hle 'mark'
• *mpraːŋ 'mat (straw)'
• *ŋe 'meal, early'
• *mbrau 'meal, late'
• *gja 'medicine, to cure'
• *ta 'middle'
• *muːn 'monkey'
• *nüaːn'' 'moon, month'
• *hjit 'morning'
• *paːk 'mouth'
• *muːk 'mucus'
• *khlum 'mud, dirt'
• *naːm 'mud, dirt'
• *hŋla 'mushroom'
• *taːk 'to nail'
• *ɓlwa 'navel'
• *phlai 'near'
• *ke 'net (to cast)'
• *hmai 'new'
• *ʔnaŋ 'nose, face'
• *man 'oil'
• *kaːu 'old (things)'
• *ke 'old (vegetables)'
• *ɓjaːn 'otter, beaver'
• *chaːt 'otter, beaver'
• *ʔŋluːk 'outside'
• *phwa 'palm (hand)'
• *lin 'pangolin'
• *laːk 'person, child'
• *kjaːk 'pestle'
• *cup 'to pick up'
• *ɓit 'to pick (flowers)'
• *laːi 'to pick, select'
• *k-hmu 'pig'
• *ʔdlaːi 'wild pig'
• *dap 'to pile'
• *ʔlaːu 'pillar'
• *liːn 'pipe, water'
• *ljum 'to plant'
• *mpra 'to plant'
• *ʔdram 'to transplant'
• *pwak 'pod, sheath'
• *hŋlaːn 'shoulder pole'
• *ʔmiːn 'porcupine, wild pig'
• *ʔdlaːk 'to pull'
• *zuk 'pus'
• *kat 'to put'
• *naːŋ 'raft, bamboo'
• *xwin 'to rain'
• *hnu 'rat, mouse'
• *ɗip 'raw, live'
• *duk 'to read'
• *hwa 'right side'
• *zuk 'ripe, cooked'
• *hma 'to rise (river)'
• *ʔnja 'river'
• *pra 'rock, cliff'
• *kjaːŋ 'root'
• *ʔlaːk 'rope'
• *laːn 'to rot'
• *naːu 'rotten'
• **krin 'scales'
• *khjaːn 'to scare'
• *tak 'to scoop'
• *ʔlun 'to see'
• *ɗai 'to see'
• *pwan 'seed'
• *kla 'rice seedling'
• *kwe 'to sell'
• *ʔŋra 'sesame'
• *tau 'shadow'
• *ŋaːu 'to shake'
• *m-hliːn? 'shallow'
• *hraːi 'be sharp'
• *gwan 'to sharpen'
• *khjam 'sharpened, pointed'
• *ɗau 'spiral shell'
• *thrin 'short'
• *pjau 'shuttle'
• *nu 'younger sibling'
• *ʔram 'to sink'
• *dzuːi 'to sit'
• *ljuk 'six'
• *hŋra 'skin'
• *ʔrwum? 'skinny, lean'
• *ɓun 'sky'
• *nuːn 'to sleep'
• *nun 'to smell'
• *dzuːi 'snake'
• *ʔnuːi 'snow'
• *hma 'soak, pickle'
• *maːt 'socks'
• *ʔma 'soft'
• *khjum 'sour'
• *tljaːi? 'sparrow'
• *m-hljaːn 'spicy (hot)'
• *pha 'to split'
• *hmaːk 'to split'
• *ŋa 'sprout, a'
• *khlak 'stake, post'
• *ʔdraːu 'star'
• *hmlut 'star'
• *ŋjaːu 'to stay, live'
• *hljak 'to steal'
• *luŋ 'stomach'
• *mpwaːŋ 'straw'
• *kruːi 'stream'
• *kjak 'to stuff'
• *hwit' 'to stuff'
• *ʔuːi 'sugar cane'
• *ʔiːn 'a swallow'
• *phjit? 'to sweep'
• *khwaːn 'sweet'
• *khjut 'tail'
• *ʔaːu 'to take'
• *ɓraːk 'taro'
• *ʔna 'thick'
• *ʔnak 'thick, viscous'
• *ɓwaːŋ 'thin'
• *naːi 'this'
• *tiːn 'thunder'
• *lai 'thunder'
• *pra 'thunder, lightning'
• *mum 'tiger'
• *khwe 'tired'
• *ʔni 'tired'
• *ma 'tongue'
• *pjwan 'tooth'
• *hȵa 'trace, dregs'
• *mai 'tree, wood'
• *kjaːt 'to twist'
• *hra 'two'
• *ta 'uncle'
• *kam 'upside down'
• *juŋ 'to use'
• *ʔma 'vegetable'
• *hruːi 'vestige'
• *ɓaːn 'village'
• *trwak 'to vomit'
• *kra 'to wait'
• *chaːm 'to walk, crawl'
• *aːu 'to want'
• *ʔlak 'to wash clothes'
• *zuːk 'to wash hands'
• *ȵam 'water'
• *traːu 'we (incl.)'
• *tan 'to wear'
• *tam 'to weave'
• *kjaːn 'to weave, plait'
• *ne'' 'to weed'
• *ʔȵe 'to weep, cry'
• *ɓun 'well, spring'
• *ɓu 'well, spring'
• *thlam 'well, pond, pool'
• *ʔrak 'wet'
• *hlwum 'wind'
• *khlaːu 'rice wine'
• *pwa 'wing'
• *ɓjaːk 'woman, girl'
• *trit '(fire)wood'
• *dzan 'worm'
• *tuːk 'to wrap, bundle'
• *ɓjuːt? 'to wring towel'
• *kjaːt 'to write'
• *man 'yam'
• *mpe 'year'

Comparison with Proto-Tai

Some Proto-Kam-Sui lexical items are cognate with Proto-Tai but differ in proto-tone.

The reconstructions above are those of Norquest (2021).

References

1. Thurgood, Graham. 1988. "Notes on the reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 179–218. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.
2. Ostapirat, Weera. 1994a. Speculations on Proto-Kam-Sui breathy sounds. Kadai 4:79–87.
3. Ostapirat, Weera. 1994b. Two series of Proto-Kam-Sui preglottalized nasals. Kadai 4:89–92.
4. Ostapirat, Weera. (2006). Alternation of tonal series and the reconstruction of Proto-Kam-Sui Archived 2021-06-13 at the Wayback Machine. In D.-A. Ho et al. (Eds.), Linguistics Studies in Chinese and Neighboring Languages (pp. 1077–1121). Taipei: Academia Sinica. (ling.sinica.edu.tw. 2019-12-04 https://web.archive.org/web/20210613073343/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Linguistics%20Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Neighboring%20Languages/Volume%202/51-Ostapirat.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-06-13. Retrieved 2023-04-27. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help))
5. Peiros, Ilia, 1998. "Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia", Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
6. Reconstructing Language Change and Variation. Award #1461492, National Science Foundation.
7. ^ Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
8. ^ Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. Dongtai yuzu gailun 侗台语族概论 / An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. ISBN 9787500416814

External links

• Reconstruction of Proto Kam-Sui by Peter K. Norquest, hosted at the SEAlang Library

• Kam–Sui languages
• Proto-languages