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{{Short description|Any bird of the order Passeriformes, sometimes known as perching birds}}
{{Taxobox
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
| color = pink
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
| name = Passerines
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Fringilla coelebs chaffinch male edit2.jpg
| fossil_range = ]–Recent, {{fossil range|52.5|0}}
| image_width = 250px
| image = Passeriformes-01v01.jpg
| image_caption = Male ], ''Fringilla coelebs''<br/>(]: ]: ])
| image_caption = Clockwise from top right: ] (''Cinnyris osea''), ] (''Cyanocitta cristata''), ] (''Passer domesticus''), ] (''Parus major''), ] (''Corvus cornix''), ] (''Ploceus velatus'')
| regnum = ]
| image2 = Male-Songbird-Indicates-Body-Size-with-Low-Pitched-Advertising-Songs-pone.0056717.s005.ogv
| phylum = ]
| image2_caption = Song of a ] (''Malurus coronatus'')
| classis = ]
| taxon = Passeriformes
| subclassis = ]
| authority = ], ]
| infraclassis = ]
| superordo = ]
| ordo = '''Passeriformes'''
| ordo_authority = ], ]
| diversity_link = #Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families | diversity_link = #Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families
| diversity = Roughly 100 families, around 5,400 species | diversity = Roughly 140 families, 6,500 species
| subdivision_ranks = Suborders
| type_species = ''Fringilla domestica''
| subdivision = * ]
| type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758
* ''']'''
| subdivision_ranks = ]s
** ]
| subdivision =
*] ** ]
and see ]
*]
*]
and see ]
}} }}


A '''passerine''' is a ] of the gigantic ] '''Passeriformes'''. More than half of all species of bird are passerines. Sometimes known as '''perching birds''' or, less accurately, as ]s, the passerines form one of the most spectacularly diverse terrestrial ] orders: with around 5,400{{Verify source|date=May 2007}} ], it is roughly twice as diverse as the largest of the ] orders, the ]ia. A '''passerine''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|æ|s|ə|r|aɪ|n}}) is any ] of the ] '''Passeriformes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|æ|s|ə|r|ᵻ|f|ɔr|m|iː|z}}; from ] {{lang|la|passer}} 'sparrow' and {{lang|la|formis}} '-shaped') which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as '''perching birds''', passerines generally have an ] arrangement of their toes (three pointing forward and one back), which facilitates perching.


With more than 140 families and some 6,500 identified species,<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | year=2020 | title=Family Index | work=IOC World Bird List Version 10.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/classification/family-index/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=26 April 2020 }}</ref> Passeriformes is the largest order of birds and among the most diverse ]s of terrestrial ]s, representing 60% of birds.<ref name=ericson2003>Ericson, P.G.P. et al. (2003) . ''J. Avian Biol'', 34:3–15.</ref><ref name=selvatti2015>Selvatti, A.P. et al. (2015) . ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'', 88:1–15.</ref> Passerines are divided into three ]s: ] (New Zealand wrens), ] (composed mostly of ]n suboscines), and ] (oscines or songbirds).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1098/rspb.2001.1883|title = A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: Taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data|journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume = 269|issue = 1488|pages = 295–308|year = 2002|last1 = Barker|first1 = F. Keith|last2 = Barrowclough|first2 = George F.|last3 = Groth|first3 = Jeff G.| pmid=11839199 |pmc = 1690884}}</ref><ref name="ericson2002"/> Passerines originated in the ] around 60 million years ago.<ref name=ClaramuntCracraft2015>{{cite journal |last1=Claramunt |first1=S. |last2=Cracraft |first2=J. |title=A new time tree reveals Earth history's imprint on the evolution of modern birds |journal=Science Advances |date=2015 |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=e1501005 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1501005 |pmc=4730849 |pmid=26824065|bibcode=2015SciA....1E1005C }}</ref>
The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" derive from ''Passer domesticus'', the ] of the ] – the ] – and ultimately from the ] term ''passer'' for ]s and similar small birds.


Most passerines are ] or ], and eat both insects and fruit or seeds.
==Characteristics==
Many passerines are songbirds and have complex muscles to control their ]; many ] to beg for food.


The terms "passerine" and "Passeriformes" are derived from the ] of the ], ''Passer domesticus'', and ultimately from the ] term ''passer'', which refers to sparrows and similar small birds.
The order is divided into three suborders, ] (suboscines), ] (oscines), and the ] ]. Oscines have the most control of their ] muscles among birds, producing a wide range of ] and other vocalizations (though some of them, such as the ]s, do not sound musical to human beings); some such as the ] are accomplished imitators). The Acanthisitti are tiny, ]-like birds restricted to ] at least in modern times; they were long included among the Passeri, but are actually a distinct and very ancient group.


==Description==
Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerine is the ]; some ]s come close and the two species of Lyrebird are longer overall.{{Verify source|date=May 2007}}
The order is divided into three suborders, ] (suboscines), ] (oscines or songbirds), and the ] ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rise of Birds: 225 Million Years of Evolution|last=Chatterjee|first=Sankar|publisher=JHU Press|year=2015|isbn=9781421415901|pages=206–207}}</ref> Oscines have the best control of their ] muscles among birds, producing a wide range of ] and other vocalizations, though some of them, such as the ]s, do not sound musical to human beings. Some, such as the ], are accomplished mimics.<ref>Winkler, D. W., S. M. Billerman, and I.J. Lovette (2020). Lyrebirds (Menuridae), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (S. M. Billerman, B. K. Keeney, P. G. Rodewald, and T. S. Schulenberg, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, US. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.menuri1.01</ref> The ]s are tiny birds restricted to ], at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri.
]


Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the ]<ref>Madge, S. (2020). Thick-billed Raven (Corvus crassirostris), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, US. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.thbrav1.01</ref> and the larger races of ], each exceeding {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}} and {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The ] and some ], due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the ], at {{convert|6.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4.2|g|abbr=on}}.<ref>Clock, B. (2020). Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant (Myiornis ecaudatus), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, US. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.stptyr1.01</ref>
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward without any webbing or joining, and one toe directed backward. The hind toe joins the leg at the same level as the front toes. In other orders of birds the toe arrangement is different.


==Anatomy==
Most passerines lay coloured eggs, in contrast with non-passerines, whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as ] and ]s, where camouflage is necessary, and some ] ]s, which match the passerine host's egg.
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called ] arrangement. The hind toe (]) is long and joins the leg at approximately the same level as the front toes. This arrangement enables passerine birds to easily perch upright on branches. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some ]s, the second and third toes are united at their basal third.


The leg of passerine birds contains an additional special adaptation for perching. A tendon in the rear of the leg running from the underside of the toes to the muscle behind the ] will automatically be pulled and tighten when the leg bends, causing the foot to curl and become stiff when the bird lands on a branch. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off.<ref>{{cite book|last =Stefoff|first = Rebecca |date =2008|isbn = 9780761426936|title = The Bird Class |publisher = Marshall Cavendish Benchmark}}</ref><ref>Brooke, Michael and Birkhead, Tim (1991) ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Ornithology'', Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0521362059}}.</ref>
==Origin and evolution==
The evolutionary history of and relationships among the passerine families remained rather mysterious until around the end of the 20th century. Many passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of ], not a close genetic relationship. For example, the "]" of the northern hemisphere, those of ], and those of ] look very similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.


Most passerine birds have 12 tail feathers but the ] has 16,<ref>Jones, D. (2008) "Flight of fancy". ''Australian Geographic'', (89), 18–19.</ref> and several spinetails in the family ] have 10, 8, or even 6, as is the case of ]. Species adapted to tree trunk climbing such as ] and ] have stiff tail feathers that are used as props during climbing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Claramunt |first1=Santiago |last2=Derryberry |first2=Elizabeth P. |last3=Brumfield |first3=Robb T. |last4=Remsen |first4=J. V. |date=May 2012 |title=Ecological Opportunity and Diversification in a Continental Radiation of Birds: Climbing Adaptations and Cladogenesis in the Furnariidae |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/664998 |journal=The American Naturalist |language=en |volume=179 |issue=5 |pages=649–666 |doi=10.1086/664998 |pmid=22504546 |bibcode=2012ANat..179..649C |s2cid=205998536 |issn=0003-0147}}</ref> Extremely long tails used as sexual ornaments are shown by species in different families. A well-known example is the ].
Much research remains to be done, but advances in ] and improved ] data are gradually revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution. It is now thought that the first passerines evolved in ] at some time in the ], maybe around the ] some 60–55 ] (mya). The initial split was between the ], the ]s, the ] and the ], which must have diverged during a short period of time (some million years at most). The Passeriformes apparently evolved out of a fairly close-knit ] of "]s" which contains such birds as the ], ], and ]<ref>Johansson & Ericson (2003)</ref><!-- only sources last fact -->.


==Eggs and nests==
A little later, a great radiation of forms took place out of ]: the ] or songbirds. A major branch of the Passeri, "Parvorder ]", emerged either as the sister group to the basal lineages and corvoids ("Parvorder ]"), or more likely as a subgroup of it, and expanded deep into ] and ], where there was a further explosive radiation of new lineages. This eventually led to three major passeridan lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the corvoidan clade and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. There has been extensive ] mixing, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.
{{see also|List of brood parasitic passerines}}
The chicks of passerines are ]: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care. Most passerines lay colored eggs, in contrast with nonpasserines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as ] and ]s, where camouflage is necessary, and in some ] ]s, which match the passerine host's egg. The ] has two egg colors, white and blue, to deter the brood parasitic ].{{cn|date=January 2024}}


Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, while in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, hole-nesting species like ] can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six.
===Fossil record===
The family ] do not build their own nests, instead, they lay eggs in other birds' nests.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
Perching bird ], especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.<ref>See e.g. Boles (1997), Manegold ''et al.'' (2004), Mayr & Manegold (2006)</ref> However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were apparently on the small side of the present size range, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. ] specimens F20688 (]) and F24685 (]) from ] are fossil bone fragments clearly recognizable as passeriform; they represent two species of approximately some 10 and some 20 cm in overall length and prove that some 55 mya, early perching birds were recognizably distinct.<ref>Boles (1997)</ref> A quite similar group, the ] (named for their ] approach to perching) independently arose at much the same time – and possibly from closely related ancestors – in the landmasses bordering the ], which at that time was only some two-thirds of its present width.


The Passeriformes contain several groups of ]s such as the ], ]es, and the ]s.
Until the discovery of the Australian fossils, it was believed for some time that '']'' from the ] ] (Late ], around 35 mya) was the oldest known passeriform. However, it is now considered a non-passeriform ].


==Origin and evolution==
] (''Menura novaehollandiae''). This very primitive ] shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly ]ic display plumage in males.]]
The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of ], not a close genetic relationship. For example, the ], ], and ] look superficially similar and behave in similar ways, yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.{{efn|The name ] has been applied to other, unrelated birds in Australia and New Zealand. The 27 ] "wren" species in the family ] are unrelated, as are the ]s in the family Acanthisittidae; the antwrens in the family ]; and the wren-babblers of the families ], ], and ]. For the monophyly of the "true wrens", Troglodytidae, see Barker 2004.<ref name=barker04>{{cite journal | last=Barker | first=F.K. | date=2004 | title=Monophyly and relationships of wrens (Aves: Troglodytidae): a congruence analysis of heterogeneous mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=31 |issue=2 | pages=486–504 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.08.005 | pmid=15062790| bibcode=2004MolPE..31..486B }}</ref> }}
Modern knowledge about the living passerines' interrelationships (see the ] below) suggests that the last common ancestor of all living Passeriformes was a small forest bird, probably with a stubby tail<ref>The last common ancestor of all songbirds most likely had a decidedly longer tail. See del Hoyo ''et al.'' (2003, 2004).</ref> and an overall drab coloration, but possibly with marked ]. The latter trait seems to have been lost and re-evolved multiple times in songbird evolution alone, judging from its distribution among the extant lineages: the common ancestor of Passerida for example was almost certainly not markedly dimorphic considering the trait is very rare among the ] lineages of these, but very common among the youngest passerid clade, the ]; on the other hand among the basalmost Passeri there are a considerable number of strongly dimorphic lineages such as the very ancient ] as well as many ] and ]. Sexual dimorphism is also not uncommon in the ] and prominent in some suboscines such as the ] and ].


Advances in ] and improved ] data gradually are revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology, and the specifics of the fossil record.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2004.00118.x|title=The evolutionary radiation of modern birds (Neornithes): Reconciling molecules, morphology and the fossil record|date=June 2004|last1=Dyke|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Van Tuinen|first2=Marcel|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=141|issue=2|pages=153–177|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first passerines are now thought to have evolved in the ] in the late ] or early ], around 50&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="ericson2002">{{cite journal|pmc=1690883|pmid=11839192|date=7 February 2002|last1=Ericson|first1=P.G.|last2=Christidis|first2=L.|last3=Cooper|first3=A.|last4=Irestedt|first4=M.|last5=Jackson|first5=J.|last6=Johansson|first6=U.S.|last7=Norman|first7=J.A.|title=A Gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by DNA sequences of the endemic New Zealand wrens|volume=269|issue=1488|pages=235–241|doi=10.1098/rspb.2001.1877|journal=]}}</ref><ref name=ClaramuntCracraft2015/>
In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the ] onwards, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:
*'']'' (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany)<!--*Naturwissensch91:173; ActPalPol51:315 -->
*Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Early Oligocene of Luberon, France) – suboscine or basal<ref>Specimen ] Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to ] than to ]: Roux (2002), Mayr & Manegold (2006)</ref>
*Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Late Oligocene of France) – several suboscine and oscine taxa<ref>Huguenet ''et al.'' (2003), Mayr & Manegold (2006)</ref>
*Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France and Germany) – basal?<ref>Specimens ] Av 487-496; ] 86822,86825-86826; ] SA 1259–1263: ] remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes: Manegold ''et al.'' (2004)</ref>
*Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszõlõs, Hungary) – at least 2 taxa, possibly 3; at least one probably Oscines<ref>A partial ] of a probably Muscicapoidea, possibly ]; ] ] and ] of a smallish to mid-sized passerine which may be the same as the preceding; ] ] and tarsometatarsus of a ]-sized passerine: Gál ''et al.'' (1998-1999, 2000)</ref>


The initial diversification of passerines coincides with the separation of the southern continents in the ]. The ]s are the first to become isolated in ], and the second split involved the origin of the ] in ] and the ] in the ].<ref name=ericson2003/><ref name=ClaramuntCracraft2015/><ref name=selvatti2015/> The Passeri experienced a great radiation of forms in Australia. A major branch of the Passeri, the ] ], dispersed into Eurasia and Africa about 40 million years ago, where they experienced further radiation of new lineages.<ref name=ClaramuntCracraft2015/> This eventually led to three major ] lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the ] and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. Extensive ] mixing happens, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.<ref name=selvatti2015/>
''Wieslochia'' was possibly not a member of any extant suborder. That not only the Passeri expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by an undetermined ] (Eurylaimidae) from the Early ] (roughly 20 mya) of ], Germany, and the indeterminate Late Oligocene suboscine from France listed above. Even very ] Passeriformes might have been common in Europe until the Middle Miocene, some 12 mya.<ref>Manegold ''et al.'' (2004)</ref> Extant Passeri superfamilies were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the ] (about 10–2 mya). ] and early ] ] (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their ] and paleosubspecies; see also ].


===Fossil record===
In the ], the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable ]-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),<ref>Distal right ], possibly suboscine: Noriega & Chiappe (1991, 1993)</ref> an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, USA: the ] with the single genus '']''. ''"Palaeostruthus" eurius'' (Pliocene of Florida)<!-- Condor84:240 --> probably belongs to an extant family, most likely ]n.
====Earliest passerines====
] (''Menura novaehollandiae''): This unique ] shows strong ], with a peculiarly ]ic display of plumage in males.]]
Perching bird ], especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.<ref name=boles97>{{cite journal|author= Boles, Walter E. |year=1997|title= Fossil songbirds (Passeriformes) from the Early Eocene of Australia|journal=] |volume=97|issue=1|pages= 43–50|doi=10.1071/MU97004|bibcode=1997EmuAO..97...43B }}</ref><ref name=manegold04>{{cite journal|author1=Manegold, Albrecht |author2=Mayr, Gerald |author3=Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile |name-list-style=amp |year=2004|title= Miocene Songbirds and the Composition of the European Passeriform Avifauna|journal=] |volume=121|issue=4|pages= 1155–1160|doi=10.1642/0004-8038(2004)1212.0.CO;2|s2cid=73668280 |doi-access=free}}
</ref><ref name=mayr06/> However, the early fossil record is poor because passerines are relatively small, and their delicate bones do not preserve well. ] specimens F20688 (]) and F24685 (]) from ], are fossil bone fragments initially assigned to ].<ref name=boles97/> However, the material is too fragmentary and their affinities have been questioned.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mayr |first1=G |title=The age of the crown group of passerine birds and its evolutionary significance–molecular calibrations versus the fossil record |journal=Systematics and Biodiversity |date=2013 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=7–13 |doi=10.1080/14772000.2013.765521|bibcode=2013SyBio..11....7M |s2cid=85167051 }}</ref> Several more recent fossils from the ] of Europe, such as '']'', '']'', ''],'' and '']'',<ref>Bochenski, Z.M., Tomek, T., Bujoczek, M. (2021) . ''J Ornithol''. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-021-01858-0</ref> are more complete and definitely represent early passeriforms, and have been found to belong to a variety of modern and extinct lineages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Lowi-Merri |first1=Talia M. |last2=Gjevori |first2=Martina |last3=Bochenski |first3=Zbigniew M. |last4=Wertz |first4=Krzysztof |last5=Claramunt |first5=Santiago |date=2024-12-31 |title=Total-evidence dating and the phylogenetic affinities of early fossil passerines |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2356086 |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/14772019.2024.2356086 |bibcode=2024JSPal..2256086L |issn=1477-2019}}</ref>


From the ] at the ] in ], New Zealand, ] S42815 (a ] right ] of a ]-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of ]-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to ] ( to ], 19–16&nbsp;mya).<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Worthy, Trevor H. |author2=Tennyson, A.J.D. |author3=Jones, C. |author4=McNamara, J.A. |author5=Douglas, B.J. |year=2007|title= Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand|journal=] |volume=5|issue=1|pages= 1–39|doi=10.1017/S1477201906001957|bibcode=2007JSPal...5....1W |author1-link=Trevor H. Worthy |hdl=2440/43360 |s2cid=85230857 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==Systematics and taxonomy==
], ''Panurus biarmicus'', may be the most enigmatic passerine. No truly close relatives have been identified.]]
Initially{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<!-- should be some Sibley/Ahlquist stuff. They threw parvorders around them wherever they went ;-) -->, the Corvida and Passerida were classified as "]s" in the ] ]; in accord with the usual ] practice, they would probably be ranked as ]s. As originally envisioned in the ], they contained, respectively, the large ] Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea and Passeroidea.


====Early European passerines====
This arrangement has been found to be overly simplified by more recent research. Since the mid ], literally dozens of studies are being published which try rather successfully to resolve the ] of the passeriform ]. For example, the Corvida in the traditional sense were a rather arbitrary assemblage of early and/or minor lineages of passeriform birds of Old World origin, generally from the region of ], ], and ]. The Passeri on the other hand can be made monophyletic by moving some families about, but the "clean" three-superfamily-arrangement has turned out to be far more complex and it is uncertain whether future authors will stick to it.
]'' fossil]]


In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the ] onward, belonging to several lineages:
Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct species-poor lineages and consequently new families had to be established, some of them – like the ] of ] and the ]n ] – ] with only one living species.<ref>The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a Bearded Reedling are for example and .</ref>. It seems likely that in the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the ]s constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today, but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across ]. No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though it is suspected that they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Major "]" families such as the ]s and ]s have turned out to be ] and are being rearranged.
* '']'' (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany) – suboscine<ref name=":0" /><!--*Naturwissensch91:173; ActPalPol51:315 -->
* '']'' (Early Oligocene of Wola Rafałowska, Poland) – oscine<ref name=":0" />
* '']'' (Early Oligocene of Jamna Dolna, Poland) – basal<ref name=":0" />
* '']'' (Early Oligocene of Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland)
* '']'' (Early Oligocene of Poland) - suboscine<ref name=":0" />
* Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Early Oligocene of Luberon, France) – suboscine<ref name=":0" /> or basal{{efn|Specimen ] Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10&nbsp;cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to ] than to ].<ref>{{cite journal|last= Roux | first=T. |year=2002|title= Deux fossiles d'oiseaux de l'Oligocène inférieur du Luberon |trans-title=Two bird fossils from the Lower Oligocene of Luberon|journal=Courrier Scientifique du Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon |volume=6|pages=38–57 | url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/58077/CS_2002_6_38.pdf?sequence=1 }}</ref><ref name=mayr06/> }}
* Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Late Oligocene of France) – several suboscine and oscine taxa<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hugueney, Marguerite |author2=Berthet, Didier |author3=Bodergat, Anne-Marie |author4=Escuillié, François |author5=Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile |author6=Wattinne, Aurélia |name-list-style=amp |year=2003|title= La limite Oligocène-Miocène en Limagne: changements fauniques chez les mammifères, oiseaux et ostracodes des différents niveaux de Billy-Créchy (Allier, France) |trans-title=The Oligocene-Miocene boundary in Limagne: faunal changes in the mammals, birds and ostracods from the different levels of Billy-Créchy (Allier, France)|journal=]|volume=36|issue=6|pages=719–731|doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.002|bibcode=2003Geobi..36..719H }}</ref><ref name=mayr06>{{cite journal|last1=Mayr | first1=Gerald | last2=Manegold | first2=Albrecht |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title= A Small Suboscine-like Passeriform Bird from the Early Oligocene of France|journal=] |volume=108|issue=3|pages= 717–720|doi=10.1650/0010-5422(2006)1082.0.CO;2 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France and Germany) – basal?{{efn|Specimens ] Av 487–496; ] 86822, 86825-86826; ] SA 1259–1263: ] remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes.<ref name=manegold04/>}}
* Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszőlős, Hungary) – at least 2 taxa, possibly 3; at least one probably Oscines.{{efn|A partial ] of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly ]; ] ] and ] of a smallish to mid-sized passerine that may be the same as the preceding; ] ] and tarsometatarsus of a ]-sized passerine.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gál, Erika |author2=Hír, János |author3=Kessler, Eugén |author4=Kókay, József |name-list-style=amp |year=1998–99 |title=Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok, a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból. I. A Mátraszõlõs 1. lelõhely |trans-title=Middle Miocene fossils from the sections at the Rákóczi chapel at Mátraszőlős. Locality Mátraszõlõs I. |journal=Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis |volume=23 |pages=33–78 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite journal |author1=Gál, Erika |author2=Hír, János |author3=Kessler, Eugén |author4=Kókay, József |author5=Márton, Venczel |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból II. A Mátraszõlõs 2. lelõhely |trans-title=Middle Miocene fossils from the section of the road at the Rákóczi Chapel, Mátraszõlõs. II. Locality Mátraszõlõs 2 |journal=Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis |volume=24 |pages=39–75 }}</ref> }}
* Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Felsőtárkány, Hungary) – oscine?{{efn|A ] ] piece of a swallow-sized passerine.<ref name=hir01>{{cite journal |last1=Hír | first1=János | last2=Kókay | first2=József | last3=Venczel | first3=Márton |last4=Gál | first4=Erika |author5=GKessler, Eugén |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Elõzetes beszámoló a felsõtárkányi "Güdör-kert" n. õslénytani lelõhelykomplex újravizsgálatáról |trans-title=A preliminary report on the revised investigation of the paleontological locality-complex "Güdör-kert" at Felsõtárkány, Northern Hungary |journal=Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis |volume=25 |pages=41–64 | url=http://adatbank.transindex.ro/vendeg/htmlk/pdf6928.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316054055/http://adatbank.transindex.ro/vendeg/htmlk/pdf6928.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> }}
* Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Polgárdi, Hungary) – ] (]? ]?)<ref name=hir01/><!-- this should be moved to Sylvioidea -->
That suboscines expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by several fossils from Germany such as a presumed broadbill (]) humerus fragment from the Early ] (roughly 20&nbsp;mya) of ], Germany, the Late Oligocene ] from France listed above, and '']'', among others.<ref name=manegold04/><ref name="ClaramuntCracraft2015"/> Extant Passeri super-families were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onward and into the ] (about 10–2&nbsp;mya). ] and early ] ] (<1.8&nbsp;mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their ] and paleosubspecies.


====American fossils====
This process is still continuing. Therefore, the arrangement as presented here is subject to change. However, it should take precedence over unreferenced conflicting treatments in family, genus and species articles here; see the next section for default sources.
{{See also|Late Quaternary prehistoric birds}}
In the ], the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable ]-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),{{efn|Distal right ], possibly suboscine.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Noriega, Jorge I. |author2=Chiappe, Luis M. |name-list-style=amp |year=1991|title= El más antiguo Passeriformes de America del Sur. Presentation at VIII Journadas Argentinas de Paleontologia de Vertebrados |trans-title=The most ancient passerine from South America|journal=Ameghiniana |volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=410|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqDVeF8W8OkC}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Noriega, Jorge I. |author2=Chiappe, Luis M. |name-list-style=amp |year=1993|title= An Early Miocene Passeriform from Argentina|journal=] |volume=110|issue=4|pages= 936–938|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v110n04/p0936-p0938.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313222943/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v110n04/p0936-p0938.pdf |archive-date=2014-03-13 |url-status=live|doi= 10.2307/4088653 |jstor=4088653}}</ref>}} an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, United States: the ] with the single genus '']''. ''"Palaeostruthus" eurius'' (Pliocene of Florida)<!-- Condor84:240 --> probably belongs to an extant family, most likely ]n.

==Systematics and taxonomy==
{{Cladogram
|caption=Phylogenetic relationship of the suborders within the Passeriformes. The numbers are from the list published by the ] in January 2020.<ref name=ioc/><ref name=oliveros/>
|align=right
|cladogram={{Clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%;width:420px;
|1={{clade
|1=] – New Zealand wrens (1 family containing 7 species, only 2 extant)
|2={{clade
|1=] – suboscines (16 families containing 1,356 species)
|2=] – oscines (125 families containing 5,158 species)
}}
}}
}}
}}
The Passeriformes is currently divided into three suborders: ] (New Zealand wrens), ], (suboscines) and ] (oscines or songbirds). The Passeri is now subdivided into two major groups recognized now as ] and ] respectively containing the large ] ] and ], as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies ], ], and ] but this arrangement has been found to be oversimplified. Since the mid-2000s, studies have investigated the ] of the Passeriformes and found that many families from ] traditionally included in the Corvoidea actually represent more basal lineages within oscines. Likewise, the traditional three-superfamily arrangement within the Passeri has turned out to be far more complex and will require changes in classification.{{cn|date=January 2024}}

Major "]" families such as the ]s and ]s have turned out to be ] and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct lineages, so new families had to be established, some of these – like the ] of New Zealand and the ]n ] – ] with only one living species.<ref>The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a bearded reedling are for example {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016043808/http://montereybay.com/creagrus/Reedling_bearded-WEH.jpg |date=16 October 2007 }} and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731170412/http://www.naturephoto-cz.com/photos/mraz/bearded-reedling-05a04012.jpg |date=31 July 2008 }}.</ref> In the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the ]s constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of theirs have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. ]es, ]s, and their closest relatives are currently grouped in a distinct super-family ].
<!-- <!--
Regarding references: To avoid cluttering an article that is to appeal the casual reader and the informed layperson, it would be good to cite only sources for splits, not arguments for or against placing taxa incertae sedis here or there. Also, there will be loads and loads of comprehensive reviews out soon one would expect, and it would pay to wait rather than citing the entire list from the talk page. Regarding references: to avoid cluttering an article that is to appeal the casual reader and the informed layperson, it would be good to cite only sources for splits, not arguments for or against placing taxa incertae sedis here or there. Also, there will be loads and loads of comprehensive reviews out soon one would expect, and it would pay to wait rather than citing the entire list from the talk page.

Discussing the possible affinities of disputed taxa should go to their respective page, and the studies used to date can be cited more appropriately in the suborder and superfamily articles which in any case are more of interest to the specialist reader and can well reflect this.
Discussing the possible affinities of disputed taxa should go to their respective page, and the studies used to date can be cited more appropriately in the suborder and super-family articles that in any case are more of interest to the specialist reader and can well reflect this.
--> -->


==Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families== ==Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families==
] or ''tītitipounamu'' (''Acanthisitta chloris''), one of the 2 surviving ] species.]] ] (''Xenicus gilviventris''), one of the two surviving species of suborder ]]]
This list is in taxonomic order, placing related species/groups next to each other. The Passerida subdivisions are updated as needed from the default sequence of the '']'',<ref>del Hoyo ''et al.'' (2003-)</ref> based on the most modern and comprehensive studies.<ref>Lovette & Bermingham (2000), Cibois ''et al.'' (2001), Barker ''et al.'' (2002, 2004), Ericson & Johansson (2003), Beresford ''et al.'' (2005), Alström ''et al.'' (2006), Jønsson & Fjeldså (2006)</ref> Updates are added as necessary.


This list is in taxonomic order, placing related families next to one another. The families listed are those recognised by the ] (IOC).<ref name=ioc/> The order and the division into infraorders, parvorders, and superfamilies follows the phylogenetic analysis published by Carl Oliveros and colleagues in 2019.<ref name=oliveros>{{ cite journal | last1=Oliveros | first1=C.H. | display-authors=etal | year=2019 | title=Earth history and the passerine superradiation | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=116 | issue=16 | pages=7916–7925 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1813206116 | pmid=30936315 | doi-access=free | pmc=6475423 | bibcode=2019PNAS..116.7916O }}</ref>{{efn|Oliveros et al (2019) use the list of families published by Dickinson and Christidis in 2014.<ref name=oliveros/><ref>{{ cite book | editor-last1=Dickinson | editor-first1=E.C. | editor1-link=Edward C. Dickinson | editor-last2=Christidis | editor-first2=L. | editor2-link=Leslie Christidis | year=2014 | title=The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World | volume=2: Passerines | edition=4th | place=Eastbourne, UK | publisher=Aves Press | isbn=978-0-9568611-2-2 }}</ref> Oliveros et al include 8 families that are not included on the IOC list.<!--Dendrocolaptidae and Scleruridae (both in IOC Furnariidae); Onychorhynchidae and Oxyruncidae (both in IOC Tityridae); Pipritidae, Pipromorphidae, Platyrinchidae, and Tachurisidae (all in IOC Tyrannidae)--> These are not shown here. By contrast, the IOC list includes 15 families that are not present in Dickinson and Christidis.<!-- Cettiidae and Erythrocercidae (both in Scotocercidae of H&M 2014); Picathartidae and Chaetopidae (both Eupetidae); Alcippeidae and Paradoxornithidae (new families in Sylvioidea); Modulatricidae (Promeropidae); Hylocitreidae and Hyliidae (previously incertae sedis); Tichodromidae and Chloropseidae (elevated subfamilies); Icteriidae (Icteridae); Nesospingidae and Spindalidae (both Phaenicophilidae); and Teretistridae (Zeledoniidae)--> In 13 of these cases, the position of the additional family in the taxonomic order can be determined from the species included by Oliveros and colleagues in their analysis. No species in the families ] and ] were sampled by Oliveros et al so their position is uncertain.<ref name=ioc/><ref name=oliveros/>}} The relationships between the families in the suborder Tyranni (suboscines) were all well determined but some of the nodes in Passeri (oscines or songbirds) were unclear owing to the rapid splitting of the lineages.<ref name=oliveros/>
===Regarding arrangement of families===
The families are sorted into a somewhat unusual sequence. This is because so many reallocations have taken place since about 2005 that a definite arrangement has not been established yet. The present sequence is an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional sequence while giving priority to adequately addressing the relationships between the families.


===Suborder ]=== ===Suborder Acanthisitti===
* ]: New Zealand "wrens" :::* ]: New Zealand wrens
] (''Pitta iris''), a fairly dark ground-living bird with brilliant color patches, like most ].]] ] (''Hydrornis guajanus''), an Old World ].]]


] (''Rupicola peruvianus'') a New World ]]]
===Suborder ]===
Suboscines
* '''Infraorder ]''' – Old World suboscines (or Broad-billed suboscines). Probably a separate suborder.
** Superfamily ] – broadbills and allies
*** ]: broadbills
*** ]: asities
*** ]: Broad-billed Sapayoa
** Superfamily Pittoidea
*** ]: pittas
] (''Pipra erythrocephala'')]]
* '''Infraorder ]''' - New World suboscines
** Superfamily N.N. – "bronchophones"
*** ]: tyrant flycatchers
*** ]: tityras and allies.
*** ]: cotingas
*** ]: manakins
** Superfamily ] - tracheophones
*** ]: ovenbirds and woodcreepers
*** ]: antbirds
*** ]: antpittas, antthrushes and typical tapaculos. Possibly ].
*** ]: gnateaters and gnatpittas
*** N.N.: atypical "]s" (crescent-chests and allies)
] (''Atrichornis clamosus''), one of the most ]ic ].]]


===Suborder ]=== ===Suborder ] (suboscines)===
'''Infraorder ]''': Old World suboscines
Songbirds or oscines
{{ubl|
*'''Basal Passeri''' – the most ancient true songbirds, endemic to Australia. Sometimes considered a superfamily "Menuroidea"{{Verify source|date=January 2008}}<!-- the taxon was proposed by Sibley & Ahlquist but they included "Ptilonorhynchoidea" as defined here and later changed the name to that. Need to check ICZN to see which of the names is available and applies after the split -->.
** ]: lyrebirds * ]: asities
** ]: scrub-birds * ]: typical broadbills
* ]: African and green broadbills
* ]: broad-billed sapayoa
* ]: pittas}}
'''Infraorder ]''': New World suboscines<br />
'''Parvorder Furnariida'''
{{ubl|
* ]: crescentchests
* ]: gnateaters and gnatpittas
* ]: antbirds
* ]: antpittas
* ]: typical tapaculos
* ]: antthrushes
* ]<!--(includes Scleruridae, Dendrocolaptidae)-->: ovenbirds and woodcreepers}}
'''Parvorder Tyrannida'''
{{ubl|
* ]: manakins
* ]: cotingas
* ]<!--(includes Oxyruncidae, Onychorhynchidae)-->: tityras and allies
* ]<!--(includes Pipitidae, Platyrinchidae, Tachuridae, Rhychocyclidae)-->: tyrant flycatchers}}


===Suborder ] (oscines or songbirds)===
*'''Superfamily ]''' – mainly insectivores and nectarivores, distribution centered on Australo-Melanesian region extending into surroundings, notably the Pacific.] (''Phylidonyris novaehollandiae'')]]
] or ''hihi'' (''Notiomystis cincta'') showing ] with honeyeaters]]
** ]: fairy-wrens, emu-wrens and grasswrens
:::* ]: scrub-birds
** ]: bristlebirds. Formerly in Acanthizidae.
:::* ]: lyrebirds
** ]: scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones
:::* ]: Australian treecreepers
** ]: honeyeaters
:::* ]: bowerbirds
** Meliphagoidea ''incertae sedis''
:::* ]: pseudo-babblers
*** ]: pardalotes. Formerly in Acanthizidae, might be included in Meliphagidae.
:::* ]: logrunners
*** '']'': spinebills. Usually included in Meliphagidae; might be considered a ] family if Pardalotidae are considered valid too.
:*Superfamily ]
::* ]: scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones
::* ]: honeyeaters
::* ]: fairywrens, emu-wrens and grasswrens
::* ]: bristlebirds
::* ]: pardalotes
] (''Sericulus chrysocephalus'', ])]]
* '''Infraorder ]''' – previously known as the parvorder ]<ref name=Cracraft/>
:::* ]: jewel-babblers, quail-thrushes
:::* ]: cuckooshrikes and trillers
:::* ]: whiteheads
:::* ]: sittellas
::*Superfamily Orioloidea{{efn|The order of the families within the superfamily Orioloidea is uncertain.<ref name=oliveros/>}}
:::* ]: whipbirds
:::* ]: wattled ploughbill
:::* ]: shriketit
:::* ]: Australo-Papuan bellbirds
:::* ]: painted berrypeckers
:::* ]: vireos
:::* ]: whistlers
:::* ]: Old World orioles and figbirds
::*Superfamily ]{{efn|The order of the families within the superfamily Malaconotoidea is uncertain.<ref name=oliveros/>}}
] (''Regulus regulus'') belongs to a minor but highly distinct lineage of Passeri]]
:::* ]: boatbills
:::* ]: woodswallows, butcherbirds, currawongs, and Australian magpie
:::* ]: mottled berryhunter
:::* ]: puffback shrikes, bush shrikes, tchagras, and boubous
:::* ]: bristlehead
:::* ]: ioras
:::* ]: wattle-eyes and batises
:::* ]: vangas
::*Superfamily ]{{efn|The order of the families within the superfamily Corvoidea is uncertain.<ref name=oliveros/>}}
:::* ]: fantails
:::* ]: drongos
:::* ]: monarch flycatchers
:::* ]: blue-capped ifrit
:::* ]: birds-of-paradise
:::* ]: white-winged chough and apostlebird
:::* ]: melampittas
:::* ]: shrikes
:::* ]: jayshrike
:::* ]<!--(includes Platylophidae)-->: crows, ravens, and jays
]s, such as this ] (''Acrocephalus dumetorum''), are now in the ]]]
* '''Infraorder ]''' – previously known as the parvorder Passerida<ref name=Cracraft/>
:::* ]: satinbirds
:::* ]: berrypeckers and longbills
:::* ]: New Zealand wattlebirds
:::* ]: stitchbird
:::* ]: Australian robins
:::* ]: rail-babbler
:::* ]<!--family not in H&M4-->: rockfowl
:::* ]<!--family not in H&M4-->: rock-jumpers
] (''Cyanistes caeruleus'') and its relatives stand well apart from the rest of the ] ''sensu lato'']]
:* '''Parvorder Sylviida'''{{efn|The taxonomic sequence of the superfamilies Locustelloidea, Sylvioidea and Aegithaloidea is uncertain, although the order of the families within each of the superfamilies is well determined.<ref name=oliveros/>}} – previously known as the superfamily Sylviodea<ref name=Cracraft/>
:::* ]: hyliotas
:::* ]: fairy flycatchers
:::* ]: tits, chickadees and titmice
:::* ]: penduline tits
:::* ]: bearded reedling
:::* ]: larks
:::* ]: nicators
:::* ]: crombecs and African warblers
:::* ]: cisticolas and allies
] (''Sitta pusilla''), ]es can climb downwards head-first]]
::*Superfamily Locustelloidea
:::* ]<!--(includes Graueriidae)-->: reed warblers, Grauer's warbler and allies
:::* ]: grassbirds and allies
:::* ]: black-capped donacobius
:::* ]: Malagasy warblers
:::—
<!--use mdash to indicate that Pnoepygidae and Hirundinidae are not part of superfamily Locustelloidea-->
:::* ]: wren-babblers
:::* ]: swallows and martins
] (''Catharus guttatus''), like many ] a stout and ] bird with complex vocalizations.]]
::*Superfamily ]
:::* ]: bulbuls
:::* ]: sylviid babblers
:::* ]: parrotbills and myzornis
:::* ]: white-eyes
:::* ]: tree babblers
:::* ]: laughingthrushes and allies
:::* ]: Alcippe fulvettas
:::* ]: ground babblers
]es (''Erythrura gouldiae''), many ] are very colorful]]
::*Superfamily Aegithaloidea
:::* ]: leaf-warblers and allies
:::* ]: hylias
:::* ]: long-tailed tits or bushtits
:::* ]: streaked scrub warbler
:::* ]<!--not included in H&M4-->: Cettia bush warblers and allies
:::* ]<!--not included in H&M4-->: yellow flycatchers
] (''Cecropis abyssinica''), showing some ]ies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.]]
:* '''Parvorder ]''' – previously known as the superfamily Muscicapoidea<ref name=Cracraft/>
::*Superfamily ]
:::* ]: palmchat
:::* ]: waxwings
:::* ]: silky flycatchers
:::* ]: hylocitrea
:::* ]: hypocolius
:::* †]: oos
] (male)]]
::*Superfamily ]
:::* ]: spotted elachura
:::* ]: dippers
:::* ]: Old World flycatchers and chats
:::* ]: thrushes and allies
:::* ]: oxpeckers
:::* ]: starlings and rhabdornis
:::* ]: mockingbirds and thrashers
:::—
<!--use mdash to indicate that Regulidae is not a member of superfamily Muscicapoidea-->
:::* ]: goldcrests and kinglets
::*Superfamily ]
:::* ]: wallcreeper
:::* ]: nuthatches
:::* ]<!--(includes Salpornithidae)-->: treecreepers
:::* ]: gnatcatchers
:::* ]: wrens
* '''Parvorder Passerida''' – previously known as the superfamily Passeroidea<ref name=Cracraft>{{ cite book | last=Cracraft | first=Joel | chapter=Avian higher-level relationships and classification: passeriformes | editor-last1=Dickinson | editor-first1=E.C. | editor1-link=Edward C. Dickinson | editor-last2=Christidis | editor-first2=L. | editor2-link=Leslie Christidis | year=2014 | title=The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World | volume=2: Passerines | edition=4th | place=Eastbourne, UK | publisher=Aves Press | isbn=978-0-9568611-2-2 | pages=xvii-xxxiii }}</ref>
:::* ]: sugarbirds
:::* ]<!--not in H&M4 Oliveros merge into Promeropidae-->: dapple-throat and allies
:::* ]: sunbirds
:::* ]: flowerpeckers
:::* ]: leafbirds
:::* ]: fairy-bluebirds
:::* ]: olive warbler
:::* ]: Przewalski's finch
:::* ]: weavers
:::* ]: indigobirds and whydahs
:::* ]: waxbills, munias and allies
:::* ]: accentors
:::* ]: Old World sparrows and snowfinches
:::* ]: wagtails and pipits
:::* ]: finches and euphonias
::*Superfamily Emberizoidea – previously known as the New World ]<ref name=barker2013/>{{efn|The order of some of the families within the superfamily Emberizoidea is uncertain.<ref name=oliveros/>}}
:::* ]: rosy thrush-tanager
:::* ]: longspurs and snow buntings
:::* ]: buntings
:::* ]: cardinals
:::* ]: mitrospingid tanagers
:::* ]: tanagers and allies
:::* ]: New World sparrows, bush tanagers
:::* ]: New World warblers
:::* ]<!--not in H&M4 but included by Oliveros as Icteria virens in Icteridae-->: yellow-breasted chat
:::* ]: grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles
:::* ]: chat-tanagers
:::* ]: wrenthrush
:::* ]<!--not in H&M4 - and not in study-->: Cuban warblers{{efn|The family ] (Cuban warblers) is tentatively placed here. The family was not included in the analysis published by Oliveros et al (2019).<ref name=oliveros/> Dickinson and Christidis (2014) considered the genus ''Teretistris'' '']''.<ref>{{ cite book | editor-last1=Dickinson | editor-first1=E.C. | editor1-link=Edward C. Dickinson | editor-last2=Christidis | editor-first2=L. | editor2-link=Leslie Christidis | year=2014 | title=The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World | volume=2: Passerines | edition=4th | place=Eastbourne, UK | publisher=Aves Press | isbn=978-0-9568611-2-2 | page=358 }}</ref> Barker et al (2013) found that Teretistridae is closely related to ].<ref name=barker2013>{{ cite journal | last1=Barker | first1=F.K. | last2=Burns | first2=K.J. | last3=Klicka | first3=J. | last4=Lanyon | first4=S.M. | last5=Lovette | first5=I.J. | year=2013 | title=Going to extremes: contrasting rates of diversification in a recent radiation of New World passerine birds | journal=Systematic Biology | volume=62 | issue=2 | pages=298–320 | doi=10.1093/sysbio/sys094 | pmid=23229025 | doi-access=free }}</ref>}}
:::* ]<!--not in H&M4 but included by Oliveros as Neospingus speculiferus in Phaenicophilidae-->: Puerto Rican tanager
:::* ]<!--not in H&M4 but included by Oliveros as Spindalius zena in Phaenicophilidae-->: spindalises
:::* ]: Hispaniolan tanagers
<!---
I need to check these
*** ]: dapplethroat and allies - not in ioc
*** ]: helmetshrikes and woodshrikes - not in ioc
-->


===Phylogeny===
*'''Superfamily ]''' – a highly diverse group of global distribution, but most plentiful in the Australasian region and surroundings. The oldest truly globally successful group of passerines, they include among them what may well be the most intelligent and the most spectacular of the order.] or ''hihi'' (''Notiomystis cincta'') showing ] with honeyeaters.]]] (''Laniarius barbarus'': ])]]] or ''ʻalala'' (''Corvus hawaiiensis'') is nearly ]; only a few dozen birds survive in captivity.]]
Relationships between living Passeriformes families based on the phylogenetic analysis of Oliveros et al (2019).<ref name=oliveros/> Some terminals have been renamed to reflect families recognised by the IOC but not in that study.<ref name=ioc/> The IOC families ] and ] were not sampled in this study.
** ]: berrypeckers and longbills. Formerly in Passerida.
** ]: New Zealand wattlebirds. Tentatively placed here.
** Family N.N.: ]. Tentatively placed here.
** ]: satinbirds
** ]: sittellas
** ]: vireos
** ]: cuckoo-shrikes and trillers
** ]: whistlers and allies. Delimitation with regards to several proposed families and subfamilies requires thorough study.
** ]: orioles and Figbird
** ]: Tit Berrypecker and Crested Berrypecker. Formerly in Passerida.
** ]: woodswallows, butcherbirds, currawongs and Australian Magpie
** ]: puffback shrikes, bush shrikes, tchagras and boubous
** ]: wattle-eyes. Formerly in Passerida. Probably paraphyletic.
** ]: ioras
** ]: Bornean Bristlehead. Tentatively placed here.
** ]: helmetshrikes
** ]: vangas
** ]: drongos, monarch flycatchers, fantails and allies. Probably paraphyletic; supposed subfamilies ] and ] better considered 2–3 distinct families again.
** ]: birds of paradise
** ]: White-winged Chough and Apostlebird
** ]: shrikes
** ]: crows, ravens and jays
** Corvoidea ''incertae sedis''
*** '']'': shrike-vireos. Usually included in Vireonidae, possibly a monotypic family,
*** '']'': White-bellied Erpornis. Formerly in '']'' (Passerida: ]); possibly a monotypic family, possibly in Vireonidae
*** ]: shrike-thrushes. Often included in Pachycephalidae but perhaps recognizable as a subfamily at least.
*** ]: whipbirds and allies. Contains ] but that might make it paraphyletic. At least some species belong in Pachycephalidae if Falcunculinae are not considered a distinct family.
*** ]: Shrike-tit and allies. Usually included in Pachycephalidae; might be distinct family or merged in Cinclosomatidae or Psophodidae{{Verify source|date=January 2008}}<!-- which one? -->.
*** "Pitohuidae": ]s. Usually included in Pachycephalidae but seem closer to Oriolidae and best considered a distinct family including '']'' and possibly other Pachycephalidae ''sensu lato''.
] (''Sericulus chrysocephalus'', ])]]


{{clade transclude |page=Template:Phylogeny/Passerines
* '''Passeri (mainly "]") '']'''''] (''Regulus regulus'') belongs to a minor but highly distinct lineage of ].]]
|label=Passerine
** Possible superfamily "Ptilonorhynchoidea"{{Verify source|date=January 2008}}<!-- see "Menuroidea" above --> – bowerbirds and Australian treecreepers
|wrap='''Passeriformes'''
*** ]: Australian treecreepers
|nohidden=yes
*** ]: Piopio (])
}}
*** ]: bowerbirds
** Possible superfamily N.N. - logrunners and pseudo-babblers
*** ]: logrunners
*** ]: pseudo-babblers
** ]: Australian robins
** Possible superfamily N.N.
*** ]: rockfowl.
*** ]: rock-jumpers. Recently split from Turdidae.
*** ]: Malaysian Rail-babbler. Recently split from Cinclosomatidae.
** Possible monotypic superfamily Reguloidea – kinglets
*** ]: kinglets
** Possible monotypic superfamily N.N.
*** Family N.N.: ]s. Recently split from Sylviidae.
** ]: fairy-bluebirds. Reguloidea? Basal to/in Passeroidea?
** ]: leafbirds. Reguloidea? Basal to/in Passeroidea?


== Explanatory notes ==
====Infraorder ]====
{{Notelist|40em}}
] (''Cecropis abyssinica''), showing some ]ies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.]]
* Superfamily ] – mostly insectivores, distribution centered on the ] region. Few occur in the Australian region and fewer still in the Americas. Usually sleek and drab birds, few have pronounced ].] (''Acrocephalus dumetorum'') is now in the ].]]
** ]: larks
** ]: swallows and martins
** ]: leaf-warblers and allies. Recently split from Sylviidae.
** ]: long-tailed tits
** ]: ground-warblers and allies. Recently split from Sylviidae.
** ]: grass-warblers and allies. Recently split from Sylviidae.
** "Bernieridae": ]s. A newly assembled family.
** ]: marsh- and tree-warblers. Recently split from Sylviidae.
** ]: bulbuls
** ]: cisticolas and allies
** ]: "true/sylviid warblers" and parrotbills. Might be merged in Timaliidae. Monophyly needs confirmation.
** ]: white-eyes. Probably belongs in Timaliidae.
** ]: (Old World) babblers. Monophyly needs confirmation.
** Sylvioidea ''incertae sedis''
*** "]s": A proposed clade, but monophyly needs confirmation. Formerly in Sylviidae.
*** '']'': Black-capped Donacobius. ] family? Tentatively placed here; possibly closest to Megaluridae. Formerly in Troglodytidae and Mimidae.
*** '']'': Relationships unresolved, monotypic family? Tentatively placed here; formerly in Pycnonotidae.] (''Catharus guttatus''), like many ] a stout and ] bird with complex vocalizations.]]


==References==
* Superfamily ] – mostly insectivores, near-global distribution centered on Old World ]s. One family ] to Americas. Nearly absent (except introductions) from the Australian region. Usually rather stocky for their size, most are quite dark and dull though ] are commonly iridescent and/or colorful. Sexual dimorphism often absent, sometimes pronounced.
** ]: dippers
** ]: Old World flycatchers and chats. Monophyly needs confirmation.
** ]: thrushes and allies. Monophyly needs confirmation.
** ]: oxpeckers. Formerly usually included in Sturnidae.
** ]: starlings and possibly ]s. Placement of latter in Muscicapoidea seems good, but inclusion in Sturnidae requires confirmation; possibly distinct family Rhabdornithidae.
** ]: mockingbirds and thrashers

* Superfamily ] – mostly herbivores including many seed-eaters, near-global distribution centered on ] and Americas. Includes the ]s (probably a subclade). A very high proportion of colorful and highly sexually dimorphic forms.]es (''Erythrura gouldiae''), ...]]] (''Tangara schrankii''), many ] are very colorful.]]
** ]: true sparrows
** ]: accentors
** ]: wagtails and pipits
** ]: Przewalski's Finch. Recently split from Fringillidae; tentatively placed here.
** ]: Olive Warbler
** ]: estrildid finches (waxbills, munias, etc)
** ]: weavers
** ]: indigobirds and whydahs
** ]: true finches and ]s. Possibly polyphyletic.
** ]: grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles
** ]: New World warblers
** ]: tanagers and allies
** ]: cardinals
** ]: buntings and American sparrows
** Passeroidea ''incertae sedis''
*** ]: Bananaquit. Family invalid or not ]; reallocation pending.

* Passerida ''incertae sedis'' - Rather basal Passerida, most of which seem to constitute several small but distinct lineages that could be considered superfamilies. Most occur in Asia, Africa and North America.
** '']'': Bearded Reedling (Bearded "Tit"). Relationships enigmatic. Formerly in "]", might be included in Sylvioidea as monotypic family Panuridae or even constitute the smallest passerine superfamily.
** Possible superfamily Paroidea – titmice and allies. Might be included in Sylvioidea.] (''Cyanistes caeruleus'') and its relatives stand well apart from rest of the ] ''sensu lato''.]]
*** ]: tits, chickadees and titmice
*** ]: penduline tits. Sometimes included in Paridae.
*** ]: stenostirids ("flycatcher-tits"). A newly assembled family; sometimes included in Paridae.
** Possible superfamily Sittoidea or Certhioidea - wrens and allies. Might be included in Muscicapoidea.] (''Bombycilla cedrorum'') and its relatives seem closer to the ] ''sensu stricto'' than to most other passerines.]]
*** ]: nuthatches
*** ]: Wallcreeper. Tentatively placed here.
*** ]: treecreepers
*** ]: Spotted Creeper. Tentatively placed here; might belong in Certhidae.
*** ]: wrens
*** ]: gnatcatchers
** Possible superfamily Bombycilloidea – waxwings and allies. Included in Muscicapoidea if Sittoidea/Certhioidea are not considered a distinct superfamily.
*** ]: waxwings
*** ]: Palmchat. Tentatively placed here.
*** ]: silky flycatchers. Tentatively placed here.
*** ]: Hypocolius. Tentatively placed here.
** Possible superfamily "Dicaeoidea" – sunbirds and flowerpeckers. Might be included in Passeroidea.
*** ]: sunbirds
*** ]: flowerpeckers
** Possible monotypic superfamily N.N.
*** ]: sugarbirds. Might be included in Passeroidea.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


==References== ==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
{{wiktionarypar|passerine}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Alström, Per |author2=Ericson, Per G.P. |author3=Olsson, Urban |author4=Sundberg, Per |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title= Phylogeny and classification of the avian super-family Sylvioidea|journal=] |volume=38|issue=2|pages= 381–397|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015|pmid=16054402 |bibcode=2006MolPE..38..381A | ref=none}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Passeriformes}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Barker, F. Keith |author2=Barrowclough, George F. |author3=Groth, Jeff G. |name-list-style=amp |year=2002 |title=A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data |journal=] |volume=269 |issue=1488 |pages=295–308 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2001.1883 |url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~barke042/pdfs/Barker.et.al02.pdf |pmid=11839199 |pmc=1690884 |ref=none |access-date=14 February 2008 |archive-date=11 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511162056/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~barke042/pdfs/Barker.et.al02.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{aut|Alström, Per; Ericson, Per G.P.; Olsson, Urban & Sundberg, Per}} (2006): Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea. '']'' '''38'''(2): 381–397. <small>{{doi|10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015}}</small>
* {{cite journal|author1=Barker, F. Keith |author2=Cibois, Alice |author3=Schikler, Peter A. |author4=Feinstein, Julie |author5=Cracraft, Joel |name-list-style=amp |year=2004|title= Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation|journal=] |volume=101|issue=30|pages= 11040–11045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0401892101|pmid=15263073|pmc= 503738 | ref=none |bibcode=2004PNAS..10111040B |doi-access=free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625211611/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/0401892101/DC1 |date=25 June 2008 }}
* {{aut|Barker, F. Keith; Barrowclough, George F. & Groth, Jeff G.}} (2002): A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. '']'' '''269'''(1488): 295-308. <small>{{doi|10.1098/rspb.2001.1883}}</small>
* {{cite journal|author1=Beresford, P. |author2=Barker, F.K. |author3=Ryan, P.G. |author4=Crowe, T.M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005|title= African endemics span the tree of songbirds (Passeri): molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'|journal=] |volume=272|issue=1565|pages= 849–858|doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2997 | ref=none |pmc=1599865 |pmid=15888418 }}
* {{aut|Barker, F. Keith; Cibois, Alice; Schikler, Peter A.; Feinstein, Julie & Cracraft, Joel}} (2004): Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation. '']'' '''101'''(30): 11040-11045. <small>{{doi|10.1073/pnas.0401892101}}</small>
* {{cite journal |author1=Cibois, Alice |author2=Slikas, Beth |author3=Schulenberg, Thomas S. |author4=Pasquet, Eric |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=An endemic radiation of Malagasy songbirds is revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data |journal=] |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1198–1206 |doi=10.1554/0014-3820(2001)0552.0.CO;2 | ref=none |pmid=11475055 |s2cid=23065097 }}
* {{aut|Beresford, P.; Barker, F.K.; Ryan, P.G. & Crowe, T.M.}} (2005): African endemics span the tree of songbirds (Passeri): molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'. '']'' '''272'''(1565): 849–858. <small>{{DOI|10.1098/rspb.2004.2997}}</small>
* {{cite journal|author1=Ericson, Per G.P. |author2=Johansson, Ulf S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003|title= Phylogeny of Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data|journal=] |volume=29|issue=1|pages= 126–138 |doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00067-8 | ref=none |pmid=12967614 |bibcode=2003MolPE..29..126E }}
* {{aut|Boles, Walter E.}} (1997): Fossil Songbirds (Passeriformes) from the Early Eocene of Australia. '']'' '''97'''(1): 43-50. <small>{{doi|10.1071/MU97004}}</small>
* {{cite journal |author1=Johansson, Ulf S. |author2=Ericson, Per G.P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003 |title=Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960) |journal=] |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=185–197 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03103.x |url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021325/Johansson%2520&%2520Ericson%2520-%2520Piciformes%5B1%5D.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524091610/http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021325/Johansson%2520%26%2520Ericson%2520-%2520Piciformes%5B1%5D.pdf |archive-date=2006-05-24 |url-status=live |ref=none }}
* {{aut|Cibois, Alice; Slikas, Beth; Schulenberg, Thomas S. & Pasquet, Eric}} (2001): An endemic radiation of Malagasy songbirds is revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. '']'' '''55'''(6): 1198-1206. <small>]:10.1554/0014-3820(2001)0552.0.CO;2</small>
* {{cite journal|author1=Jønsson, Knud A. |author2=Fjeldså, Jon |name-list-style=amp |year=2006|title= A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri)|journal=] |volume=35|issue=2|pages= 149–186|doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00221.x |s2cid=85317440 | ref=none }}
* {{aut|del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.)}} (2003): '']'' (Vol. 8: Broadbills to Tapaculos). Lynx Edicions. <small>ISBN 8487334504</small>
* {{cite journal|author1=Lovette, Irby J. |author2=Bermingham, Eldredge |name-list-style=amp |year=2000|title= ''c-mos'' Variation in Songbirds: Molecular Evolution, Phylogenetic Implications, and Comparisons with Mitochondrial Differentiation|journal=] |volume=17|issue=10|pages= 1569–1577|doi= 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026255 |pmid=11018162 |doi-access=free | ref=none }}
* {{aut|del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.)}} (2004): '']'' (Vol. 9: Cotingas to Pipits and Wagtails. Lynx Edicions). <small>ISBN 8487334695</small>
* {{ cite book | last=Mayr | first=Gerald | year=2016 | title=Avian evolution: the fossil record of birds and its paleobiological significance | location=Chichester, West Sussex | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | isbn=978-1-119-02076-9 | ref=none }}
* {{aut|del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.)}} (2005): '']'' (Vol. 10: Cuckoo-Shrikes to Thrushes. Lynx Edicions). <small>ISBN 8487334725</small>
* {{Cite journal | last=Raikow | first=Robert J. | date=1982 | title=Monophyly of the Passeriformes: test of a phylogenetic hypothesis | journal=The Auk | volume=99 | issue=3 | pages=431–445 | doi=10.1093/auk/99.3.431 | doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 | url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/99/3/431/5191643 | ref=none }}
* {{aut|del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.)}} (2006): '']'' (Vol. 11: Old World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers). Lynx Edicions. <small>ISBN 849655306X</small>
{{refend}}
* {{aut|del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie, D. (eds.)}} (2007): '']'' (Vol. 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees). Lynx Edicions. <small>ISBN 9788496553422</small>
* {{aut|Dickinson, E.C. (ed.)}} (2003): ''The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the World'' (3rd edition). Christopher Helm, London. <small>ISBN 071366536X</small>
* {{aut|Ericson, Per G.P. & Johansson, Ulf S.}} (2003): Phylogeny of Passerida (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data. '']'' '''29'''(1): 126–138 <small>{{doi|10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00067-8}}</small>
* {{aut|Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén & Kókay, József}} (1998-99): Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok, a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból. I. A Mátraszõlõs 1. lelõhely . ''Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis'' '''23''': 33-78.
* {{aut|Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén, Kókay, József & Márton, Venczel}} (2000): Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból II. A Mátraszõlõs 2. lelõhely . ''Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis'' '''24''': 39-75.
* {{aut|Hugueney, Marguerite; Berthet, Didier; Bodergat, Anne-Marie; Escuillié, François; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile & Wattinne, Aurélia}} (2003): La limite Oligocène-Miocène en Limagne: changements fauniques chez les mammifères, oiseaux et ostracodes des différents niveaux de Billy-Créchy (Allier, France) . '']'' '''36'''(6): 719–731. <small>{{doi|10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.002}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* {{aut|Johansson, Ulf S. & Ericson, Per G.P.}} (2003): Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960). '']'' '''34'''(2): 185–197. <small>{{doi|10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03103.x}}</small>
* {{aut|Jønsson, Knud A. & Fjeldså, Jon}} (2006): A phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds (Aves: Passeri). '']'' '''35'''(2): 149–186. <small>{{doi|:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00221.x}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* {{aut|Lovette, Irby J.& Bermingham, Eldredge}} (2000): ''c-mos'' Variation in Songbirds: Molecular Evolution, Phylogenetic Implications, and Comparisons with Mitochondrial Differentiation. '']'' '''17'''(10): 1569–1577.
* {{aut|Mayr, Gerald & Manegold, Albrecht}} (2006): A Small Suboscine-like Passeriform Bird from the Early Oligocene of France. '']'' '''108'''(3): 717-720. <small>]:10.1650/0010-5422(2006)1082.0.CO;2</small>
* {{aut|Manegold, Albrecht; Mayr, Gerald & Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile}} (2004): Miocene Songbirds and the Composition of the European Passeriform Avifauna. '']'' '''121'''(4): 1155–1160. <small>]:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)1212.0.CO;2</small>
* {{aut|Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M.}} (1991): El más antiguo Passeriformes de America del Sur. Presentation at VIII Journadas Argentinas de Paleontologia de Vertebrados. Abstract in ''Ameghiniana'' '''28'''(3-4): 410 .
* {{aut|Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M.}} (1993): An Early Miocene Passeriform from Argentina. '']'' '''110'''(4): 936-938.
* {{aut|Roux, T.}} (2002): Deux fossiles d'oiseaux de l'Oligocène inférieur du Luberon. ''Courrier Scientifique du Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon'' '''6''': 38–57.


==External links==
{{Footer Birds}}
{{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Passeriformes}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}
* {{Commons-inline|Passeriformes}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Passeriformes}}


] {{Passeriformes|P.}}
{{Birds}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25341}}
{{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 16:40, 3 January 2025

Any bird of the order Passeriformes, sometimes known as perching birds

Passerine
Temporal range: Eocene–Recent, 52.5–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
Clockwise from top right: Palestine sunbird (Cinnyris osea), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), great tit (Parus major), hooded crow (Corvus cornix), southern masked weaver (Ploceus velatus)
Song of a purple-crowned fairywren (Malurus coronatus)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Psittacopasseres
Order: Passeriformes
Linnaeus, 1758
Suborders

and see text

Diversity
Roughly 140 families, 6,500 species

A passerine (/ˈpæsəraɪn/) is any bird of the order Passeriformes (/ˈpæsərɪfɔːrmiːz/; from Latin passer 'sparrow' and formis '-shaped') which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their toes (three pointing forward and one back), which facilitates perching.

With more than 140 families and some 6,500 identified species, Passeriformes is the largest order of birds and among the most diverse clades of terrestrial vertebrates, representing 60% of birds. Passerines are divided into three suborders: Acanthisitti (New Zealand wrens), Tyranni (composed mostly of South American suboscines), and Passeri (oscines or songbirds). Passerines originated in the Southern Hemisphere around 60 million years ago.

Most passerines are insectivorous or omnivorous, and eat both insects and fruit or seeds.

The terms "passerine" and "Passeriformes" are derived from the scientific name of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, and ultimately from the Latin term passer, which refers to sparrows and similar small birds.

Description

The order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines or songbirds), and the basal Acanthisitti. Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations, though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings. Some, such as the lyrebird, are accomplished mimics. The New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri.

Pterylosis or the feather tracts in a typical passerine

Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven and the larger races of common raven, each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).

Anatomy

The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement. The hind toe (hallux) is long and joins the leg at approximately the same level as the front toes. This arrangement enables passerine birds to easily perch upright on branches. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the second and third toes are united at their basal third.

The leg of passerine birds contains an additional special adaptation for perching. A tendon in the rear of the leg running from the underside of the toes to the muscle behind the tibiotarsus will automatically be pulled and tighten when the leg bends, causing the foot to curl and become stiff when the bird lands on a branch. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off.

Most passerine birds have 12 tail feathers but the superb lyrebird has 16, and several spinetails in the family Furnariidae have 10, 8, or even 6, as is the case of Des Murs's wiretail. Species adapted to tree trunk climbing such as treecreepers and woodcreeper have stiff tail feathers that are used as props during climbing. Extremely long tails used as sexual ornaments are shown by species in different families. A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird.

Eggs and nests

See also: List of brood parasitic passerines

The chicks of passerines are altricial: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care. Most passerines lay colored eggs, in contrast with nonpasserines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and in some parasitic cuckoos, which match the passerine host's egg. The vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colors, white and blue, to deter the brood parasitic common cuckoo.

Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, while in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, hole-nesting species like tits can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six. The family Viduidae do not build their own nests, instead, they lay eggs in other birds' nests.

The Passeriformes contain several groups of brood parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches, and the cowbirds.

Origin and evolution

The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the wrens of the Americas and Eurasia, those of Australia, and those of New Zealand look superficially similar and behave in similar ways, yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.

Advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data gradually are revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology, and the specifics of the fossil record. The first passerines are now thought to have evolved in the Southern Hemisphere in the late Paleocene or early Eocene, around 50 million years ago.

The initial diversification of passerines coincides with the separation of the southern continents in the early Eocene. The New Zealand wrens are the first to become isolated in Zealandia, and the second split involved the origin of the Tyranni in South America and the Passeri in the Australian continent. The Passeri experienced a great radiation of forms in Australia. A major branch of the Passeri, the parvorder Passerida, dispersed into Eurasia and Africa about 40 million years ago, where they experienced further radiation of new lineages. This eventually led to three major Passerida lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the Corvida and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. Extensive biogeographical mixing happens, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.

Fossil record

Earliest passerines

Male superb lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae): This unique songbird shows strong sexual dimorphism, with a peculiarly apomorphic display of plumage in males.

Perching bird osteology, especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic. However, the early fossil record is poor because passerines are relatively small, and their delicate bones do not preserve well. Queensland Museum specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland, are fossil bone fragments initially assigned to Passeriformes. However, the material is too fragmentary and their affinities have been questioned. Several more recent fossils from the Oligocene of Europe, such as Wieslochia, Jamna, Resoviaornis, and Crosnoornis, are more complete and definitely represent early passeriforms, and have been found to belong to a variety of modern and extinct lineages.

From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a tui-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of saddleback-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19–16 mya).

Early European passerines

Wieslochia fossil

In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onward, belonging to several lineages:

  • Wieslochia (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany) – suboscine
  • Resoviaornis (Early Oligocene of Wola Rafałowska, Poland) – oscine
  • Jamna (Early Oligocene of Jamna Dolna, Poland) – basal
  • Winnicavis (Early Oligocene of Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland)
  • Crosnoornis (Early Oligocene of Poland) - suboscine
  • Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Early Oligocene of Luberon, France) – suboscine or basal
  • Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Late Oligocene of France) – several suboscine and oscine taxa
  • Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France and Germany) – basal?
  • Passeriformes gen. et spp. indet. (Sajóvölgyi Middle Miocene of Mátraszőlős, Hungary) – at least 2 taxa, possibly 3; at least one probably Oscines.
  • Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Felsőtárkány, Hungary) – oscine?
  • Passeriformes gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Polgárdi, Hungary) – Sylvioidea (Sylviidae? Cettiidae?)

That suboscines expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by several fossils from Germany such as a presumed broadbill (Eurylaimidae) humerus fragment from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, the Late Oligocene carpometacarpus from France listed above, and Wieslochia, among others. Extant Passeri super-families were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onward and into the Pliocene (about 10–2 mya). Pleistocene and early Holocene lagerstätten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.

American fossils

See also: Late Quaternary prehistoric birds

In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina), an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, United States: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus Palaeoscinis. "Palaeostruthus" eurius (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.

Systematics and taxonomy

Acanthisitti – New Zealand wrens (1 family containing 7 species, only 2 extant)

Tyranni – suboscines (16 families containing 1,356 species)

Passeri – oscines (125 families containing 5,158 species)

Phylogenetic relationship of the suborders within the Passeriformes. The numbers are from the list published by the International Ornithologists' Union in January 2020.

The Passeriformes is currently divided into three suborders: Acanthisitti (New Zealand wrens), Tyranni, (suboscines) and Passeri (oscines or songbirds). The Passeri is now subdivided into two major groups recognized now as Corvides and Passerida respectively containing the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea, as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea, and Passeroidea but this arrangement has been found to be oversimplified. Since the mid-2000s, studies have investigated the phylogeny of the Passeriformes and found that many families from Australasia traditionally included in the Corvoidea actually represent more basal lineages within oscines. Likewise, the traditional three-superfamily arrangement within the Passeri has turned out to be far more complex and will require changes in classification.

Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct lineages, so new families had to be established, some of these – like the stitchbird of New Zealand and the Eurasian bearded reedling – monotypic with only one living species. In the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of theirs have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives are currently grouped in a distinct super-family Certhioidea.

Taxonomic list of Passeriformes families

New Zealand rock wren (Xenicus gilviventris), one of the two surviving species of suborder Acanthisitti

This list is in taxonomic order, placing related families next to one another. The families listed are those recognised by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). The order and the division into infraorders, parvorders, and superfamilies follows the phylogenetic analysis published by Carl Oliveros and colleagues in 2019. The relationships between the families in the suborder Tyranni (suboscines) were all well determined but some of the nodes in Passeri (oscines or songbirds) were unclear owing to the rapid splitting of the lineages.

Suborder Acanthisitti

Javan banded pitta (Hydrornis guajanus), an Old World suboscine.
Andean cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruvianus) a New World suboscine

Suborder Tyranni (suboscines)

Infraorder Eurylaimides: Old World suboscines

Infraorder Tyrannides: New World suboscines
Parvorder Furnariida

Parvorder Tyrannida

Suborder Passeri (oscines or songbirds)

Male stitchbird or hihi (Notiomystis cincta) showing convergence with honeyeaters
Male regent bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus, Ptilonorhynchidae)
  • Superfamily Orioloidea
Tiny goldcrest (Regulus regulus) belongs to a minor but highly distinct lineage of Passeri
Reed warblers, such as this Blyth's reed warbler (Acrocephalus dumetorum), are now in the Acrocephalidae
  • Infraorder Passerides – previously known as the parvorder Passerida
Eurasian blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) and its relatives stand well apart from the rest of the Sylvioidea sensu lato
  • Parvorder Sylviida – previously known as the superfamily Sylviodea
Brown-headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla), nuthatches can climb downwards head-first
  • Superfamily Locustelloidea
—
Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus), like many Muscicapoidea a stout and cryptic bird with complex vocalizations.
Like these male (right) and female Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae), many Passeroidea are very colorful
  • Superfamily Aegithaloidea
Lesser striped swallow (Cecropis abyssinica), showing some apomorphies of its ancient yet highly advanced lineage.
  • Parvorder Muscicapida – previously known as the superfamily Muscicapoidea
Gran Canaria blue chaffinch (male)
—
  • Parvorder Passerida – previously known as the superfamily Passeroidea

Phylogeny

Relationships between living Passeriformes families based on the phylogenetic analysis of Oliveros et al (2019). Some terminals have been renamed to reflect families recognised by the IOC but not in that study. The IOC families Alcippeidae and Teretistridae were not sampled in this study.

Passeriformes
Acanthisitti

Acanthisittidae (New Zealand wrens)

Eupasseres
Tyranni
Eurylaimides

Eurylaimidae (eurylaimid broadbills)

Philepittidae (asites)

Calyptomenidae (African and green broadbills)

Pittidae (pittas)

Sapayoidae (sapayoa)

Tyrannides
Furnariida

Melanopareiidae (crescent chests)

Conopophagidae (gnateaters)

Thamnophilidae (antbirds)

Grallariidae (antpittas)

Rhinocryptidae (tapaculos)

Formicariidae (antthrushes)

Scleruridae (leaftossers)

Dendrocolaptidae (woodcreepers)

Furnariidae (ovenbirds)

Tyrannida

Pipridae (manakins)

Cotingidae (cotingas)

Tityridae (tityras, becards)

Onychorhynchidae (royal flycatchers & allies)

Oxyruncidae (sharpbill)

Pipritidae (piprites)

Platyrinchidae (spadebills)

Tachurididae (many-coloured rush tyrant)

Rhynchocyclidae (mionectine flycatchers)

Tyrannidae (tyrant flycatchers)

Passeri
Menurida

Menuridae (lyrebirds)

Atrichornithidae (scrubbirds)

Climacterida

Climacteridae (Australian treecreepers)

Ptilonorhynchidae (bowerbirds)

Meliphagida

Maluridae (Australasian wrens)

Dasyornithidae (bristlebirds)

Meliphagidae (honeyeaters)

Acanthizidae (Australasian warblers)

Pardalotidae (pardalotes)

Orthonychida

Orthonychidae (logrunners)

Pomatostomidae (Australasian babblers)

Corvides

Cinclosomatidae (quail-thrushes, jewel-babblers)

Campephagidae (cuckooshrikes)

Mohouidae (whitehead & allies)

Neosittidae (sittellas)

Orioloidea

Psophodidae (whipbirds & allies)

Eulacestomidae (ploughbill)

Falcunculidae (shriketits)

Oreoicidae (Australo-Papuan bellbirds)

Paramythiidae (painted berrypickers)

Vireonidae (vireos)

Oriolidae (orioles, figbirds)

Pachycephalidae (whistlers)

Malaconotoidea

Machaerirhynchidae (boatbills)

Artamidae (woodswallows, butcherbirds)

Rhagologidae (mottled berryhunter)

Malaconotidae (bush-shrikes, puffbacks)

Aegithinidae (ioras)

Pityriaseidae (bristlehead)

Platysteiridae (wattle-eyes, batsies)

Vangidae (vangas)

Corvoidea

Rhipiduridae (fantails)

Dicruridae (drongos)

Monarchidae (monarchs)

Ifritidae (ifrit)

Paradisaeidae (birds-of-paradise)

Corcoracidae (Australian mudnesters)

Melampittidae (melampittas)

Corvidae (crows, jays)

Laniidae (shrikes)

Platylophidae (crested jay)

Passerides

Cnemophilidae (satinbirds)

Melanocharitidae (berrypeckers)

Callaeidae (New Zealand wattlebirds)

Notiomystidae (stitchbird)

Petroicidae (Australian robins)

Eupetidae (rail-babbler)

Chaetopidae (rock-jumpers)

Picathartidae (rockfowl)

Sylviida

Hyliotidae (hyliotas)

Stenostiridae (crested flycatchers)

Paridae (tits, chickadees)

Remizidae (penduline tits)

Alaudidae (larks)

Panuridae (bearded reedling)

Nicatoridae (nicators)

Macrosphenidae (crombecs, African warblers)

Cisticolidae (cisticolas)

Locustelloidea

Acrocephalidae (acrocephalid warblers)

"Graueriidae"

Locustellidae (grassbirds)

Bernieridae (Malagasy warblers)

Donacobiidae (donacobius)

Hirundinidae (martins, swallows)

Pnoepygidae (wren warblers)

Aegithaloidea

Phylloscopidae (leaf-warblers and allies)

Hyliidae (hylias)

Aegithalidae (long-tailed tits or bushtits)

Erythrocercidae (yellow flycatchers)

Cettiidae (Cettia bush warblers and allies)

Scotocercidae (streaked scrub warbler)

Sylvioidea

Pycnonotidae (bulbuls)

Paradoxornithidae (parrotbills, fulvettas)

Sylviidae (typical warblers, sylviid babblers)

Zosteropidae (white-eyes)

Timaliidae (babblers, tit-babblers, scimitar bablers)

Leiothrichidae (laughingthrushes)

Pellorneidae (fulvettas, ground babblers)

Muscicapida
Bombycilloidea

Dulidae (palmchat)

Bombycillidae (waxwings)

Ptiliogonatidae (silky-flycatchers)

Hylocitreidae (hylocitrea)

Hypocoliidae (hypocolius)

Mohoidae (Hawaiian honeyeaters)

Muscicapoidea

Elachuridae (elechura)

Cinclidae (dippers)

Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers, chats)

Turdidae (thrushes)

Buphagidae (oxpeckers)

Mimidae (mockingbirds, thrashers)

Sturnidae (starlings, mynas)

Reguloidea

Regulidae (kinglets)

Certhioidea

Tichodromidae (wallcreeper)

Sittidae (nuthatches)

Certhiidae (treecreepers)

Salpornithidae

Polioptilidae (gnatcatchers, gnatwrens)

Troglodytidae (wrens)

Passerida

Modulatricidae (dapple-throat & allies)

Promeropidae (sugarbirds)

Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers)

Nectariniidae (sunbirds)

Chloropseidae (leafbirds)

Irenidae (fairy bluebirds)

Peucedramidae (olive warbler)

Urocynchramidae (Przevalski's finch)

Phoceoidea

Ploceidae (weavers)

Estrildidae (estrildid finches)

Viduidae (indigobirds, whydals)

Prunellidae (accentors)

Passeridae (sparrows)

Motacillidae (wagtails, pipits)

Fringillidae (finches, euphonias)

Emberizoidea

Rhodinocichlidae (thrush-tanager)

Calcariidae (longspurs, snow buntings)

Emberizidae (buntings)

Cardinalidae (cardinal grosbeaks)

Mitrospingidae (mitrosingus & allies)

Thraupidae (tanagers)

Passerellidae (American sparrows)

Parulidae (wood warblers)

Icteridae (New World blackbirds)

Icteriidae (yellow-breasted chat)

Calyptophilidae (chat-tanagers)

Zeledoniidae (wrenthrush)

Phaenicophilidae (Hispaniolan tanagers and allies)

Nesospingidae (Puerto Rican tanager)

Spindalidae (spindalises)

Explanatory notes

  1. The name wren has been applied to other, unrelated birds in Australia and New Zealand. The 27 Australasian "wren" species in the family Maluridae are unrelated, as are the New Zealand wrens in the family Acanthisittidae; the antwrens in the family Thamnophilidae; and the wren-babblers of the families Timaliidae, Pellorneidae, and Pnoepygidae. For the monophyly of the "true wrens", Troglodytidae, see Barker 2004.
  2. Specimen SMF Av 504. A flattened right hand of a passerine perhaps 10 cm long overall. If suboscine, perhaps closer to Cotingidae than to Eurylaimides.
  3. Specimens SMF Av 487–496; SMNS 86822, 86825-86826; MNHN SA 1259–1263: tibiotarsus remains of small, possibly basal Passeriformes.
  4. A partial coracoid of a probable Muscicapoidea, possibly Turdidae; distal tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of a smallish to mid-sized passerine that may be the same as the preceding; proximal ulna and tarsometatarsus of a Paridae-sized passerine.
  5. A humerus diaphysis piece of a swallow-sized passerine.
  6. Distal right humerus, possibly suboscine.
  7. Oliveros et al (2019) use the list of families published by Dickinson and Christidis in 2014. Oliveros et al include 8 families that are not included on the IOC list. These are not shown here. By contrast, the IOC list includes 15 families that are not present in Dickinson and Christidis. In 13 of these cases, the position of the additional family in the taxonomic order can be determined from the species included by Oliveros and colleagues in their analysis. No species in the families Alcippeidae and Teretistridae were sampled by Oliveros et al so their position is uncertain.
  8. The order of the families within the superfamily Orioloidea is uncertain.
  9. The order of the families within the superfamily Malaconotoidea is uncertain.
  10. The order of the families within the superfamily Corvoidea is uncertain.
  11. The taxonomic sequence of the superfamilies Locustelloidea, Sylvioidea and Aegithaloidea is uncertain, although the order of the families within each of the superfamilies is well determined.
  12. The order of some of the families within the superfamily Emberizoidea is uncertain.
  13. The family Teretistridae (Cuban warblers) is tentatively placed here. The family was not included in the analysis published by Oliveros et al (2019). Dickinson and Christidis (2014) considered the genus Teretistris Incertae sedis. Barker et al (2013) found that Teretistridae is closely related to Zeledoniidae.

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  23. Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, A.J.D.; Jones, C.; McNamara, J.A.; Douglas, B.J. (2007). "Miocene waterfowl and other birds from central Otago, New Zealand". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 5 (1): 1–39. Bibcode:2007JSPal...5....1W. doi:10.1017/S1477201906001957. hdl:2440/43360. S2CID 85230857.
  24. Roux, T. (2002). "Deux fossiles d'oiseaux de l'Oligocène inférieur du Luberon" [Two bird fossils from the Lower Oligocene of Luberon] (PDF). Courrier Scientifique du Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon. 6: 38–57.
  25. Hugueney, Marguerite; Berthet, Didier; Bodergat, Anne-Marie; Escuillié, François; Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile & Wattinne, Aurélia (2003). "La limite Oligocène-Miocène en Limagne: changements fauniques chez les mammifères, oiseaux et ostracodes des différents niveaux de Billy-Créchy (Allier, France)" [The Oligocene-Miocene boundary in Limagne: faunal changes in the mammals, birds and ostracods from the different levels of Billy-Créchy (Allier, France)]. Geobios. 36 (6): 719–731. Bibcode:2003Geobi..36..719H. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.002.
  26. Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén & Kókay, József (1998–99). "Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok, a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból. I. A Mátraszõlõs 1. lelõhely" [Middle Miocene fossils from the sections at the Rákóczi chapel at Mátraszőlős. Locality Mátraszõlõs I.]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis. 23: 33–78.
  27. Gál, Erika; Hír, János; Kessler, Eugén; Kókay, József & Márton, Venczel (2000). "Középsõ-miocén õsmaradványok a Mátraszõlõs, Rákóczi-kápolna alatti útbevágásból II. A Mátraszõlõs 2. lelõhely" [Middle Miocene fossils from the section of the road at the Rákóczi Chapel, Mátraszõlõs. II. Locality Mátraszõlõs 2]. Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis. 24: 39–75.
  28. ^ Hír, János; Kókay, József; Venczel, Márton; Gál, Erika & GKessler, Eugén (2001). "Elõzetes beszámoló a felsõtárkányi "Güdör-kert" n. õslénytani lelõhelykomplex újravizsgálatáról" [A preliminary report on the revised investigation of the paleontological locality-complex "Güdör-kert" at Felsõtárkány, Northern Hungary] (PDF). Folia Historico Naturalia Musei Matraensis. 25: 41–64. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 March 2021.
  29. Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M. (1991). "El más antiguo Passeriformes de America del Sur. Presentation at VIII Journadas Argentinas de Paleontologia de Vertebrados" [The most ancient passerine from South America]. Ameghiniana. 28 (3–4): 410.
  30. Noriega, Jorge I. & Chiappe, Luis M. (1993). "An Early Miocene Passeriform from Argentina" (PDF). Auk. 110 (4): 936–938. doi:10.2307/4088653. JSTOR 4088653. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2014.
  31. ^ Oliveros, C.H.; et al. (2019). "Earth history and the passerine superradiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (16): 7916–7925. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7916O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1813206116. PMC 6475423. PMID 30936315.
  32. The former does not even have recognized subspecies, while the latter is one of the most singular birds alive today. Good photos of a bearded reedling are for example here Archived 16 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine and here Archived 31 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  33. Dickinson, E.C.; Christidis, L., eds. (2014). The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2: Passerines (4th ed.). Eastbourne, UK: Aves Press. ISBN 978-0-9568611-2-2.
  34. ^ Cracraft, Joel (2014). "Avian higher-level relationships and classification: passeriformes". In Dickinson, E.C.; Christidis, L. (eds.). The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2: Passerines (4th ed.). Eastbourne, UK: Aves Press. pp. xvii-xxxiii . ISBN 978-0-9568611-2-2.
  35. ^ Barker, F.K.; Burns, K.J.; Klicka, J.; Lanyon, S.M.; Lovette, I.J. (2013). "Going to extremes: contrasting rates of diversification in a recent radiation of New World passerine birds". Systematic Biology. 62 (2): 298–320. doi:10.1093/sysbio/sys094. PMID 23229025.
  36. Dickinson, E.C.; Christidis, L., eds. (2014). The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2: Passerines (4th ed.). Eastbourne, UK: Aves Press. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-9568611-2-2.

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