Misplaced Pages

Foreign relations of China: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 15:12, 15 May 2018 edit101.13.64.66 (talk) https://web.archive.org/web/20120330194210/http://www.caribank.org/titanweb/cdb/webcms.nsf/AllDoc/E3B470BE4AD4B5EF8725733700799FD6?OpenDocumentTag: Undo← Previous edit Latest revision as of 22:43, 5 January 2025 edit undo2a00:23c7:7c44:c001:d088:a394:333f:60a5 (talk)No edit summary 
(914 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|none}}
{{About|the foreign relations of the People's Republic of China|the foreign relations of the Republic of China|Foreign relations of Taiwan}} {{About|the foreign relations of the People's Republic of China|the foreign relations of the Republic of China|Foreign relations of Taiwan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}} {{Very long|date=October 2022}}
]{{Politics of the People's Republic of China}}


{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
The foreign relations of the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''), commonly known to most states as '''China''', guides the way in which China interacts with foreign nations and expresses its political, economic and cultural strengths, weaknesses and values. As a ] and ], ]'s ] and strategic thinking are highly influential. China officially states it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace. The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment for China's ] and modernization of construction, and to maintain ] and propel common development."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> An example of a foreign policy decision guided by "sovereignty and territorial integrity" is its not engaging in ] with any country that recognizes the ], which the PRC does not recognise as a ].<ref>{{cite news |title=China-Taiwan tussle in Bim politics |first=David |last=Williams |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2008/01/080108_chinataiwan.shtml |agency= |newspaper= |publisher=] |location= |date=8 January 2008 |page= |accessdate=13 July 2010 |trans-title=|quote=Beijing and Taipei often trade insults over which is using "dollar diplomacy" in the form of offers of aid or cheap loans to curry influence around the world. The 'One-China' policy ensures that nations cannot have official relations with both China and Taiwan. |ref= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China halts St. Lucia work |first=Pete |last=Ninvalle |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/04/070427_chinaconstruct.shtml |agency= |newspaper= |publisher=] |location= |date=27 April 2007 |page= |accessdate=13 July 2010 |trans-title=|quote= |ref= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China in the Caribbean: The New Big Brother |first=Daniel |last=Erikson |url=http://stluciastar.com/content/archives/10022 |format= |agency= |newspaper=Star Publishing Company |publisher= |location= |date=8 January 2010 |page= |accessdate=13 July 2010<!-- guessing at invalid date --> |trans-title=|quote=China’s overall strategy for the Caribbean has been driven by a desire to ensure the security of Chinese offshore financial holdings, woo countries with infrastructure projects and investment deals to ensure support for China in multilateral organizations, and promote the crucial "One China" policy to isolate Taiwan on the world stage. |ref= }}{{dead link|date=January 2017|bot=medic}}</ref> China is a member of many ]s, holding key positions such as a permanent membership on the ]. The PRC's diplomatic goals were expansionist for achieving international ] before the ] ended.<ref>http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-5/cpc-policy.pdf</ref> In the early 1970s, the PRC replaced the ROC as the recognised government of "China" in the ] following ]. As a nuclear power, China signed the ] in the United Nations. China's foreign policy today is summarized as strategic relations with neighboring countries and the world's superpowers to strive for China's national interest, and to create a favorable environment for China's domestic development for perpetual competition in the world in the long-run.<ref>http://fride.org/descarga/WP8_China_strategic_partnership_diplomacy.pdf</ref>
]
]{{Politics of China |expanded = Foreign }}


], officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), has full diplomatic relations with 180 out of the other 192 ], ], ] and the ]. {{As of|2024}}, China has had the most ]s of any state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_ranking|access-date=26 February 2024|website=]}}</ref>
==Institutions of foreign policy==
]


China officially claims it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent Foreign Policy of Peace|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/hpwjzc/t1119842.shtml|access-date=9 August 2021|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref> The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment for China's ] and modernization of construction, and to maintain ] and propel common development."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223001208/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/|archive-date=23 February 2014}}</ref> An example of a foreign policy decision guided by "sovereignty and territorial integrity" is not engaging in ] with any country that recognizes the ], which the PRC does not recognise as a ].<ref>{{cite news|title=China-Taiwan tussle in Bim politics|first=David|last=Williams|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2008/01/080108_chinataiwan.shtml|publisher=]|date=8 January 2008|access-date=13 July 2010|quote=Beijing and Taipei often trade insults over which is using "dollar diplomacy" in the form of offers of aid or cheap loans to curry influence around the world. The 'One-China' policy ensures that nations cannot have official relations with both China and Taiwan.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924163401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2008/01/080108_chinataiwan.shtml|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China halts St. Lucia work|first=Pete|last=Ninvalle|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/04/070427_chinaconstruct.shtml|publisher=]|date=27 April 2007|access-date=13 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915123240/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/04/070427_chinaconstruct.shtml|archive-date=15 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China in the Caribbean: The New Big Brother|first=Daniel|last=Erikson|url=http://stluciastar.com/content/archives/10022|publisher=Star Publishing Company|date=8 January 2010|access-date=13 July 2010<!-- guessing at invalid date -->|quote=China's overall strategy for the Caribbean has been driven by a desire to ensure the security of Chinese offshore financial holdings, woo countries with infrastructure projects and investment deals to ensure support for China in multilateral organizations, and promote the crucial "One China" policy to isolate Taiwan on the world stage.}}{{dead link|date=July 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
Like most other nations, China's foreign policy is carried out by the ]. However, the Foreign Affairs Ministry is subordinate to the ], which decides on policy-making.


China is a member of many international organizations, holding key positions such as a permanent membership on the ]. In the early 1970s, the PRC replaced the ROC as the recognised government of "China" in the ] following ]. As a nuclear power, China signed the ] in the United Nations.
Unlike most other nations, much of Chinese foreign policy is formulated in ]s sponsored and supervised by, but formally outside of the government. One distinctive aspect of ] is that much of the foreign policy discussion takes place between ] who form the think tanks.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} Because these discussions are unofficial, they are generally more free and less restricted than discussions between government officials. China is also distinctive for having a separate body of Chinese strategic thought and theory of international relations which is distinct from Western theory.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}


== History== == History ==
:''For the history to 1800 see ].'' {{for-multi|history before 1800|Foreign relations of imperial China|history since 1800|History of foreign relations of China}}
=== Qing Dynasty ===
{{See also|First Opium War|Second Opium War}}
By the mid 19th century, Chinese stability had come under increasing threat from both domestic and international sources. Social unrest and serious revolts became more common while the regular army had decayed into an ineffective force. Chinese leaders increasingly feared the impact of Western ideas. After 1724 Christian propaganda was prohibited, and after 1757 international trade was confined to the port of Canton under the strictly limited ]. European commercial interests sought to end the trading barriers, but China fended off repeated efforts by Britain to reform the trading system. Increasing sales of Indian ] to China by British traders led to the ] (1839–1842). The superiority of Western militaries and military technology like steamboats and Congreve rockets forced China to open trade with the West on Western terms.
]


==Foreign policy==
==== Unequal treaties ====
] ] in China-France 50 years anniversary livery]]
{{main|Unequal treaty}}
{{main|Foreign policy of China}}{{Further|China and the United Nations}}
A series of perceived "]", including the ] (1842), the treaties of Tianjin (1858), and the Beijing Conventions (1860), forced China to open new ], including Canton (Guangzhou), Amoy (Xiamen), and Shanghai. The treaties also allowed the British to set up Hong Kong as a colony and established international settlements in the treaty ports under the control of international peoples. China was required to accept permanent diplomats at the capital in Peking, provided for the free movement for foreign ships in Chinese rivers, imposed European regulation of Chinese tariffs, and opened the interior to Christian missionaries. Since the 1920s, the "unequal treaties" have been a centerpiece of perceived Chinese grievances against the West in general.<ref>Dong Wang, "The Discourse of Unequal Treaties in Modern China," ''Pacific Affairs'' (2003) 76#3 pp 399-425.</ref>
Since ] in 1978, China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the ] and other multilateral organizations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lee|first=Kristine|date=15 April 2020|title=It's Not Just the WHO: How China Is Moving on the Whole U.N.|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/04/15/its-not-just-the-who-how-china-is-moving-on-the-whole-un-189029|access-date=15 October 2022|website=]}}</ref>


China traditionally operates separate tracks of government-to-government and party-to-party relations, the latter for example via the Communist Party's ].<ref name="Ong-2023">{{Cite book|last=Ong|first=Andrew|title=Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5017-7071-5|jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b}}</ref>{{Rp|page=137}}
==== Suzerain ====
{{See also|List of tributaries of Imperial China}}
For centuries China had claimed ] authority over numerous adjacent areas. The areas had internal autonomy but were forced to give tribute to China while being theoretically under the protection of China in terms of foreign affairs. By the 19th century the relationships were nominal, and China exerted little or no actual control.{{Citation needed| date=July 2017}} Other Eastern and Western powers did not recognize China's fiefdom and one by one seized the supposed suzerain areas. Japan took Korea<ref>{{cite book|author=Young Park|title=Korea and the Imperialists: In Search of a National Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2SVO2LI1RnkC&pg=PA49|year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|pages=49–50}}</ref> and the Ryukyus; France took Vietnam; Britain took Upper Burma<ref>{{cite book|author=George D. E. Philip et al. eds.|title=British documents on foreign affairs--reports and papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print: From the mid-nineteenth century to the First World War. |url=https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=%22without+alienating+China+as+the+suzerain+power%22+inauthor:george&num=10|year=1994|publisher=Great Britain. Foreign Office}}</ref> and Nepal; Russia took parts of Siberia. Only Tibet was left, and that was highly problematic since the Tibetans, as most of the supposed suzerainty, had never accepted Chinese claims of lordship and tribute.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Palace|title=British Empire and Tibet 1900-1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCeSFAQK73IC&pg=PT257|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|page=257}}</ref> This weakened China's power both regionally and internally.


=== Asian neighbors ===
=== First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) ===
China's relations with its Asian neighbors became more stable during the last decades of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kang|first=David C.|year=2005|title=Why China's Rise Will Be Peaceful: Hierarchy and Stability in the East Asian Region|journal=Perspectives on Politics|volume=3|issue=3|pages=551–554|doi=10.1017/S1537592705270342|jstor=3689029|s2cid=145193988|issn=1537-5927}}</ref> It has cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the ] (ASEAN), and participated in the ]. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ] meetings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge handbook of Asian regionalism|date=2012|publisher=]|editor=Mark Beeson|editor2=Richard Stubbs|isbn=978-0-415-58054-0|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=666242764}}</ref> In 2005, the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural ] (EAS).<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 December 2005|title=Chairman's Statement of the First East Asia Summit, Kuala Lumpur, 14 December 2005|url=http://www.aseansec.org/18104.htm|access-date=14 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216112947/http://www.aseansec.org/18104.htm|archive-date=16 December 2005}}</ref> Relations have improved with Vietnam since the 1979 ] and subsequent ] although maritime disputes remain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Robert S.|date=4 July 2021|title=China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=30|issue=130|pages=613–629|doi=10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|s2cid=230609101|issn=1067-0564}}</ref>
{{Main|First Sino-Japanese War}}A weakened China lost wars with Japan and gave up nominal control over the Ryukyu Islands in 1870 to Japan. After the ] of 1894 it lost Formosa to Japan. After the ] of 1884-1885, France took control of Vietnam, another supposed "tributary state." After Britain took over Burma, as a show of good faith they maintained the sending of tribute to China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKRFAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA99&dq=recent+visit+of+li+hung+chang+to+our+shores&hl=en&ei=yILZTa3gEs_r0QGr0YT9Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=burma%20was%20a%20tributary%20state%20of%20china%20british%20forward%20tribute%20peking&f=false|title=China and her mysteries|author=Alfred Stead|year=1901|publisher=Hood, Douglas, & Howard|edition=|location=LONDON|page=100|isbn=|accessdate=19 February 2011}}(Original from the University of California)</ref> To affirm this, Britain agreed in the Burma convention in 1886 to continue the Burmese payments to China every 10 years, in return for which China would recognise Britain's occupation of Upper Burma.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2NCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=tribute+china&hl=en&ei=YnYLTtCxE4Ls0gGB4q2WAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=tribute%20china&f=false|title=China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth century to 1895|author=William Woodville Rockhill|year=1905|publisher=Luzac & Co.|edition=|location=LONDON|page=5|isbn=|accessdate=19 February 2011}}(Colonial period Korea ; WWC-5)(Original from the University of California)</ref>


A ] with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the ] remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the ] with Japan. For the countries involved, these conflicts have had a negative impact on China's reputation.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 July 2013|title=Poll: Mutual Distrust Grows Between China, US|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/poll-many-see-china-overtaking-us-as-top-superpower/1704167.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219210204/http://www.voanews.com/content/poll-many-see-china-overtaking-us-as-top-superpower/1704167.html|archive-date=19 February 2015|access-date=19 February 2015|publisher=]}}</ref>
]


The 2023 edition of China's "standard map" unveiled by its Ministry of Natural Resources on 28 August 2023, met with objections from its Asian neighbors the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, and India, all of which are involved in ] with China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2023|title=China's new map outrages its neighbors|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-new-map-anger-india-south-china-sea-border-disputes-rcna102921|access-date=28 October 2023|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2023|title=China's new national map has set off a wave of protests. Why?|url=https://apnews.com/article/china-map-territorial-dispute-south-sea-702c45165d7f9cade796700fffa5691e|access-date=28 October 2023|work=]}}</ref>
Japan after 1860 modernized its military after Western models and was far stronger than China. The war, fought in 1894 and 1895, was fought to resolve the issue of control over Korea, which was yet another suzerain claimed by China and under the rule of the ]. A peasant rebellion led to a request by the Korean government for China to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending its own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in Seoul. China objected and war ensued. It was a brief affair, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the ] and nearly destroying the Chinese navy in the ].<ref name ="JC Perry 1964">{{cite journal |first1=John Curtis |last1=Perry |authorlink=John Curtis Perry |date=1964 |title=The Battle off the Tayang, 17 September 1894 |journal=The ] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=243–259 |publisher= ] |doi=10.1080/00253359.1964.10657787 |url= http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00253359.1964.10657787}}</ref> The ] was signed between Japan and China, which ceded the ] and the island of ] to Japan. However, after the peace treaty Russia, Germany, and France ]. Soon after, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built ] fortress, and based the ] in the port. Germany occupied ], built Tsingtao fortress, and based the ] in this port.<ref>William Langer, ''The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902'' (2nd ed. 1950) pp 167-94</ref>


==== Boxer rebellion ==== === India ===
] have fluctuated greatly over the years. After years of competition, general distrust between the two, and several border conflicts, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states stabilized, only for relations to suffer a massive hit in the late 2010s due to multiple border standoffs that resulted in deaths on both sides. While both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years, and China became India's largest trading partner in 2010, there is increasing unease in India regarding the perceived Chinese advantage in their trade relationship. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. The dispute over ] (formerly a part of the Indian territory of ]) and ] (China) or ] (India) is not settled and plagues Sino-Indian relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival ] and neighboring ], Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|date=23 August 2007|title=Japan courts India to counter China: Analysts|work=]|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/Japan_courts_India_to_counter_China_Analysts/articleshow/2305041.cms|url-status=live|access-date=25 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126115232/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/Japan_courts_India_to_counter_China_Analysts/articleshow/2305041.cms|archive-date=26 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm|location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|title=Wargame with India not to put China in a closet: US admiral|date=24 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102071341/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm|archive-date=2 November 2012}}</ref>
{{main|Boxer Rebellion}}
The Boxer Rebellion (1897–1901) was an anti-foreigner movement by the Righteous Harmony Society in China between 1897 and 1901 after a massive increase in imperialist activities and concession seizing by foreign powers. The militaries of the nationalists were ludicrously out of date and lacked the support of the Chinese military. The uprising ended with an Alliance of Eastern and Western nations known as the ] emerging victorious.


Relations between the two countries have deteriorated over the past decade, especially after ] along the border in the ] involving Indian and Chinese military personnel.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Three Things to Know About China-India Tensions|url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/10/three-things-know-about-china-india-tensions|access-date=26 October 2023|website=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref>
] (1884-1885)]]
]


=== International territorial disputes ===
==== Manchuria ====
{{main|Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China}}
{{see also|Chinese Eastern Railway|South Manchuria Railway}}
Manchuria was a contested zone with Russia and Japan trying to take control away from China.


China has had border or maritime disputes with several countries, including with Vietnam in the ] and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on 21 July 2008, Russia finally resolved the last remaining border dispute along the 4300&nbsp;km border between the two countries by ceding a small amount of territory to China.<ref>{{cite news|date=21 July 2008|title=China, Russia sign border agreement|work=], ]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=42718|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211141134/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=42718|archive-date=11 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=24 July 2008|title=The Sino-Russian border: The cockerel's cropped crest|newspaper=]|url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11792951|url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829172624/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11792951|archive-date=29 August 2009}}</ref>
=== Republican Era ===
The Republican Revolution of 1912 overthrew the imperial court and brought an era of regional warlords. In terms of foreign policy the new government tried with limited success to renegotiate the unequal treaties. In 1931, Japan seized control of Manchuria over the objections of the League of Nations. Japan quit the League, which was helpless.<ref>Alison Adcock Kaufman, "In Pursuit of Equality and Respect: China’s Diplomacy and the League of Nations." ''Modern China'' 40.6 (2014): 605-638 .</ref> The most active Chinese diplomat was ].<ref>Stephen G. Craft, ''V.K. Wellington Koo and the emergence of modern China'' (University Press of Kentucky, 2015).</ref>


Territorial disputes with other countries below:<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
=== War with Japan ===
{{main|Second Sino-Japanese War}}
] in 1943]]


* The PRC claims the ''de jure'' administration of ], as well as mainland-nearby islands of ] and ], currently controlled by the ''']'''.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
The United States was a strong supporter of China after Japan invaded in 1937. Even the isolationists who opposed war in Europe supported a hard-line against Japan. The outbreak of the ] in 1937 saw aid flow into the ], led by Chiang Kai-shek.<ref>Michael Schaller, ''U.S. Crusade in China, 1938-1945'' (1979)</ref> American public sympathy for the Chinese was aroused by reports from missionaries, novelists such as ], and '']'' of Japanese brutality in China, including reports surrounding the ], also known as the 'Rape of Nanking'. By early 1941 the U.S. was preparing to send American planes flown by American pilots under American command, but wearing Chinese uniforms, to fight the Japanese invaders and even to bomb Japanese cities. The "]" under ] arrived just as the U.S. entered the war.<ref>Martha Byrd, ''Chennault: Giving Wings to the Tiger'' (2003)</ref>
* 10 features in the ] (Korean: Amnok) river are in dispute with '''North Korea'''.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
* Border dispute with '''India'''; India claims control of ], which China seized during the ] of 1962, while China claims most of the Indian state of ] (called ] by China).<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
*Portions of the ].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
* China claims the administration of ] (Diaoyutai Islands), currently held by ''']'''.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
*South China Sea Issue (《Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea》 was signed by the People's Republic of China and the 10 ASEAN countries (10+1) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia on 4 November 2002)
** ] administered and occupied by the People's Republic, but claimed by '''Vietnam'''.<ref>China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless negotiations are ongoing as of 2008.</ref>
** Involved in a dispute with '''the''' ''']''' over ].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
**Involved in a ] with '''Malaysia''', '''the ]''', '''Vietnam''', '''Taiwan''', and possibly ''']'''.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
**The maritime area in South China Sea, which China claimed sovereignty on area surrounding shoals and islands in the Sea, as well as historical right over the area in ], while countries like the United States and Japan consider the maritime area as ].<ref>{{cite web|date=10 June 2015|title=The South China Sea conflict in a nutshell|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/06/10/commentary/world-commentary/south-china-sea-conflict-nutshell/}}</ref>
*] disputes with '''North Korea''' in the ]; ''']''' in the Yellow and ]s; ''']''' in the East China Sea (]); '''Vietnam''', the ''']''', '''Malaysia''', ''']''' and ''']''' in the South China Sea.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />


Territorial disputes listed above as between the PRC and ROC ("Taiwan") stems from the question of which government is the legitimate government of China. The Republic of China which views itself as the successor state of the Qing Dynasty did not renounce any territory which fell under de facto control of other states (i.e. Mongolia), but has largely been a non-participant in enforcing these claims. The People's Republic of China which inherited the claims has settled a number of such disputes with Mongolia and Russia via bilateral treaties, not recognized by the Republic of China. In this respect, the territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring countries may be considered a subset of those between the ROC and said countries.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
After the formal declaration of war in December 1941, the U.S. stepped up the flow of aid, but it had to be routed through India and over the Himalayan Mountains because Japan blocked the other routes. Chiang's beleaguered government was now headquartered in remote ]. ],<ref>See Laura Tyson Li, ''Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady'' (2006).</ref> who had been educated in the United States, addressed the US Congress and toured the country to rally support for China. Congress amended the ] and Roosevelt moved to end the ]. However, the perception that Chiang's government, with his poorly equipped and ill-fed troops was unable to effectively fight the Japanese or that he preferred to focus more on defeating the Communists grew. ] such as ] argued that it was in American interest to establish communication with the Communists to prepare for a land-based counteroffensive invasion of Japan. The ], which began in 1943, was the first official American contact with the Communists. Other Americans, led by Chennault, argued for air power. In 1944, Generalissimo Chiang acceded to Roosevelt's request that an American general take charge of all forces in the area, but demanded that Stilwell be recalled. General ] replaced Stilwell, ] became ambassador, and Chinese-American relations became much smoother. The U.S. had included China in top-level diplomacy in the hope that large masses of Chinese troops would defeat Japan with minimal American casualties. When that hope was seen as illusory, and it was clear that B-29 bombers could not operate effectively from China, China became much less important to Washington, but it was promised a seat in the new UN Security Council, with a veto. In 1946 the U.S. sent in a high level team under General ] to try to negotiate a solution to the emerging civil war, but it failed.<ref>Herbert Feis, ''China Tangle: American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission'' (1953)</ref>)


Bloomberg News reports that these disputes are undermining China's attempts to charm its neighbors away from American influence.<ref>Forsythe, Michael and Sakamaki, Sachiko {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103180245/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-09-26/china-s-asian-charm-offensive-in-shambles-over-disputes-with-neighbors.html|date=3 November 2012}} ], 26 September 2010</ref> China has come to rely more on military power to resolve these disputes. China has made double digit percentage increases in its military budget for many years, though as a percentage of its fast growing GDP falling from 1.4% in 2006 to 1.3% in 2011.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305072900/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-04/chinese-military-spending-will-rise-11-percent-in-2012|date=5 March 2012}} '']''. 4 March 2012.</ref> This may lead to a China causing its own encirclement by nations that are ever more firmly aligned against an increasingly well armed and dominant China.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807040319/https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/03/05/chinas-defense-spending-dilemma/|date=7 August 2017}} '']''. 5 March 2012.</ref> As of 2013 this has caused even the Philippines to invite back onto their soil not just the Americans, but also the Japanese.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Zachary Keck|author2=The Diplomat|title=Made in China: A US-Japan-Philippines Axis?|url=https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/06/29/made-in-china-a-us-japan-philippines-axis/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111190223/https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/06/29/made-in-china-a-us-japan-philippines-axis/|archive-date=11 November 2013|access-date=19 February 2015|work=The Diplomat}}</ref>
=== Civil War ===
Westad says the Communists won the Civil War in the late 1940s because ] made fewer military mistakes than ], and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against Japanese. Meanwhile the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.<ref>Odd Arne Westad, ''Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750'' (2012) p 291</ref>


] of China and ] meet while attending an ] summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004.]]
=== People's Republic of China ===
{{See also|List of wars involving the People's Republic of China}}


In March 2024, it was revealed that Japan and the European Union are set to engage in discussions regarding cooperation on advanced materials for next-generation chips and batteries, aiming to decrease their dependence on China. EU Commissioner for Innovation and Research, Iliana Ivanova, highlighted the potential mutual benefits of establishing a dialogue framework.<ref>{{Cite news|date=30 March 2024|title=Japan, EU to discuss cooperation on tech materials to cut reliance on China, Nikkei says|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/japan-eu-discuss-cooperation-tech-materials-cut-reliance-china-nikkei-says-2024-03-30/|access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref>
==== International recognition of the People's Republic of China ====
{{See also|Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China}}


===21st century===
Since its establishment in 1949, the ] has worked vigorously to win international recognition and support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including ] (]), ] (]), ] (]), the ] and islands in the ].
{{Further|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|Political status of Taiwan|Chinese intelligence activity abroad}}
At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, ] (CCP) general secretary Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line had varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval.


In 2007, Foreign Affairs Ministry spokesman ] made an eight-point statement explaining the diplomatic philosophy of China in response to U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney's earlier remarks on China's military spending and China's anti-satellite test in January 2007 posing a global threat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301-104826-2978r/|title=Beijing likens Cheney criticism to nosy neighbor|work=The Washington Times|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219202935/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301-104826-2978r/|archive-date=19 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
Upon its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China was recognized by ] countries. Among the first Western countries to recognize China were ] (on 17 January 1950<ref> (page visited on 19 August 2014).</ref>) and ] (on 14 February 1950<ref>{{cite web|author1=Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg|script-title=zh:中国与瑞典的关系|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cggb/chn/zrgx/t216965.htm|website=www.fmprc.gov.cn|publisher=Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg|accessdate=4 September 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302092144/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cggb/chn/zrgx/t216965.htm|archivedate=2 March 2009|location=Gothenburg, Sweden|language=Chinese|quote=瑞典于1950年1月14日承认新中国}}</ref>). The first Western country to establish diplomatic ties with China was ] (on 9 May 1950).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-05/07/content_9819770.htm|title = 60th anniversary of China-Sweden diplomatic relations celebrated|date = 2010-05-07|accessdate = 2014-08-22|website = China Daily|publisher = |last = Xinhua}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-06/11/content_891453.htm|title = China-Sweden relations continue to strengthen|date = 2007-06-11|accessdate = 2014-08-22|website = China Daily|publisher = |last = Xinhua}}</ref> Until the early 1970s, the ] government in ] was recognized diplomatically by most world powers and held the seat in the UN Security Council, with a veto. After the Beijing government assumed the China seat in 1971 (and the ROC government was expelled), the great majority of nations have switched diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Japan established diplomatic relations with the PRC in 1972, following the ], and the United States did so in 1979. The number of countries that have established diplomatic relations with Beijing has risen to 171, while 23 maintain diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (or Taiwan).<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: China|url=https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm|work=Bureau of Public Affairs|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=10 March 2011}}</ref> (See also: ])


] ] presented ] to ] at a ceremony with ] on 5 June 2019]]In 2011, Foreign Minister ] outlined plans for an "integrated approach" that would serve China's economic development.<ref>Ho, Stephanie. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309042225/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Chinese-Foreign-Relations-to-Focus-on-More-Active-Diplomacy-117511453.html |date=9 March 2011 }} Voice of America, 7 March 2011.</ref>
Both the PRC and ROC make it a prerequisite for diplomatic relations that a country does not recognize and conduct any official relations with the other party.


In 2016, during the 6th Plenum of ], Party General Secretary Xi Jinping has presented efforts for greater transparency in the decision-making process in local governance, which also represent his effort in establishing a positive image of China's Communist Party overseas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/chinas-sixth-plenum-xi-strives-polish-image-abroad/|title=In China's sixth plenum, Xi strives to polish image abroad|last=Lai|first=Christina|date=26 October 2016|website=Asia Times|access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref>
=== Mao's foreign policies ===
With Mao in overall control and making final decisions, ] handled foreign-policy and developed a strong reputation for his diplomatic and negotiating skills.<ref>Michael Yahuda, ''Towards the End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy under Mao'' (1983)</ref> Regardless of those skills, Zhou's bargaining position was undercut by the domestic turmoil initiated by Mao. The ] of 1958-60 was a failed effort to industrialize overnight; it devastated food production and led to ]. Even more disruptive was the ] of 1966-76, which decimated a generation of leadership. When China broke with Russia around 1960, the main cause was Mao’s insistence that Moscow had deviated from the true principles of communism. The result was that both Moscow and Beijing sponsored rival Communist parties around the world, which expended much of their energy fighting each other. China's focus especially was on the Third World as China portrayed itself as the legitimate leader of the global battle against imperialism and capitalism.<ref>Westad, ''Restless Empire'' ch 9</ref>


At their annual meeting on 13 June 2021, country leaders from the ] (G7) criticized China for a series of abuses. The G7 nations—the US, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Canada and Japan—had been hesitant about acting separately. Pressured by US President ], they unanimously agreed on a sharp criticism, followed by a similar strong unanimous attack by ] members the next day. The criticisms focused on the mistreatment of the ] minority, the systematic destruction of democracy in Hong Kong, repeated military threats against Taiwan, unfair trade practices, and lack of transparency regarding the origins of COVID-19. China has rejected all criticism of what it considers to be strictly internal policy matters. On the other hand, the constellation of critics is essential to the Chinese economy in terms of jobs, investments and purchases of its huge quantity of exports.<ref>{{Cite web|last=STUART LAU|date=13 June 2021|title=US and Europe converge on historic rebuke of China|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/us-europe-rebuke-china-economic-practices-g7-human-rights-xinjiang-coronavirus/|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Areddy|first=James T.|date=14 June 2021|title=Back-to-Back Rebukes of China Mark a Turning Point|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/back-to-back-rebukes-of-china-mark-a-turning-point-11623710320|access-date=15 April 2022|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>Sabine Siebold, Steve Holland and Robin Emmott, "NATO adopts tough line on China at Biden's debut summit with alliance" </ref><ref>Karla Adam et al.. "G-7 takes stronger stand against China, at U.S. urging" .</ref>
=== Soviet Union and Korean War ===
After its founding, the PRC's foreign policy initially focused on its solidarity with the ], the ] nations, and other communist countries, sealed with, among other agreements, the ] signed in 1950 to oppose China's chief antagonists, the West and in particular the United States. The 1950–53 ] waged by China and its ] ally against the United States, South Korea, and United Nations (UN) forces has long been a reason for bitter feelings. After the conclusion of the ], China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other ] countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.<ref>], ''China's road to the Korean War'' (1994)</ref>


China's early success in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic facilitated its ].<ref name="Zhao-2023">{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=90|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> Chinese ownership of much of the global medical supply chain enhanced its ability to send doctors and medical equipment to suffering countries.<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> China soon followed its mask diplomacy with ].<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> China's infection rates were sufficiently low that it could send vaccines abroad without domestic objections.<ref name="Zhao-2023" /> Academic ] writes that "ust by showing up and helping plug the colossal gaps in the global supply, China gained ground."<ref name="Zhao-2023" />
China's entry into the Korean War was the first of many ]s the PRC would wage in response to perceived threats or slights.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://breakingdefense.com/2013/09/26/chinas-dangerous-weakness-part-1-beijings-aggressive-idea-of-self-defense/ |title= China’s Dangerous Weakness, Part 1: Beijing’s Aggressive Idea Of Self-Defense |last1=Freedberg Jr. |first1=Sydney J. |date=26 September 2013 |website=breakingdefense.com |publisher=Breaking Media, Inc. |accessdate=27 September 2013}}</ref>


==== Break with Moscow ==== == Economic policy ==
{{See also|Made in China 2025|Go Out policy|Debt-trap diplomacy}}
By the late 1950s, relations between China and the Soviet Union had become so divisive that in 1960, the Soviets unilaterally withdrew their advisers from China. The two then began to vie for allegiances among the ], for China saw itself as a natural champion through its role in the ] and its numerous bilateral and bi-party ties.
In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. In 1962, China had a ] with ] over a border dispute. By 1969, relations with Moscow were so tense that fighting erupted along their common border. Following the ] and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position. China then lessened its anti-Western rhetoric and began developing formal diplomatic relations with West European nations.


China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the ].<ref name="Mitter-2020">{{Cite book|last=Mitter|first=Rana|title=China's good war: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism|date=2020|publisher=The Belknap Press of ]|isbn=978-0-674-98426-4|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|page=8|oclc=1141442704}}</ref> When Western countries were nearing financial disaster, China created credit for spending on infrastructure.<ref name="Mitter-2020" /> This both helped stabilize the global economy and it also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure.<ref name="Mitter-2020" />
=== 1980s ===
Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the ] of ]. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in ]—the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.


The Communist Party's ] in 2007 made the negotiation of ]s a priority and was further emphasized following a 2015 ] opinion.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=153}} The pace of China's free trade agreement negotiations has accelerated since 2007.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=153}}
In the 1970s and 1980s, China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. During the time of Mao, China was a closed country. After his death, authorities led by ] began instigating reforms. In 1983, 74-year-old ] became President of China and one of the longest serving politicians in the leadership of China. He visited many countries and thus began opening China to the world. In 1985, ] was the first president of China to visit the ]. Li also visited North Korea. 1986 saw the arrival of Queen ] in an official visit.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Anderson|first=Kurt
|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954285,00.html
|title=History Beckons Again
|journal=]
|date=7 May 1984
|accessdate=19 August 2011
}}</ref><ref name="Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip with Chinese President Li Xiannian, October 1986 (colour photo)">{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/422333/|title=Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip with Chinese President Li Xiannian, October 1986 (colour photo) by - Bridgeman Images - art images & historical footage for licensing|last=|first=|date=|work=Bridgeman Images|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220015557/http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/422333/|archive-date=2015-02-20|dead-url=yes|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.


China has invested in many infrastructure projects around Eurasia and Africa, including the ], ] and ] and ] and ] in Pakistan.
China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower ]", focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and ], but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to closely follow the political and economic positions of the Third World ], although China was not a formal member.


=== Debt trap allegations ===
===Tiananmen Massacre===
China financed ] in Sri Lanka, which drew allegations of ] when Sri Lanka defaulted on its loans and China took control of the port for 99 years.<ref name="bloomb">{{cite web|last=Marlow|first=Iain|date=17 April 2018|title=China's $1 Billion White Elephant|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-17/china-s-1-billion-white-elephant-the-port-ships-don-t-use|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015142/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-17/china-s-1-billion-white-elephant-the-port-ships-don-t-use|archive-date=3 May 2019|access-date=15 September 2018|publisher=]}}</ref> Some western analysts have suggested China's debt-trap diplomacy may hide hegemonic intentions and challenges to states' sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 February 2019|title=China's Era of Debt-Trap Diplomacy May Pave the Way for Something Sinister|url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/chinas-era-debt-trap-diplomacy-may-pave-way-something-sinister-42927|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401015136/https://nationalinterest.org/feature/chinas-era-debt-trap-diplomacy-may-pave-way-something-sinister-42927|archive-date=1 April 2019|access-date=3 February 2019|website=]}}</ref> A 2022 study from Johns Hopkins University's ] found that contrary to popular narratives regarding Hambantota port, there were no Chinese debt-to-equity swaps, no asset seizures, and no "hidden debt."<ref name="CARI-2022">{{Cite web|last=Umesh Moramudali and Thilina Panduwawal|date=29 November 2022|title=Evolution of Chinese Lending to Sri Lanka Since the mid-2000s: Separating Myth from Reality|url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5652847de4b033f56d2bdc29/t/638689771d0e3c4beb14bf2f/1669761400150/Briefing+Paper+-+Sri+Lanka+Debt+-+V5.pdf|access-date=5 January 2023|website=]}}</ref> It concluded that "the popular narrative of Sri Lanka getting caught in a Chinese debt-trap has been debunked on many occasions."<ref name="CARI-2022" /> Numerous other academics have also argued that the notion of a Chinese "debt-trap" is false, and have called the allegation a "meme" based on anxiety about China's rise,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brautigam|first=Deborah|date=2 January 2020|title=A critical look at Chinese 'debt-trap diplomacy': the rise of a meme|journal=Area Development and Policy|volume=5|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/23792949.2019.1689828|s2cid=214547742|issn=2379-2949}}</ref> a function of China-US rivalries rather than reality,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jevans Nyabiage|date=6 June 2022|title=Chinese debt traps in Africa? The big worry is bondholders: study|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3180478/chinese-debt-traps-africa-bigger-worry-bondholders-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503190500/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3180478/chinese-debt-traps-africa-bigger-worry-bondholders-study-finds|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=14 October 2022|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> and that such allegations of "neo-colonialism" are false or misrepresentations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|date=2022|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=84|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> As of 2021, China had not seized the Sri Lankan port or any other asset from another country.<ref>{{Cite magazine|author=Deborah Brautigam|author-link=Deborah Bräutigam|author2=Meg Rithmire|date=6 February 2021|title=The Chinese 'Debt Trap' Is a Myth|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2021/02/china-debt-trap-diplomacy/617953/|url-access=subscription|access-date=14 October 2022|magazine=The Atlantic}}</ref>
In the immediate aftermath of the ] in June 1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with China as well as their economic assistance programs. In response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal relations with almost all nations. Following the ] in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.


==Global perceptions== ===Recent initiatives===
{{Main|Belt and Road Initiative|List of projects of the Belt and Road Initiative}}
Pew Research Center indicated that (as of 2014) 21 surveyed countries have a positive view (50% or above) of China. With the top ten most positive countries being Pakistan (78%), Tanzania (77%), Bangladesh (77%), Malaysia (74%), Kenya (74%), Thailand (72%), Senegal (71%), Nigeria (70%), Venezuela (67%), and Indonesia (66%). While ten surveyed countries have the most negative view (Below 50%) of China. With the countries being Japan (7%), Vietnam (16%), Turkey (21%), Italy (26%), Germany (28%), India (31%), Poland (32%), Jordan (35%), United States (35%), and Colombia (38%). Chinese's own view of China was viewed at 96%.<ref name="Global opinion">{{cite news|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/24/|title=Opinion of China | year=2016 | accessdate=31 July 2017 | publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref>
] {{legend|red|]}}{{legend|orange|Members of the ]}}{{legend|black| The six Belt and Road corridors}}{{legend|#0186D7|]}} China in red, Members of the ] in orange, the six corridors in black
China Britain Business Council: One Belt One Road<ref>{{cite web|title=One Belt One Road: A role for UK companies in developing China's new initiative|publisher=China–Britain Business Council|access-date=22 March 2019|url=http://www.cbbc.org/cbbc/media/cbbc_media/One-Belt-One-Road-main-body.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713011420/http://www.cbbc.org/cbbc/media/cbbc_media/One-Belt-One-Road-main-body.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2017|date=13 July 2017}}</ref>]]


As the ] in the United States opened a trade and tariff war with China in 2017, China's response has been to set up its own multinational trading arrangements. In late March 2019, Xi Jinping moved forward with major trading deals with France and Italy. French President ] and Xi Jinping signed a series of large-scale trade agreements that covers many sectors over a period of years. The centerpiece was a €30 billion purchase of airplanes from Airbus. The new trade agreement also covered French exports of chicken, a French-built offshore wind farm in China, and a Franco-Chinese cooperation fund, as well as co-financing between ] and the ]. Other plans include billions of euros to be spent on modernizing Chinese factories, as well as new ship building.<ref>Rym Momtaz, "Macron steals Trump's thunder with Chinese Airbus order: France lands €30B aviation deal with Beijing," {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326232439/https://www.politico.eu/article/macron-steals-trumps-thunder-with-chinese-airbus-order/ |date=26 March 2019 }}</ref> The same week Xi Jinping signed an infrastructure plan with Italian Prime Minister ]. Italy became the first European power to join the ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Legorano|first=Giovanni|date=23 March 2019|title=Italy Signs Up to China's Global Infrastructure Plan Despite U.S. Ire|work=]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/italy-signs-up-to-chinas-global-infrastructure-plan-despite-u-s-ire-11553341408|access-date=15 October 2022|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
==Recent foreign policy==
]


As of fall 2023, Italy has started the process to exit the Belt and Road Initiative by not renewing the five-year Belt and Road Initiative Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)<ref name=":1" /> of 2019 at the end of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Is Italy Withdrawing From China's Belt and Road Initiative?|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/why-italy-withdrawing-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative|access-date=30 October 2023|website=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Italy Wants to Exit the Belt and Road – But Without Curbing Ties With China|url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/italy-wants-to-exit-the-belt-and-road-but-without-curbing-ties-with-china/|access-date=30 October 2023|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref> With anticipated Italy's notice not to renew, the MOU will officially end in March 2024.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLIC AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|url=https://www.governo.it/sites/governo.it/files/Memorandum_Italia-Cina_EN.pdf|access-date=29 October 2023|website=governo.it}}</ref> Eighty percent of the 193-member United Nations have participated in the Belt and Road Initiative, and the developed Western countries have largely stayed away.<ref name=":0" />
] ] in China-France 50 years anniversary livery]]


===China–United States trade war===
In recent years, China's leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and it has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the ] and other multilateral organizations.
{{Main|China–United States trade war}}
The world's two largest economies have engaged in an escalating ] through increasing ]s and other measures since 2018.<ref>{{cite news|last=Swanson|first=Ana|date=5 July 2018|title=Trump's Trade War With China Is Officially Underway|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712201844/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html|archive-date=12 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>


Lawrence J. Lau argues that a major cause is the growing battle China and the U.S. for global economic and technological dominance. He argues, "It is also a reflection of the rise of populism, isolationism, nationalism and protectionism almost everywhere in the world, including in the US."<ref>Lawrence J. Lau, "The China–US Trade War and Future Economic Relations." ''China and the World'' (Lau Chor Tak Institute of Global Economics and Finance, 2019): 1–32. quote p. 3 </ref>
Closer to home, China has made efforts to reduce tensions in parts of ]; its relations with its Asian neighbors have become stable during the last decades of the 20th century. It has contributed to stability on the Korean Peninsula, cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the ] (ASEAN) (], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]), and participated in the ]. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ] meetings. In 2005, the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with ], ] and ] held the inaugural ] (EAS). Relations have improved with Vietnam since a border war was fought with the one-time close ally in 1979. A ] with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the ] remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the ] with Japan. These conflicts have had a negative impact on China's reputation in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/poll-many-see-china-overtaking-us-as-top-superpower/1704167.html|title=Poll: Mutual Distrust Grows Between China, US|work=VOA|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref>


=== RCEP ===
China has improved ties with ]. ] and ], in large part to serve as a counterbalance to the ], signed a ] in July 2001. The two also joined with the Central Asian countries of ], ], ], and ] to found the ] (SCO) in June 2001. The SCO is designed to promote regional stability and cooperate to combat terrorism in the region.
{{Main|Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership}}The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a free trade agreement between the Asia-Pacific nations of Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. The agreement covers approximately 30% of the global population and 30% of the global economy.<ref>{{Cite news|date=15 November 2020|title=Asia forms world's biggest trade bloc, a China-backed group excluding U.S.|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/asean-trade-summit-rcep-signing-idUSKBN27V03K|access-date=14 October 2022}}</ref> In January 2022, RCEP became the world's largest ] (in economic terms) and continues to be the world's largest as of at least early 2024.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Simon|title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order|last2=Klaus|first2=Ian|publisher=]|isbn=9780300266900|location=New Haven and London|publication-date=2024}}</ref>{{Rp|page=148}}


The 2017 decision by United States President Donald Trump to withdraw from the ] strengthened the appeal of the RCEP.<ref name="Mitter-2020" />
] have also improved considerably. After years of competition, general distrust between the two (mostly over China's close relationship with ] and India's with the ]) and a border war, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states have never been more harmonious, as they have started to collaborate in several economic and strategic areas. Both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years, and China became India's largest trading partner in 2010. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. In 2003, China and India held negotiations for the first time since the ] of 1962 on a major ] dispute: however, the dispute over ] (formerly a part of the Indian state of ]) and ] (China) or ] (India) is not settled and plagues Sino-Indian relations. While ] has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival ] and neighbouring ], Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, ] and the United States.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/Japan_courts_India_to_counter_China_Analysts/articleshow/2305041.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Politics/Nation | date=23 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Wargame with India not to put China in a closet: US admiral | date=24 August 2007 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102071341/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200708240333.htm | archivedate=2 November 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>


== International treaties and organizations ==
] has border and maritime disputes, including with Vietnam in the ] and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on 21 July 2008, Russia finally resolved the last remaining border dispute along the 4300&nbsp;km border between the two countries by ceding a small amount of territory to China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=42718|title=India News, Latest News Headlines, Financial News, Business News & Market Analysis on Indian Economy - Business Standard News|author=Business Standard|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11792951|title=The Sino-Russian border: The cockerel&rsquo;s cropped crest - The Economist|work=The Economist|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> China also reached a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve some differences over their maritime borders, though disagreements remain over some islands in the ].
{{main|China and the United Nations}}


=== International treaties ===
During the late 1990s and early 21st century, Chinese foreign policy appeared to be focused on improving relations with Russia and Europe to counterbalance the United States. This strategy was based on the premise that the United States was a ] whose influence could be checked through alliances with other powers, such as ] or the ]. This assessment of United States power was reconsidered after the United States intervention in ], and as the 20th century drew to a close, the discussion among ]s in China involved how to reorient Chinese foreign policy in a unipolar world. This discussion also occurred in the context of China's ], which argued that the post–Cold War era required nations to move away from thinking in terms of alliances and power blocs and toward thinking in terms of economic and diplomatic cooperation.
China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook">, '']''</ref>


Treaties signed on behalf of ] are applicable only to the Republic of China on Taiwan. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; ]; ]; Conventional Weapons Convention; ]; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); ]; ]; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol).<ref>{{Cite web|title=View the ratification status by country or by treaty|url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?CountryID=36&Lang=EN|access-date=15 February 2024|website=tbinternet.ohchr.org}}</ref>
] of China and ] meet while attending an ] summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004.]]


China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: ], Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-], ], Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China and International Environmental Law|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2626_665266/2629_665272/|access-date=5 May 2021|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref>
] had long been a close ally of ] but also found a valuable trading partner in ] and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "]" (North Korea, ], ], Japan, the United States, and China) to resolve tensions on the ]. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ] countries and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as ]. On 15 November 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development.


; Membership in international organizations<ref name="ciaworldfactbook" />
However, China's opposition to the bid of two of its important neighbors—India and Japan—to become permanent members of the ] has proved to be an irritant in their respective relationships. Japan, with its large economic and cultural influences in Asia, is seen by China as its most formidable opponent and partner in regional diplomacy. The two sides established diplomatic relations in 1972, and Japanese investment in China was important in the early years of China's economic reforms and ever since.


China holds a permanent seat and veto power on the ]. Prior to 1971, the ] based on the island of Taiwan held China's UN seat. On 25 October 1971, the People's Republic of China took control of the seat with the passing of ] by a vote of 76 to 35 with 17 abstentions, with support coming from several ] countries, the ], and ], and a notable opponent being the ].<ref>{{cite web|year=1974|title=General Assembly, 26th session: 1976th plenary meeting, Monday, 25 October 1971, New York (A/PV.1976)|url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/735611?ln=en|publisher=United Nations Digital Library|page=41}}</ref>
At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, China's President Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line has varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval.


China plays a leadership role in the ], a multilateral security group which aims to reduce the "three evils" of terrorism, separatism, and extremism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|pages=70–71|oclc=1331741429}}</ref>
In 2005, there was talk of the ] lifting its ] imposed in 1989,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wyzycka|first=Natalia|last2=Hasmath|first2=Reza|date=2016-01-01|title=What Drives Contemporary EU-China Strategic Engagement?|ssrn=2636135|journal=|location=|publisher=Paper Presented at International Political Science Association World Congress (Poznan, Poland), 23–28 July.|volume=|page=8}}</ref> however the United States has objected to this.<ref></ref>


China was active in the ] in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=71|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> China hoped to play a lead role in developing the Six-Party Talks into a lasting multilateral security mechanism for northeast Asia, but ultimately the talks failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|page=75|oclc=1331741429}}</ref> China's efforts in the unsuccessful tasks nonetheless raised its international standing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8|location=Stanford, California|pages=73–74|oclc=1331741429}}</ref>
In 2007, Foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang made a statement about the eight-point diplomatic philosophy of China:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/01/20070301-104826-2978r/|title=Beijing likens Cheney criticism to nosy neighbor|work=The Washingtion Times|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref>


As of at least 2024, China has positive relationships with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus">{{Cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Simon|title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order|last2=Klaus|first2=Ian|publisher=]|isbn=9780300266900|location=New Haven and London|publication-date=2024|doi=10.2307/jj.11589102|jstor=jj.11589102}}</ref>{{Rp|page=166}}
] of China and ] during the ], 9 May 2015]]


; Membership in UN system organizations
#China will not seek hegemony. China is still a developing country and has no resources to seek hegemony. Even if China becomes a developed country, it will not seek hegemony.
{|
#China will not play power politics and will not interfere with other countries' internal affairs. China will not impose its own ideology on other countries.
|-
#China maintains all countries, big or small, should be treated equally and respect each other. All affairs should be consulted and resolved by all countries on the basis of equal participation. No country should bully others on the basis of strength.
| valign="top" |
#China will make judgment on each case in international affairs, each matter on the merit of the matter itself and it will not have ]s. China will not have two policies: one for itself and one for others. China believes that it cannot do unto others what they do not wish others do unto them.
* ] and Security Council
#China advocates that all countries handle their relations on the basis of the United Nations Charter and norms governing international relations. China advocates stepping up international cooperation and is against unilateral politics. China should not undermine the dignity and the authority of the U.N. China should not impose and set its own wishes above the U.N. Charter, international law and norms.
* ]
#China advocates peaceful negotiation and consultation so as to resolve its international disputes. China does not resort to force, or threat of force, in resolving international disputes. China maintains a reasonable national military buildup to defend its own sovereignty and territorial integrity. It is not made to expand, nor does it seek invasion or aggression.
* ]
#China is firmly opposed to terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. China is a responsible member of the international community, and as for international treaties, China abides by all them in a faithful way. China never plays by a double standard, selecting and discarding treaties it does not need.
* ]
#China respects the diversity of the civilization and the whole world. China advocates different cultures make exchanges, learn from each other, and complement one another with their own strengths. China is opposed to clashes and confrontations between civilizations, and China does not link any particular ethnic group or religion with terrorism.
* ]
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
|}


] leaders at the ] in ], Australia, 15 November 2014]]
In 2011, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi outlined plans for an "integrated approach" that would serve China's economic development.<ref>Ho, Stephanie. ''Voice of America'', 7 March 2011.</ref>


; Other memberships
In 2016, during the 6th Plenum, Xi Jinping has presented efforts for greater transparency in the decision-making process in local governance, which also represent his effort in establishing a positive image of China’s Communist Party overseas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/chinas-sixth-plenum-xi-strives-polish-image-abroad/|title=In China’s sixth plenum, Xi strives to polish image abroad|last=Lai|first=Christina|date=26 October 2016|website=www.atimes.com|publisher=|access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref>
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ] (observer)<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus" />{{Rp|page=168}}
* ]
* ]
* ] (observer)
* ] (dialogue partner)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus" />{{Rp|page=168}}
* ]<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=63}}
* ]
* ]
* ] (dialogue partner)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (observer)
* ]
*]<ref>{{cite web|date=8 November 2017|title=CIP Signs Historic Agreement with China|url=https://cipotato.org/blog/cip-signs-supplementary-agreement-china/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210707/https://cipotato.org/blog/cip-signs-supplementary-agreement-china/|archive-date=14 January 2019|access-date=14 January 2019|publisher=International Potato Center}}</ref>
* ]
* ]
* ] (observer)
* ]<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Cheng|first=Wenting|title=China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice|publisher=]|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-24369-1|series=Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series}}</ref>{{Rp|page=83}}
* ] (observer)<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=80}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (SAARC) (observer)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
|}


==Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations== ==Diplomatic relations==
{{Main|Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China}} {{See also|Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China}}
List of countries which the People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!#
!Country
!Date
|-
|1
|{{flag|Russia}}
|{{dts|2 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Soviet Foreign Policy: 1945–1980|publisher=Progress Publishers|year=1981|pages=642–681}}</ref>
|-
|2
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|{{dts|3 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=МВнР :: Китайска народна република|url=https://www.mfa.bg/bg/3145|access-date=22 July 2022|website=mfa.bg|language=bg}}</ref>
|-
|3
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|{{dts|4 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Petruf|first=Pavol|title=Československá zahraničná politika 1945 – 1992|pages=99–119|language=sk}}</ref>
|-
|4
|{{flag|Romania}}
|{{dts|5 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic Relations of Romania|url=https://www.mae.ro/en/node/2187|website=Ministerul Afacerilor Externe|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|5
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|{{dts|6 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political and diplomatic relations|url=https://peking.mfa.gov.hu/eng/page/politikai-kapcsolatok|access-date=14 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
|6
|{{flag|North Korea}}
|{{dts|6 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|year=2016|title=DPRK Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.ncnk.org/sites/default/files/issue-briefs/DPRK_Diplo_Relations_August2016.pdf|access-date=14 July 2022|publisher=NCNK|pages=8–9|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ncnk.org/sites/default/files/issue-briefs/DPRK_Diplo_Relations_August2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|7
|{{flag|Poland}}
|{{dts|7 October 1949}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chiny|url=https://www.gov.pl/web/chiny/chiny|access-date=23 July 2023|language=pl}}</ref>
|-
|8
|{{flag|Mongolia}}
|{{dts|16 October 1949}}<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Countries Maintaining Diplomatic Relations with Mongolia|url=http://www.mfa.gov.mn/old/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/diplist-2020-draft-20200729.pdf|access-date=21 December 2021|page=3|archive-date=28 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928021439/http://www.mfa.gov.mn/old/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/diplist-2020-draft-20200729.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|9
|{{flag|Albania}}
|{{dts|23 November 1949}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/xos/gjlb/3125/|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
|-
|10
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|{{dts|17 January 1950}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/diplomatic-history_when-switzerland-recognised-the-new-china-/45499960|title=When Switzerland recognised the new China|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|date=17 January 2020|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|11
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|{{dts|18 January 1950}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2010|title=Asia|url=https://lamdong.gov.vn/sites/lderd/operationnotes/countriesandregions/SitePages/asia.aspx|access-date=29 April 2023|publisher=Government of Vietnam}}</ref>
|-
|12
|{{flag|India}}
|{{dts|1 April 1950}}<ref name="MFA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/gjhdq_665435/|title=Countries and Regions|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=27 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|13
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{dts|13 April 1950}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 January 2023|title=Bilateral Cooperation|url=https://kemlu.go.id/portal/en/page/22/kerja_sama_bilateral|access-date=2 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|14
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|{{dts|9 May 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-05/07/content_9819770.htm|title=60th anniversary of China-Sweden diplomatic relations celebrated|website=China Daily|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="cdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-06/11/content_891453.htm|title=China-Sweden relations continue to strengthen|website=China Daily|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref>
|-
|15
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|{{dts|11 May 1950}}<ref>{{cite news|date=11 May 2015|title=Deepening China-Denmark ties|website=China Daily|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2015-05/11/content_20677199.htm|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|16
|{{flag|Myanmar}}
|{{dts|8 June 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=http://myanmarbsb.org/_site/diplomatic-relations/|access-date=13 May 2022|archive-date=12 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712174127/http://myanmarbsb.org/_site/diplomatic-relations/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|17
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
|{{dts|14 September 1950}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=China's Foreign Affairs|publisher=World Affairs Press|year=2014|pages=534}}</ref>
|-
|18
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{dts|28 October 1950}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=17227&culture=en-US&contentlan=2|title=Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Entering Finland and travelling abroad: China|website=Formin.finland.fi|access-date=24 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023125413/http://formin.finland.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=17227&culture=en-US&contentlan=2|archive-date=23 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
|19
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|{{dts|21 May 1951}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf|title=Pakistan's Evolving Relations with China, Russia, and Central Asia|author=Fazal-ur-Rahman|access-date=24 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
|20
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{dts|17 June 1954}}<ref name="britain">{{cite web|date=10 April 2010|title=Overview on China-UK Relations|url=http://gb.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/ChinaUKRelations/introduction/201005/t20100510_3384299.htm|access-date=5 April 2024|website=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405152351/http://gb.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/ChinaUKRelations/introduction/201005/t20100510_3384299.htm|archive-date=5 April 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|21
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{dts|5 October 1954}}<ref name="norway">{{cite web|url=http://www.norway.cn/Embassy/Norway-and-China/Anniversaries/Norway---China-55-year-friendship/|title=Norway – China 55-year friendship|publisher=Norway.cn|date=30 October 2009|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-date=2 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002183953/http://www.norway.cn/Embassy/Norway-and-China/Anniversaries/Norway---China-55-year-friendship/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|22
|{{flag|Serbia}}
|{{dts|2 January 1955}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral cooperation|url=https://www.mfa.gov.rs/en/foreign-policy/bilateral-cooperation|access-date=24 December 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia}}</ref>
|-
|23
|{{flag|Afghanistan|2013}}
|{{dts|20 January 1955}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 January 2020|title=Sino-Afghan Relations' 65th Anniversary Celebrated in Kabul|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/sino-afghan-relations%E2%80%99-65th-anniversary-celebrated-kabul|access-date=7 November 2023|website=Tolo News}}</ref>
|-
|24
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|{{dts|1 August 1955}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral Relations|url=https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/|access-date=25 June 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nepal}}</ref>
|-
|25
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{dts|30 May 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China-Egypt Relations|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/phfnt/85089.htm|access-date=28 April 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|26
|{{flag|Syria}}
|{{dts|1 August 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 September 2023|title=67 years passed and the Syrian Chinese ties towards greater hardness and strength|url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=317269|access-date=30 September 2023|website=SANA (Syrian Arab News Agency)}}</ref>
|-
|27
|{{flag|Yemen}}
|{{dts|24 September 1956}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China-Yemen relations|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/video/225354.htm|access-date=31 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|28
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|{{dts|7 February 1957}}<ref name="MFA" />
|-
|29
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|{{dts|19 July 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF MEMBER STATES OF THE UNITED NATIONS (193) HAVING DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CAMBODIA|url=https://www.mfaic.gov.kh/page/2021-02-10-LIST-OF-MEMBER-STATES-OF-THE-UNITED-NATIONS--193--HAVING-DIPLOMATIC-RELATIONS-WITH-CAMBOIDA|access-date=2 October 2021|website=mfaic.gov.kh}}</ref>
|-
|30
|{{flag|Iraq}}
|{{dts|25 August 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 April 2013|title=Bilateral Relations between China and Iraq|url=http://iq.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zygx/zygxgk/|access-date=13 September 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Iraq}}</ref>
|-
|31
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|{{dts|1 November 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 October 2018|title=Interview: China-Morocco relations start new journey after 60 years of diplomatic ties|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-10/20/c_137545019.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105073551/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-10/20/c_137545019.htm|archive-date=5 November 2018|access-date=21 November 2023|agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref>
|-
|32
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{dts|20 December 1958}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/phfnt/85069.htm|title=China-Algeria Relations|website=china.org.cn|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|33
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|{{dts|4 February 1959}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 February 2019|title=60-Year Fruitful Partnership Paves the Way to a Brighter Future|url=http://sd.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/dshd/202011/t20201105_6687795.htm#:~:text=Since%20the%20two%20sides%20established,to%20achieve%20win%2Dwin%20results.|access-date=16 September 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Sudan}}</ref>
|-
|34
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|{{dts|14 October 1959}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183525.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026031030/http://china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183525.htm|archive-date=26 October 2010|title=Guinea – china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|35
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|{{dts|5 July 1960}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction of China-Ghana Relations|url=http://gh.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zjgx/zzwl/200412/t20041231_6894669.htm|access-date=9 November 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Ghana}}</ref>
|-
|36
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|{{dts|28 September 1960}}<ref>{{Cite web|year=2015|title=Memoria anual 2015|url=https://archivo.cubaminrex.cu/sites/default/files/memoria_anual_2015.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507190813/https://archivo.cubaminrex.cu/sites/default/files/memoria_anual_2015.pdf|archive-date=7 May 2019|pages=19–25|language=es|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|37
|{{flag|Mali}}
|{{dts|25 October 1960}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Mali|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183436.htm|access-date=5 June 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|38
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|{{dts|14 December 1960}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Our Diplomatic Relations|url=http://www.mfa.somaligov.net/Diplomatic%20Relations.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724073959/http://www.mfa.somaligov.net/Diplomatic%20Relations.html|archive-date=24 July 2011|access-date=5 February 2022|work=Government of Somalia}}</ref>
|-
|39
|{{flag|Laos}}
|{{dts|25 April 1961}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic Relations|url=http://www.mofa.gov.la/index.php/lo/2015-04-07-02-45-52/1950|access-date=30 June 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Laos|archive-date=1 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601144934/http://www.mofa.gov.la/index.php/lo/2015-04-07-02-45-52/1950|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|40
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|{{dts|9 December 1961}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tanzania|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183419.htm|access-date=28 April 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|41
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|{{dts|18 October 1962}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uganda|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183409.htm|access-date=23 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|42
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|{{dts|14 December 1963}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kenya|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183441.htm|access-date=21 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|43
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|{{dts|21 December 1963}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Burundi|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183578.htm|access-date=2 June 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|44
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|{{dts|10 January 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tunisia|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183413.htm|access-date=19 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|45
|{{flag|France}}
|{{dts|27 January 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=France and China|url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/china/france-and-china/|access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|46
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|22 February 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Congo (B) – china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183555.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|47
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|{{dts|29 September 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Central Africa|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183564.htm|access-date=1 July 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|48
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|{{dts|29 October 1964}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China and Zambia celebrated the 55th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations|url=http://zm.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/dshdyjh/202210/t20221008_10778543.htm#:~:text=On%20October%2029%2C%201964%2C%20China,beginning%20of%20China%2DZambia%20friendship.|access-date=20 April 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Zambia}}</ref>
|-
|49
|{{flag|Benin}}
|{{dts|12 November 1964}}<ref name="Shinn-2023">{{Cite book|last1=Shinn|first1=David H.|title=China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement|last2=Eisenman|first2=Joshua|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-21001-0|location=New York|author-link=David H. Shinn}}</ref>
|-
|50
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|{{dts|19 July 1965}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mauritania|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183435.htm|access-date=30 April 2023|website=]}}</ref>
|-
|51
|{{flag|Canada}}
|{{dts|13 October 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-12/06/content_1216971.htm|title=Joint Communiqué of the Government of China and the Government of Canada on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between China and Canada (1970)|access-date=27 December 2023|language=zh|archive-date=25 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925230511/http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-12/06/content_1216971.htm|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>
|-
|52
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|{{dts|15 October 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Equatorial Guinea|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183538.htm|access-date=17 July 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|53
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{dts|6 November 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 May 2004|title=Major events in China-Italy relations|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-05/07/content_1454886.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040702080243/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-05/07/content_1454886.htm|archive-date=2 July 2004|access-date=27 October 2023|agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref>
|-
|54
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|{{dts|24 November 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopia|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183534.htm|access-date=1 June 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|55
|{{flag|Chile}}
|{{dts|15 December 1970}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=RELACIONES DIPLOMATICAS DE CHILE CON LOS PAISES DE LA CUENCA DEL PACIFICO|url=https://archivospublicos.uahurtado.cl/uploads/r/archivo-institucional-universidad-alberto-hurtado/1/1/9/119a982db9b66f569a5d546b86f31a59dcb53b2815c3e28f774ad8bab7704d3c/31-2-12.pdf|access-date=27 November 2021|language=es|archive-date=27 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127123104/https://archivospublicos.uahurtado.cl/uploads/r/archivo-institucional-universidad-alberto-hurtado/1/1/9/119a982db9b66f569a5d546b86f31a59dcb53b2815c3e28f774ad8bab7704d3c/31-2-12.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|56
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{dts|10 February 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Five Decades of Shared Journey—On the 50th anniversary of China-Nigeria diplomatic relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Federal Republic of Nigeria)|url=http://ng.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zngx/202101/t20210106_7032262.htm|access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref>
|-
|57
|{{flag|Kuwait}}
|{{dts|22 March 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 August 2009|title=China and Kuwait|url=http://kw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zkgx/sbgxjj/200908/t20090824_1648929.htm|access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|58
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|{{dts|26 March 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=General picture of bilateral relations between China and Cameroon|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183577.htm}}</ref>
|-
|59
|{{flag|Austria}}
|{{dts|28 May 1971}}<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Schaufelbuehl|first1=Janick Marina|url=https://brill.com/view/title/39350|title=Europe and China in the Cold War: Exchanges Beyond the Bloc Logic and the Sino-Soviet Split|last2=Wyss|first2=Marco|last3=Zanier|first3=Valeria|date=1 January 2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-38812-3|pages=33|doi=10.1163/9789004388123_003|s2cid=158272088}}</ref>
|-
|60
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|{{dts|29 July 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sierra Leone -- china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183425.htm|access-date=28 November 2021|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|61
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{dts|4 August 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cetur/chn/ztgx/t191491.htm|title=中土关系概况|website=mfa.gov.cn|access-date=15 December 2023|language=zh|archive-date=14 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714225826/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cetur/chn/ztgx/t191491.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|62
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{dts|16 August 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 August 2021|title=Side by side and hand in hand, Usher in a New Era for China-Iran Friendship|url=http://ir.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sgzc/202108/t20210815_8924290.htm#:~:text=Pomegranate%2C%20grape%2C%20olive%2C%20spinach,Iran%20formally%20established%20diplomatic%20relations.|access-date=11 October 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Islamic Republic of Iran}}</ref>
|-
|63
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|{{dts|25 October 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 October 2021|title=Ambassador Cao Zhongming published an article on China Daily titled "Unity, openness and assistance"|url=http://be.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sghd/202110/t20211013_9544917.htm#:~:text=On%20Oct%2025%2C%201971%2C%20the,established%20diplomatic%20relations%20that%20day.|access-date=14 October 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Kingdom of Belgium}}</ref>
|-
|64
|{{flag|Peru}}
|{{dts|2 November 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Acuerdo entre el Peru y China para el establecimiento de relaciones diplomaticas|url=https://apps.rree.gob.pe/portal/webtratados.nsf/Tratados_Bilateral.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=7416|access-date=27 June 2023|website=Archivo Nacional de Tratados|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|65
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|{{dts|9 November 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Xi Jinping Exchanges Messages of Congratulations with Lebanese President Michel Aoun on the 50th Anniversary of the Establishment of China-Lebanon Diplomatic Relations|url=http://eu.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/mhs/202111/t20211109_10445969.htm|access-date=28 April 2023|website=eu.china-mission.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
|66
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|{{dts|12 November 1971}}<ref>{{cite web|date=10 October 2006|title=Rwanda|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183428.htm|access-date=23 July 2022|website=]}}</ref>
|-
|67
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|{{dts|7 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations between China and Senegal|url=http://covid-19.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-02/06/content_7451716.htm|access-date=18 April 2023|website=China Daily}}</ref>
|-
|68
|{{flag|Cyprus}}
|{{dts|14 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Embassy|url=http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/embassies/embassy_beijing.nsf/DMLembassy_en/DMLembassy_en?OpenDocument|access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
|69
|{{flag|Iceland}}
|{{dts|14 December 1971}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iceland – Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.government.is/ministries/ministry-for-foreign-affairs/protocol/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations/|access-date=1 August 2021|website=Government of Iceland}}</ref>
|-
|70
|{{flag|Malta}}
|{{dts|31 January 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China – Joint communique of the government of China and the government of Malta on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Malta|url=https://foreign.gov.mt/treaty/china-joint-communique-of-the-government-of-china-and-the-government-of-malta-on-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-china-and-malta/|access-date=3 October 2023|website=foreign.gov.mt}}</ref>
|-
|71
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{dts|14 February 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 February 2022|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202202/14/WS6209af01a310cdd39bc865d0.html|title=Mexico, China celebrate 50 years of friendship|website=China Daily – Global Edition|access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|72
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{dts|16 February 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biblioteca Digital de Tratados|url=https://tratados.cancilleria.gob.ar/busqueda.php|access-date=27 June 2023|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|73
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|{{dts|15 April 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the People's Republic of China and Mauritius|url=https://lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?id=7505&lib=tax&SearchKeyword=&SearchCKeyword=|access-date=23 July 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412113838/https://lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?id=7505&lib=tax&SearchKeyword=&SearchCKeyword=|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|74
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|{{dts|18 May 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diplomatmagazine.eu/2022/05/21/50th-anniversary-of-sino-dutch-diplomatic-relations/|title=50th Anniversary of Sino-Dutch Diplomatic Relations|website=Diplomat Magazine|date=21 May 2022|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|75
|{{flag|Greece}}
|{{dts|5 June 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China|url=https://www.mfa.gr/en/blog/greece-bilateral-relations/china/|access-date=15 May 2023|website=mfa.gr}}</ref>
|-
|76
|{{flag|Guyana}}
|{{dts|27 June 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=http://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216065040/https://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/|archive-date=16 February 2019|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>
|-
|77
|{{flag|Togo}}
|{{dts|19 September 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Togo|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183414.htm|access-date=4 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|78
|{{flag|Japan}}
|{{dts|29 September 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Countries & Regions|url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/index.html|access-date=16 July 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan}}</ref>
|-
|79
|{{flag|Germany}}
|{{dts|11 October 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dcg.de/runge/kooperation.html|title=Kooperation im Wandel: 30 Jahre diplomatische Beziehungen Bundesrepublik Deutschland – Volksrepublik China|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=8 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408121121/http://dcg.de/runge/kooperation.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|80
|{{flag|Maldives}}
|{{dts|14 October 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 May 2023|title=Countries with which the Republic of Maldives has established Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.gov.mv/en/files/dpl-full-country-list-as-of-11-may-2023--8993.pdf|access-date=7 July 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Maldives|archive-date=29 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629032804/https://www.gov.mv/en/files/dpl-full-country-list-as-of-11-may-2023--8993.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|81
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|{{dts|6 November 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183437.htm|title=Madagascar – china.org.cn|website=China.org.cn|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref>
|-
|82
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|{{dts|16 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=November–December 1972|title=Bulletin de documentation (1972/9)|url=https://sip.gouvernement.lu/dam-assets/publications/bulletin/1972/BID_1972_9/BID_1972_9.pdf|access-date=23 May 2023|website=sip.gouvernement.lu|page=9|language=fr}}</ref>
|-
|83
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|{{dts|21 November 1972}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries with which Jamaica has Established Diplomatic Relations|url=http://mfaft.gov.jm/jm/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308040029/http://mfaft.gov.jm/jm/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations|archive-date=8 March 2016|date=16 April 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|84
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|24 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Congo (DRC)|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183553.htm|access-date=23 June 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|85
|{{flag|Chad}}
|{{dts|28 November 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Les dates de l'établissement des relations diplomatiques entre la Chine et les autres pays|url=http://french.china.org.cn/china/archives/fetenationale09/2009-08/10/content_18307254_2.htm|access-date=12 May 2023|website=french.china.org.cn|language=fr}}</ref>
|-
|86
|{{flag|Australia}}
|{{dts|21 December 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2017|title=Celebrating 45 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Australia and China|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/celebrating-45-years-since-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-australia-and-china|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=27 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027153614/https://www.dfat.gov.au/news/news/Pages/celebrating-45-years-since-the-establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-australia-and-china|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|87
|{{Flag|New Zealand}}
|{{dts|22 December 1972}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and New Zealand|url=http://nz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zxgx/200310/t20031027_882006.html|access-date=15 June 2023|website=The Embassy of the People's Republic of China in New Zealand}}</ref>
|-
|88
|{{flag|Spain}}
|{{dts|9 March 1973}}<ref name=":45">{{Cite news|date=10 March 1973|title=Spain Announces Establishment of Diplomatic Ties With Peking|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/10/archives/spain-announces-establishment-of-diplomatic-ties-with-peking.html|access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|89
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|{{dts|15 September 1973}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRn6iWW3GrYC&dq=Joint+Communique+on+Establishment+of+Diplomatic+Relations+Between+People%27s+Republic+of+China+and+Republic+of+Upper+Volta&pg=PA124|title=Current Background, Issues 1004–1008|publisher=American Consulate General|year=1974}}</ref>
|-
|90
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|{{dts|15 March 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political relations People's Republic of China and Guinea-Bissau|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183519.htm}}</ref>
|-
|91
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|{{dts|20 April 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gabon – china.org.cn|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183529.htm|access-date=29 October 2021|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|92
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{dts|31 May 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Senarai tarikh penubuhan hubungan diplomatik Malaysia dan negara – negara luar|url=https://www.data.gov.my/data/dataset/30411e5d-8c25-47fb-940e-0d51149afe20/resource/fc684f56-c8bb-4f65-ab65-8eb5e68c9b5d/download/01-tarikh-penubuhan-hubungan-diplomatik-malaysia.xlsx|access-date=13 November 2021|language=ms|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141021/https://www.data.gov.my/data/dataset/30411e5d-8c25-47fb-940e-0d51149afe20/resource/fc684f56-c8bb-4f65-ab65-8eb5e68c9b5d/download/01-tarikh-penubuhan-hubungan-diplomatik-malaysia.xlsx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|93
|{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
|{{dts|20 June 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 July 2016|title=Trinidad and Tobago and China committed to continue strengthening and deepening their bilateral relationship – 13th July, 2016|url=https://foreign.gov.tt/resources/news/trinidad-and-tobago-and-china-committed-continue-strengthening-and-deepening-their-bilateral-relationship-13th-july-2016/|access-date=6 June 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs}}</ref>
|-
|94
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{dts|28 June 1974}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Libro amarillo correspondiente al año ...: presentado al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de ... por el titular despacho|publisher=Venezuela. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores|year=2003|pages=528–529|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|95
|{{flag|Niger}}
|{{dts|20 July 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political Relations People's Republic of China and Republic of Niger|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183430.htm}}</ref>
|-
|96
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{dts|15 August 1974}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brasil e China estabeleceram relações diplomáticas em 15 de agosto de 1974.|url=https://www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/embaixada-pequim/a-embaixada|access-date=4 June 2023|website=gov.br Embaixada Pequim|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|97
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|{{dts|14 December 1974}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=China and Gambia|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2913_665441/2994_664004/|access-date=27 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|98
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|{{dts|6 January 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2002|title=Joint Communique Regarding the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Botswana|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679059.html|access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
|-
|99
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|{{dts|9 June 1975}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Banlaoi|first1=Rommel C.|author1-link=Rommel Banlaoi|title=Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism|date=2007|publisher=]|isbn=978-971-23-4929-4|page=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC|access-date=23 March 2023|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420103013/https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|100
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|{{dts|25 June 1975}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Southern African Political History A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1999|pages=215}}</ref>
|-
|101
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|{{dts|1 July 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=ความสัมพันธ์ทวิภาคี|url=https://www.mfa.go.th/th/content-category/5d5bcb4e15e39c3060006870|access-date=5 July 2023|language=th}}</ref>
|-
|102
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|{{dts|12 July 1975}}<ref name="Shinn-2023"/>
|-
|103
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}
|{{dts|4 October 1975}}<ref name="MFA" />
|-
|104
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|{{dts|5 November 1975}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Formal diplomatic relations list|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.gov.fj/images/FDR_LIST_version_of_6_June_2016.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827171052/http://www.foreignaffairs.gov.fj/images/FDR_LIST_version_of_6_June_2016.pdf|archive-date=27 August 2019|access-date=31 March 2018}}</ref>
|-
|105
|{{flag|Samoa}}
|{{dts|6 November 1975}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries with Established Diplomatic Relations with Samoa|url=http://www.mfat.gov.ws/embassies/countries-with-established-diplomatic-relations-with-samoa/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214005624/https://www.mfat.gov.ws/embassies/countries-with-established-diplomatic-relations-with-samoa/|archive-date=14 February 2020|access-date=19 August 2018|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade – Samoa}}</ref>
|-
|106
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|{{dts|13 November 1975}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Comoros|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183558.htm|access-date=30 May 2023|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
|-
|107
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|{{dts|25 April 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 October 2006|title=Cape Verde|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/focac/183574.htm|access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
|108
|{{flag|Suriname}}
|{{dts|17 May 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lijst van Diplomatieke Betrekkingen en Visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten|url=http://www.gov.sr/media/12102008/lijst-van-diplomatieke-betrekkingen-en-visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416134520/http://www.gov.sr/media/12102008/lijst-van-diplomatieke-betrekkingen-en-visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2019|access-date=22 December 2021|website=gov.sr|language=nl}}</ref>
|-
|109
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|{{dts|30 June 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2002|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Seychelles|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679072.html|access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>
|-
|110
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
|{{dts|12 October 1976}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 November 2000|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and Papua New Guinea|url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2631_665276/200011/t20001115_600058.html|access-date=10 July 2023}}</ref>
|-
|111
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|{{dts|17 February 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral Relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Liberia)|url=http://lr.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sbgx/202011/t20201130_6299793.htm}}</ref>
|-
|112
|{{flag|Jordan}}
|{{dts|7 April 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 April 2022|title=Chinese embassy celebrates 45 years of Sino-Jordanian relations|url=https://jordantimes.com/news/local/chinese-embassy-celebrates-45-years-sino-jordanian-relations|access-date=25 December 2023|website=The Jordan Times}}</ref>
|-
|113
|{{flag|Barbados}}
|{{dts|30 May 1977}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://foreign.gov.bb/documents/foreign-policy/22-countries-with-diplomaic-relations-with-barbados/file|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WITH WHICH BARBADOS HAS DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BY REGIONS|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (Barbados)|access-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813184054/https://www.foreign.gov.bb/documents/foreign-policy/22-countries-with-diplomaic-relations-with-barbados/file|archive-date=13 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|114
|{{flag|Oman}}
|{{dts|25 May 1978}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Joseph A. Kechichian|title=Countries with which Oman has diplomatic relations|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2007/MR680.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022025822/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2007/MR680.pdf|archive-date=22 October 2014|access-date=24 November 2023|website=Oman and the World The emergence of an independent foreign policy|pages=319–322}}</ref>
|-
|115
|{{flag|Libya}}
|{{dts|9 August 1978}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPw39oy7hf8C&dq=People%27s+Republic+of+China+and+Libya+established+diplomatic+relations+9+August+1978&pg=PA75|title=Directory of Officials of the People's Republic of China A Reference Aid · Volumes 7–13|publisher=National Foreign Assessment Center|year=1978|pages=75|access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|116
|{{flag|United States}}
|{{dts|1 January 1979}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=All Countries|url=https://history.state.gov/countries/all|access-date=12 November 2021|website=Office of the Historian}}</ref>
|-
|117
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|{{dts|8 January 1979}}<ref name="Mfacdt">{{cite web|title=Diplomatic Ties Between China and African Countries|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceza/eng/zghfz/zfgx/t165322.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228165554/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceza/eng/zghfz/zfgx/t165322.htm|archive-date=28 December 2016|access-date=22 March 2015|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China}}</ref>
|-
|118
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{dts|2 February 1979}}<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last1=Wan|first1=Po-San|title=Gambling Dynamism: The Macao Miracle|last2=Zheng|first2=Victor|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013|pages=50}}</ref>
|-
|119
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|{{dts|22 June 1979}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral Relations between China and Ireland|url=http://ie.china-embassy.org/eng/SinoIrishRelations/t112822.htm|publisher=Embassy of China in Ireland|access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>
|-
|120
|{{flag|Ecuador}}
|{{dts|2 January 1980}}<ref name="UNDL">{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic relations between China and ...|url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/search?ln=en&as=1&m1=p&p1=Diplomatic+relations+between+China+and+...&f1=series&op1=a&m2=a&p2=&f2=&op2=a&m3=a&p3=&f3=&dt=&d1d=&d1m=&d1y=&d2d=&d2m=&d2y=&rm=&action_search=Search&sf=year&so=a&rg=100&c=United+Nations+Digital+Library+System&of=hb&fti=0&fti=0|publisher=United Nations Digital Library|access-date=27 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|121
|{{flag|Colombia}}
|{{dts|7 February 1980}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=ASIA PACÍFICO|url=https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/internacional/politica/regiones/asia-pacifico|access-date=29 June 2023|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|122
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|{{dts|18 April 1980}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=16 August 2004|title=China and Zimbabwe|url=http://zw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zjgx/200408/t20040816_6408562.htm|access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref>
|-
|123
|{{flag|Kiribati}}
|{{dts|25 June 1980}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China Kiribati Notes Establishing Diplomatic Relations|url=https://en.wikisource.org/China_Kiribati_Notes_Establishing_Diplomatic_Relations|access-date=7 July 2023|website=]}}</ref>
|-
|124
|{{flag|Vanuatu}}
|{{dts|26 March 1982}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=17 March 2017|title=35 years of diplomatic relations|url=https://dailypost.vu/news/35-years-of-diplomatic-relations/article_bb4a35fc-60a8-5f10-8189-c1fd76814d90.html|access-date=5 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
|125
|{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
|{{dts|1 January 1983}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Government of Antigua and Barbuda|title=Chronology of Antigua and Barbudas Bilateral relations|url=http://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117180614/http://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm|archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=24 February 2011}}</ref>
|-
|126
|{{flag|Angola}}
|{{dts|12 January 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the People's Republic of Angola (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China)|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2913_665441/2914_663834/2915_663836/200204/t20020425_542636.html}}</ref>
|-
|127
|{{flag|Ivory Coast}}
|{{dts|2 March 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique Regarding The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of the Ivory Coast|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679055.html|access-date=10 May 2023|website=fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref>
|-
|128
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|{{dts|30 April 1983}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/200204/t20020425_679068.html|title=Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Lesotho|website=fmprc.gov.cn|access-date=8 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|129
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|{{dts|1 November 1984}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republics of China and the United Arab Emirates|url=http://ae.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sbgx/200408/t20040817_1051166.htm|access-date=20 April 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Arab Emirates}}</ref>
|-
|130
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|{{dts|9 July 1985}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|131
|{{flag|Grenada}}
|{{dts|1 October 1985}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Grenada|access-date=27 January 2010|date=12 July 2005|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/glnd_665078/}}</ref>
|-
|132
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}
|{{dts|7 December 1985}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sino-Latin American Economic and Trade Relations|publisher=Springer|year=2019|editor-last=Chai|editor-first=Yu|pages=6|editor-last2=Chai|editor-first2=Yunxia}}</ref>
|-
|133
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|{{dts|3 February 1988}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|134
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|{{dts|9 July 1988}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/tyfls_665260/tyfl_665264/2631_665276/200011/t20001115_600054.html|title=Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the State of Qatar|website=fmprc.gov.cn|access-date=20 June 2023}}</ref>
|-
|—
|{{Flag|State of Palestine}}
|{{dts|20 November 1988}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=China's Foreign Affairs|publisher=World Affairs Press|year=2005|pages=557}}</ref>
|-
|135
|{{flag|Bahrain}}
|{{dts|18 April 1989}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=https://www.mofa.gov.bh/Default.aspx?tabid=73&language=en-US|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505195337/https://www.mofa.gov.bh/Default.aspx?tabid=73&language=en-US|archive-date=5 May 2012|access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
|136
|{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
|{{dts|11 September 1989}}<ref>{{cite web|title=FSM Diplomatic Relations List|url=http://www.fsmgov.org/diprel.html|access-date=13 November 2022|publisher=Government of the Federated States of Micronesia}}</ref>
|-
|137
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|{{dts|22 March 1990}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Mushelenga|first=Samuel Abraham Peyavali|year=2008|title=Foreign policy-making in Namibia : the dynamics of the smallness of a state|url=https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2703/dissertation_mushelenga_%20s.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y|pages=254–259}}</ref>
|-
|138
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{dts|21 July 1990}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Communique Concerning the Estabushment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Repulbic of China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/2675_665437/2878_663746/2879_663748/200011/t20001115_534593.html|access-date=17 April 2023|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China}}</ref>
|-
|139
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{dts|3 October 1990}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|140
|{{flag|San Marino}}
|{{dts|18 June 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rapporti bilaterali della Repubblica di San Marino|url=https://www.esteri.sm/pub2/EsteriSM/Relazioni-Internazionali/Rapporti-Bilaterali.html|access-date=15 December 2021|language=it}}</ref>
|-
|141
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|{{dts|11 September 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 January 2018|title=Diplomaatiliste suhete (taas)kehtestamise kronoloogia|url=https://www.vm.ee/rahvusvaheline-suhtlus-uleilmne-eestlus/suhted-teiste-riikidega/diplomaatiliste-suhete|access-date=26 October 2022|language=et}}</ref>
|-
|142
|{{flag|Latvia}}
|{{dts|12 September 1991}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 July 2021|title=Dates of establishment and renewal of diplomatic relations|url=https://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/dates-establishment-and-renewal-diplomatic-relations|access-date=5 October 2022|website=mfa.gov.lv}}</ref>
|-
|143
|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|{{dts|14 September 1991}}<ref>{{cite web|title=List of countries with which Lithuania has established diplomatic relations|url=https://jp.mfa.lt/default/en/list-of-countries-with-which-lithuania-has-established-diplomatic-relations|url-status=live|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110123939/https://jp.mfa.lt/default/en/list-of-countries-with-which-lithuania-has-established-diplomatic-relations}}</ref>
|-
|144
|{{flag|Brunei}}
|{{dts|30 September 1991}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|145
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
|{{dts|2 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=STATES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|url=https://mfa.uz/en/pages/strani-kotoriye-uzbekistan-ustanovil-diplomaticheskiye-otnosheniya|access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref>
|-
|146
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|{{dts|3 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Страны, установившие дипломатические отношения с Республикой Казахстан|url=http://mfa.kz/ru/content-view/spisok-stran-ustanovivshikh-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya-s-rk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220233503/http://mfa.kz/ru/content-view/spisok-stran-ustanovivshikh-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya-s-rk|archive-date=20 February 2020|access-date=30 April 2022|language=ru}}</ref>
|-
|147
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}
|{{dts|4 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF STATES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|url=https://mfa.tj/uploads/main/2023/04/11,04,2023,15,37.pdf|access-date=13 November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|148
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|{{dts|4 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://china.mfa.gov.ua/en/partnership/political-relations-between-ukraine-and-china|title=Political Relations between Ukraine and China|website=Посольство України в Китаї|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|149
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|{{dts|5 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Список стран, с которыми КР установил дипломатические отношения|url=https://mfa.gov.kg/kg/osnovnoe-menyu/vneshnyaya-politika/mezhdunarodnye-dogovory/spisok-stran-s-kotorymi-ustanovleny-dipotnosheniya/spisok-stran-s-kotorymi-kr-ustanovil-diplomaticheskie-otnosheniya|access-date=10 October 2021|language=ru}}</ref>
|-
|150
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
|{{dts|6 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/articles/55?breadcrumbs=no|access-date=17 March 2022|archive-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508101911/https://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/articles/55?breadcrumbs=no|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|151
|{{flag|Belarus}}
|{{dts|20 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 January 2017|title=Cui Qiming: China and Belarus are close friends and sincere partners|work=Belarus.by|url=https://www.belarus.by/en/press-center/speeches-and-interviews/cui-qiming-china-and-belarus-are-close-friends-and-sincere-partners_i_0000051745.html|access-date=29 July 2021|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729141352/https://www.belarus.by/en/press-center/speeches-and-interviews/cui-qiming-china-and-belarus-are-close-friends-and-sincere-partners_i_0000051745.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|152
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{dts|25 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=al-Alkim|first=Hassan Hamdan|title=Dynami of Arab Foreign Policy-Making in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Constraints and External Challenges|publisher=Saqi|year=2012|quote=On 25 January 1992 China and Israel raised their diplomatic relations to ambassadorial level.}}</ref>
|-
|153
|{{flag|Moldova}}
|{{dts|30 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=https://mfa.gov.md/en/content/republic-afghanistan|access-date=31 July 2021|website=MFA Moldova|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624002439/https://mfa.gov.md/en/content/republic-afghanistan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|154
|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}
|{{dts|2 April 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=The People's Republic of China|url=https://mfa.gov.az/en/category/asia-and-oceania/china|website=Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|155
|{{flag|Armenia}}
|{{dts|6 April 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China – Bilateral Relations|url=https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/cn|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|156
|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|{{dts|12 May 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Đogić|first=Mojca Pristavec|date=September 2016|title=Priznanja samostojne Slovenije|url=https://fotogalerija.dz-rs.si/datoteke/Publikacije/Zborniki_RN/2016/Priznanja_samostojne_Slovenije_.pdf|access-date=11 July 2023|language=sl}}</ref>
|-
|157
|{{flag|Croatia}}
|{{dts|13 May 1992}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral relations – Date of Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=https://mvep.gov.hr/foreign-policy/bilateral-relations/date-of-recognition-and-establishment-od-diplomatic-relations/22800|access-date=5 February 2022|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Croatia}}</ref>
|-
|158
|{{flag|Georgia}}
|{{dts|9 June 1992}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Relations between Georgia and the People's Republic of China|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=381&lang_id=ENG|publisher=]|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905063657/http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=381&lang_id=ENG|archive-date=5 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|159
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{dts|24 August 1992}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|160
|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|{{dts|1 January 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Štáty a teritóriá|url=https://www.mzv.sk/staty|access-date=26 May 2023|language=sk}}</ref>
|-
|161
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|{{dts|14 July 1993}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eritrea Update|publisher=Provisional Government of Eritrea (EPLF), Mission to the USA and Canada|year=1992}}</ref>
|-
|162
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}
|{{dts|12 October 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bilateral relations|url=http://www.mfa.gov.mk/default1.aspx?ItemID=310|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930040551/http://www.mfa.gov.mk/default1.aspx?ItemID=310|archive-date=30 September 2011|access-date=3 April 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of North Macedonia}}</ref>
|-
|163
|{{flag|Andorra}}
|{{dts|29 June 1994}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations|url=https://www.exteriors.ad/en/101-continguts-angles/diplomatic-representations/diplomatic-relations|access-date=3 July 2021|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Andorra}}</ref>
|-
|164
|{{flag|Monaco}}
|{{dts|16 January 1995}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Rapport de Politique Extérieure 2007|url=https://www.gouv.mc/Action-Gouvernementale/Monaco-a-l-International/Publications/Rapports-de-Politique-Exterieure|page=44|language=fr|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref>
|-
|165
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|{{dts|3 April 1995}}<ref>{{Cite web|year=2022|title=Datumi priznanja i uspostave diplomatskih odnosa|url=https://mvp.gov.ba/vanjska_politika_bih/bilateralni_odnosi/datumi_priznanja_i_uspostave_diplomatskih_odnosa/?id=6|access-date=26 April 2022|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|language=bs}}</ref>
|-
|166
|{{flag|Bahamas}}
|{{dts|23 May 1997}}<ref name="UNDL" />
|-
|—
|{{flag|Cook Islands}}
|{{dts|25 July 1997}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2022|title=Joint Communique Between the People's Republic of China and the Cook Islands on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=http://nz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/jbwzlm/kkqd/200310/t20031027_961282.html|access-date=21 May 2023}}</ref>
|-style="background:#D3D3D3"
|—
|{{flag|Saint Lucia}} (suspended)
|{{dts|1 September 1997}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn//gxh/cgb/zcgmzysx/bmz/1206_30/1206x1/|title=中国同圣卢西亚的关系|website=mfa.gov.cn|access-date=28 December 2023|language=zh}}{{dead link|date=November 2023}}</ref>
|-
|167
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{dts|1 January 1998}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 January 1998|title=Joint Communique Between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of South Africa on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|url=http://za.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt/tenthanniversary/199801/t19980101_7636234.htm|access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
|-
|168
|{{flag|Tonga}}
|{{dts|2 November 1998}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 November 2018|title=Ambassador Wang Baodong Published Signed Article on the 20th Anniversary of China-Tonga Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/ceto//eng/zt/CCTDT/t1610024.htm}}</ref>
|-
|169
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
|{{dts|20 May 2002}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=China, East Timor Establish Diplomatic Relations|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/FR/32953.htm|url-status=live|access-date=25 December 2021|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119070400/http://www.china.org.cn/english/FR/32953.htm}}</ref>
|-
|170
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|{{dts|21 July 2002}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/bmdyzs/gjlb/3407/default.htm|title=Nauru|publisher=Fmprc.gov.cn|date=6 August 2003|access-date=22 June 2010}}</ref>
|-
|171
|{{flag|Dominica}}
|{{dts|23 March 2004}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 March 2004|title=China, Commonwealth of Dominica establish diplomatic ties|url=http://chicago.china-consulate.gov.cn/eng//zt/aboutchina/200403/t20040330_5422381.htm|access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref>
|-
|172
|{{flag|Montenegro}}
|{{dts|6 July 2006}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Tabela priznanja i uspostavljanja diplomatskih odnosa|url=https://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213235103/https://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn|archive-date=13 February 2020|access-date=16 April 2021|publisher=Montenegro Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration}}</ref>
|-
|173
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|{{dts|1 June 2007}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 February 2008|title=Costa Rica y Palestina acordaron hoy el establecimiento de relaciones diplomáticas.|url=https://www.rree.go.cr/files/includes/files.php?id=169&tipo=relacion|access-date=6 July 2023|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|—
|{{flag|Niue}}
|{{dts|12 December 2007}}<ref>{{cite web|date=12 December 2007|title=China, Niue establish diplomatic ties|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236556.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012153105/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236556.htm|archive-date=12 October 2012|access-date=3 August 2014|agency=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=12 December 2007|title=Full text of joint communique on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Niue|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236560.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212547/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-12/12/content_7236560.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|access-date=3 August 2014|agency=]}}</ref>
|-
|174
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|{{dts|28 December 2007}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 December 2022|title=Chinese Ambassador H.E. Long Zhou: "Strive for New Glory of China-Malawi Relations"|url=http://mw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sghdhzxxx/202212/t20221229_10998309.htm#:~:text=On%2028%20December%202007%2C%20the,Malawi%20formally%20established%20diplomatic%20relations.|access-date=13 July 2023|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Malawi}}</ref>
|-
|175
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|{{dts|9 July 2011}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/news/china-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-south-sudan-news-international-lhkb4cachjh.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826102940/http://www.sify.com/news/china-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-south-sudan-news-international-lhkb4cachjh.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 August 2015|title=China establishes diplomatic relations with South Sudan|website=]|date=10 July 2011|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref>
|-
|176
|{{flag|Panama}}
|{{dts|12 June 2017}}<ref>{{cite web|title=RELACIONES DIPLOMÁTICAS DE LA REPÚBLICA DE PANAMÁ|url=http://www.mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806131148/https://mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2020|access-date=30 November 2021|page=195}}</ref>
|-
|177
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|{{dts|1 May 2018}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=The People's Republic of China and the Dominican Republic Establish Diplomatic Relations|url=https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/como//eng/news/t1556546.htm|access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|178
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|{{dts|21 August 2018}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=REGISTRO DE FECHAS DE ESTABLECIMIENTO DE RD|url=https://www.transparencia.gob.sv/institutions/rree/documents/338286/download|access-date=9 March 2022|language=es}}</ref>
|-
|179
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
|{{dts|28 September 2019}}<ref>{{cite web|date=1 June 2020|title=Solomon Islands Diplomatic and Consular List|url=http://www.mfaet.gov.sb/resources/publications/22-foreign-affairs-p/61-solomon-islands-diplomatic-and-consular-list.html|url-status=live|access-date=12 December 2020|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and External Trade of Solomon Islands|pages=36–38|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812053600/http://www.mfaet.gov.sb/resources/publications/22-foreign-affairs-p/61-solomon-islands-diplomatic-and-consular-list.html}}</ref>
|-
|180
|{{flag|Honduras}}
|{{dts|26 March 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 March 2023|title=Comunicado Conjunto entre la República Popular China y la República de Honduras sobre el Establecimiento de Relaciones Diplomáticas|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/esp/wjdt/gongbao/202303/t20230326_11049280.html|access-date=23 September 2023|website=Ministry of foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|language=es}}</ref>
|}


==Relations by region and country== ==Relations by region and country==
Generally, the political and ] has a significant role in Chinese diplomacy.<ref name=":102">{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Kerry|title=China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-350-26724-4|location=London|author-link=Kerry Brown (historian)}}</ref>{{Rp|page=123}}

===Africa=== ===Africa===
{{Main|Africa–China relations}} {{Main|Africa–China relations}}
With China's growing influence around the world, Beijing has now set its efforts{{clarify|date=May 2013}} on Africa. China's focus in Africa is not a recent occurrence. In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity. Following the ], Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy.<ref>The Heritage Foundation {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308044713/http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg1916.cfm |date=8 March 2010 }}</ref> Sino-African trade quadrupled between 2000 and 2006. China is Africa's third largest commercial partner after the US and France, and second largest exporter to Africa after France. It is notably ahead of former colonial power Britain in both categories.<ref>International Committee of the Fourth International </ref> Some western nations' hesitance to become closely involved with countries they believe to be poor in the human rights field, such as ], have allowed China an opportunity for economic cooperation.<ref>, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, March 2007</ref>


{{Flagicon|AU}}{{Flagicon|China}}
The establishment of modern Sino-African relations dates back to the late 1950s when China signed the first official bilateral trade agreement with ], ], ], ], ] and ]. ] made a ten-country tour to Africa between December 1963 and January 1964. Relations at that time were often reflective of Chinese foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage ] and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower".<ref>Muekalia 2004, p.6</ref>


China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries which are generally recognized in Africa.<ref name="Shinn-2023"/>{{Rp|page=22}} It has embassies in each of these 53 African countries, and each of those likewise have embassies in Beijing.<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}} China does not maintain relations with ], which recognizes Taiwan instead of the PRC.<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}} China also does not recognize ], a disputed territory which is claimed and administered by ].<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=22}}
==== Diplomacy ====
]]]
Early modern bilateral relations were mainly affected by the ] and the ideology of ]. China originally had close ties with the ] and ], ] (ANC), in ], but as China's relations with the ] worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the ].<ref>Taylor 2000, p. 93</ref> China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. The ] established good relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War era. When Somalia sought to create a ], it ] on ], with the aid of the ], Somalia took ] in three months, but the Soviet Union shifted its support from Somalia to Ethiopia, and Ethiopia retook the Ogaden region. This angered ], and expelled all Soviets advisors and citizens from Somalia, but Somalia maintained good relations with China, which ] with the traditional ]. During the ], a few smaller nations also entered in alliances with China, such as ] under ].


Following the ], Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy.<ref>The Heritage Foundation {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308044713/http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg1916.cfm |date=8 March 2010 }}</ref>
The ] has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of China (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the ] (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eg.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t274327.htm |title=From "brothers" to "partners": China, Africa building strategic ties|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Arab Republic of Egypt}}</ref> However, while many African countries such as Algeria, Egypt and ] have stressed their support to the PRC's one-China policy, ] and ] are maintaining relations with ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/22427 |title=China woos Taiwan's African friends|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=afrol.com}}</ref> For the quest of a permanent ] seat for Africa, ], the most populous African country, relies on Chinese support while ] looks to U.S. backing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/aumonitor/27913 |title=Africa and the UN Security Council Permanent Seats|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=pambazuka.org}}</ref>


The ] (FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between African countries and China.<ref name="Murphy-2022b">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=56|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> Chinese foreign aid is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC.<ref name="Murphy-2022c" /> Through FOCAC, China provides aid in the forms of debt forgiveness, aid grants, concessional loans, and interest-free loans.<ref name="Murphy-2022c">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=84|oclc=1249712936}}</ref>
Since 1997, around 40 African heads of state have visited China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/ziliao/3602/3604/t18059.htm |title=China-Africa Relations |accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=Ministry of ''Foreign Affairs'', the People's Republic of China}}</ref> The ministerial meeting, ] (FOCAC), held in Beijing in October 2000 was the first collective dialogue between China and African nations.

In addition to the mechanism of FOCAC, China engages with subregional multilateral groups in Africa, including the ] (ECOWAS) and the ] (EAC).<ref name="Shinn-2023" />{{Rp|page=11}}

==== Diplomatic history ====
Early modern bilateral relations were mainly affected by the Cold War and the ideology of ]. The establishment of modern Sino-African relations dates back to the late 1950s when China signed the first official bilateral trade agreement with Algeria, Egypt, Guinea, Somalia, Morocco and Sudan. Zhou Enlai made a ten-country tour to Africa between December 1963 and January 1964. Zhou Enlai visited Ghana and established close relations with ], a leader who strived for a united Africa.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Savage|first1=Joel|title=The Confused Moments of Nkrumah in China After The Coup|work=modernghana.com|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/876767/the-confused-moments-of-nkrumah-in-china-after-the-coup.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427041712/https://www.modernghana.com/news/876767/the-confused-moments-of-nkrumah-in-china-after-the-coup.html|archive-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> Relations at that time were often reflective of Chinese foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage ] and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower".<ref>Muekalia 2004, p.6</ref> In 1965 ] was overthrown in Algeria, with a result that the Soviets gained influence in North Africa and the Middle East. Kwame Nkrumah, the most prominent leader of sub-Saharan Africa, was deposed while on a trip to China in early 1966. The new rulers shifted Ghana to the West's side of the Cold War.<ref>Odd Arne Westad, ''The Global Cold War'' (2005) p 107.</ref>

China originally had close ties with the ] and ], ] (ANC), in ], but as China's relations with the ] worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the ].<ref>Taylor 2000, p. 93</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity. China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. The ] established good relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War era. When Somalia sought to create a ], it ] on ], with the aid of the Soviet Union, Somalia took ] in three months, but the Soviet Union shifted its support from Somalia to Ethiopia, and Ethiopia retook the Ogaden region. This angered ], and expelled all Soviet advisors and citizens from Somalia, but Somalia maintained good relations with China, which ] with the traditional ]. China and ] shared a common goal in Central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the ] (and later, ]) in order to prevent the ], who were supported and augmented by ], from coming to power. During the Cold War, a few smaller nations also entered in alliances with China, such as ] under ].

The ] has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of ] (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the United Nations (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eg.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t274327.htm|title=From "brothers" to "partners": China, Africa building strategic ties|access-date=14 March 2009|work=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Arab Republic of Egypt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508171410/http://eg.china-embassy.org/eng/zagx/t274327.htm|archive-date=8 May 2013}}</ref> However, while many African countries such as ], ] and ] have stressed their support to the PRC's one-China policy, ] maintains relations with ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/22427|title=China woos Taiwan's African friends|access-date=14 March 2009|work=afrol.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314083923/http://www.afrol.com/articles/22427|archive-date=14 March 2012}}</ref> For the quest of a permanent ] seat for Africa, Nigeria, the most populous African country, relies on Chinese support while Egypt looks to U.S. backing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa and the UN Security Council Permanent Seats|url=http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/aumonitor/27913|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508111435/http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/aumonitor/27913|archive-date=8 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=]}}</ref>

In its relations with African countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller African countries.<ref name=":102"/>{{Rp|page=107}}


====Economic relations==== ====Economic relations====
{{Main|Africa–China economic relations}} {{Main|Africa–China economic relations}}
In 1980, the total Sino-African trade volume was US$1 billion. By 1999, it had reached US$6.5 billion.<ref></ref> By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the United States, which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. China also passed the traditional African economic partner and ] France, which had trade worth US$47 billion.<ref name=csmonitor>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/ |title=China boosts African economies, offering a 'second opportunity’ |accessdate=2009-03-14 |format= |work=Christian Science Monitor |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624051028/http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/ |archivedate=24 June 2009 }}</ref> In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion.<ref name="allafrica">{{cite web |url= http://allafrica.com/stories/201212090143.html|title= Mozambique-China Trade Continues to Grow|date=2012-12-09|accessdate= 2012-12-09|work= allafrica.com}}</ref> In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion.<ref name="allafrica"/>


]]]
There are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors.<ref name=FT>{{cite web|url=http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf |title=Africa, China Trade |accessdate=2009-03-14 |format= |work=Financial Times |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311160010/http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf |archivedate=11 March 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years)<ref name=MondeDiplo>{{cite web|url=http://mondediplo.com/2005/05/11chinafrica |title=China's trade safari in Africa |accessdate=2009-03-14 |format= |work=Le Monde Diplomatique }}</ref> have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans.<ref name=FT/> Since 2000, more than US$10 thousand million in debt owed by African nations to China has been canceled.<ref name=MondeDiplo/> Even though Africa has gained from commodity exports to China, Chinese exports to Africa as well as Chinese business practices isn't helping so much, says Mohamed Gueye.
In 1980, the total Sino-African trade volume was US$1 billion. By 1999, it had reached US$6.5 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaembassy.org.zw/eng/zt/zflt/t150398.htm|title=chinaembassy.org.zw ''Sino-African Relations''|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616025604/http://www.chinaembassy.org.zw/eng/zt/zflt/t150398.htm|archive-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the U.S., which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. China also passed the traditional African economic partner and ] France, which had trade worth US$47 billion.<ref name="csmonitor">{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/|title=China boosts African economies, offering a 'second opportunity'|access-date=14 March 2009|work=The Christian Science Monitor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624051028/http://www.csmonitor.com/centennial/timeline/2008/07/china-boosts-african-economies-offering-a-second-opportunity/|archive-date=24 June 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion.<ref name="allafrica">{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201212090143.html|title=Mozambique-China Trade Continues to Grow|date=9 December 2012|access-date=9 December 2012|work=allafrica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118150104/http://allafrica.com/stories/201212090143.html|archive-date=18 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion.<ref name="allafrica" />

There are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors.<ref name="FT">{{cite web|title=Africa, China Trade|url=http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311160010/http://media.ft.com/cms/e13530f4-c9df-11dc-b5dc-000077b07658.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2009|access-date=14 March 2009|work=]}}</ref> Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years)<ref name="MondeDiplo">{{cite web|date=May 2005|title=China's trade safari in Africa|url=http://mondediplo.com/2005/05/11chinafrica|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126203347/http://mondediplo.com/2005/05/11chinafrica|archive-date=26 January 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=]}}</ref> have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans.<ref name="FT" /> Since 2000, more than US$10 billion in debt owed by African nations to China has been canceled.<ref name="MondeDiplo" />


====Military relations==== ====Military relations====
Military cooperation goes back to the Cold War period when China was keen to help ]. Apart from some traditional allies such as ] and ], China also had military ties with ] such as Egypt. Military equipment worth $142 million was sold to African countries between 1955 and 1977.<ref name=MondeDiplo/> Two decades after the collapse of the ], military relations are now{{Update after|2010|11}} based on business interests rather than ideology. Military cooperation goes back to the Cold War period when China was keen to help ]. Apart from some traditional allies such as ] and ], China also had military ties with ] such as Egypt. Military equipment worth $142 million was sold to African countries between 1955 and 1977.<ref name="MondeDiplo" /> Two decades after the collapse of the Soviet Union, military relations are now{{Update after|2010|11}} based on business interests rather than ideology.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


There is no Chinese military presence in Africa other than that used in ].{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} In 2004, China deployed around 1,500 soldiers under the UN umbrella, dispatched between ] and the ].<ref name=MondeDiplo/> China is also present via its ]s; as of 2007, it has 14 attachés in 14 different African countries while there are 18 African countries who maintain their attachés in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html |title=Military backs China's Africa adventure |accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=Asia Times |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120721210713/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html |archivedate=21 July 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed. In 2004, China deployed around 1,500 soldiers under the UN umbrella, dispatched between ] and the ].<ref name="MondeDiplo" /> China is also present via its ]s; as of 2007, it has 14 attachés in 14 different African countries while there are 18 African countries who maintain their attachés in ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Susan Puska|title=Military backs China's Africa adventure|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721210713/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/china/if08ad02.html|archive-date=21 July 2012|access-date=14 March 2009|work=Asia Times}}</ref> Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 October 2021|title=Chinese Government TV Showcases Foreign Cadets Training in Chinese Military Academies|url=https://www.memri.org/reports/chinese-government-tv-showcases-foreign-cadets-training-chinese-military-academies|access-date=1 March 2022|website=]}}</ref>


==== Culture ==== ==== Culture ====
Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centers. The first overseas Chinese center was opened in ] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/culture/2009-02/17/content_17288743.htm|title=Out of Africa|access-date=14 March 2009|work=China Daily|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004153822/http://www.china.org.cn/culture/2009-02/17/content_17288743.htm|archive-date=4 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Two other followed in Egypt and ]. The ], which focuses on the promotion of the ] and ], has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cri.cn/4406/2009/02/17/1122s454769.htm|title=Confucius Institute Bridges Friendship between China and Africa|access-date=14 March 2009|work=cri.com.cn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016190603/http://english.cri.cn/4406/2009/02/17/1122s454769.htm|archive-date=16 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
], ]]]
Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centres. The first overseas Chinese centre was opened in ] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/culture/2009-02/17/content_17288743.htm |title=Out of Africa|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=China Daily}}</ref> Two other followed in Egypt and ]. The ], which focuses on the promotion of the ] and ], has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cri.cn/4406/2009/02/17/1122s454769.htm |title=Confucius Institute Bridges Friendship between China and Africa|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=cri.com.cn}}</ref>


Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China, although there is no doubt and much consensus that the human species was originally from Africa. Due to recent developments in relations,{{Ambiguous|date=July 2011}}<!-- There needs to be an explanation of the immigration laws here, I think --> many{{Quantify|date=March 2009}} have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of ] with an estimated number of 20,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/09/the-promised-land-2 |first=Evan|last=Osnos | authorlink = Evan Osnos|title=The Promised Land|date=9 February 2009|accessdate=2014-11-16 |work=]}}</ref> It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure |title=China's 'Little Africa' is under pressure |accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=globalpost.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228140945/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure |archivedate=28 February 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China, although there is no doubt and much consensus that the human species was originally from Africa. Due to recent developments in relations,{{Ambiguous|date=July 2011}}<!-- There needs to be an explanation of the immigration laws here, I think --> many{{Quantify|date=March 2009}} have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of ] with an estimated number of 20,000.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/09/the-promised-land-2|first=Evan|last=Osnos|author-link=Evan Osnos|title=The Promised Land|date=9 February 2009|access-date=16 November 2014|magazine=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006120726/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/09/the-promised-land-2|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tom Mackenzie, Mitch Moxley|title=China's 'Little Africa' is under pressure|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228140945/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/china-and-its-neighbors/090219/chinas-little-africa-under-pressure|archive-date=28 February 2009|access-date=14 March 2009|work=]}}</ref>


In contrast, early modern Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as labourers to ] from the ] (modern-day ]) by the ]. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the ] to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining.<ref name=migration>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690 |title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=Migration Policy Institute}}</ref> In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of ]. Estimates vary by source though ], China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.<ref name=migration/> The number of Chinese illegal immigrants remains unknown. In contrast, early modern Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as laborers to South Africa from the ] (modern-day Indonesia) by the ]. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the ] to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining.<ref name="migration">{{cite web|date=6 August 2008|title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129114909/http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690|archive-date=29 January 2014|access-date=14 March 2009|website=]}}</ref> In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of ]. Estimates vary by source though ], China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa.<ref name="migration" /> The number of Chinese illegal immigrants remains unknown.


Due to the low prices of Chinese-made weaponry and military equipment, an increasing number of African countries shifted their source of supply from traditional providers such as ] to China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Security/2008/12/19/russian_chinese_weapons_compete_in_africa/5472/ |title=Russian, Chinese weapons compete in Africa|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=upiasia.com}}</ref> However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as ], have prompted criticism in the West (see ] section below).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7503428.stm |title=China 'is fuelling war in Darfur'|accessdate=2009-03-14 |publisher=BBC | date=2008-07-13}}</ref> Due to the low prices of Chinese-made weaponry and military equipment, an increasing number of African countries shifted their source of supply from traditional providers such as Russia to China.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian, Chinese weapons compete in Africa|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Security/2008/12/19/russian_chinese_weapons_compete_in_africa/5472/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513035926/http://www.upiasia.com/Security/2008/12/19/russian_chinese_weapons_compete_in_africa/5472/|archive-date=13 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|agency=]}}</ref> However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as ], have prompted criticism in the West.<ref>{{cite news|date=13 July 2008|title=China 'is fuelling war in Darfur'|publisher=]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7503428.stm|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011237/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7503428.stm|archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>


====Criticism==== ====Criticism====
The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and ]'s regime in ] have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade |title=Chinese ship carries arms cargo to Mugabe regime|accessdate=2009-03-14 |format= |work=guardian.co.uk | location=London | first=David | last=Beresford | date=2008-04-18}}</ref> China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html |title=China is to withdraw backing for Mugabe|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=telegraph.co.uk | location=London | first=Richard | last=Spencer | date=2007-08-31}}</ref> In July 2008, the Chinese diplomacy asked Mugabe "to behave" though critics see that as a way for China to protect its own interests in this country should a regime change.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/2461693/Robert-Mugabe-forced-into-talks-with-opposition-after-China-told-him-to-behave.html |title=Robert Mugabe forced into talks with opposition after China told him 'to behave'|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=telegraph.co.uk | location=London | first=Ian | last=Evans | date=2008-07-26}}</ref> The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and ]'s regime in ] have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment.<ref>{{cite news|last=Beresford|first=David|date=18 April 2008|title=Chinese ship carries arms cargo to Mugabe regime|work=]|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305005843/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/18/china.armstrade|archive-date=5 March 2017}}</ref> China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Spencer|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Spencer (journalist)|date=31 August 2007|title=China is to withdraw backing for Mugabe|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150301/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1561824/China-is-to-withdraw-backing-for-Mugabe.html|archive-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> In July 2008, the Chinese diplomacy asked Mugabe "to behave" though critics see that as a way for China to protect its own interests in the country should there be a regime change.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/2461693/Robert-Mugabe-forced-into-talks-with-opposition-after-China-told-him-to-behave.html|title=Robert Mugabe forced into talks with opposition after China told him 'to behave'|access-date=14 March 2009|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Ian|last=Evans|date=26 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150357/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/2461693/Robert-Mugabe-forced-into-talks-with-opposition-after-China-told-him-to-behave.html|archive-date=15 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>


Chinese role in Africa has sparked much criticism, mainly by Western countries who accuse it of "]".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642345/Why-China-is-trying-to-colonise-Africa.html |title=Why China is trying to colonise Africa |accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=telegraph.co.uk | location=London | first=David | last=Blair | date=2007-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HK03Cb04.html |title=China as Africa's 'angel in white'|accessdate=2009-03-14 |work=Asia Times }}</ref> As a response to such criticism, China issued the ''Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment'', a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tni.org/archives/acts/forestfortrees-sautman.pdf |title=The Forest for the Trees: Trade, Investment and the China-in-Africa Discourse |accessdate=2009-03-14 |format=pdf |work=Barry Sautman, Hong Kong University of Science & Technology Yan Hairong, University of Hong Kong }}</ref> Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpc.edu/~gpcglobe/Forms/ChinainAfrica.pdf |title=China in Africa - Is China Gaining Control of Africa's Resources |accessdate=2009-03-14 |format=pdf |work=Golobal Researcher }}</ref> Chinese role in Africa has sparked much criticism, including accusations of ] and racial discrimination.<ref>{{cite news|last=Blair|first=David|author-link=David Blair (journalist)|date=31 August 2007|title=Why China is trying to colonise Africa|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642345/Why-China-is-trying-to-colonise-Africa.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415083339/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3642345/Why-China-is-trying-to-colonise-Africa.html|archive-date=15 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China as Africa's 'angel in white'|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HK03Cb04.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509142243/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/HK03Cb04.html|archive-date=9 May 2013|access-date=14 March 2009|work=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/world/africa/kenya-china-racism.html|title=Kenyans Say Chinese Investment Brings Racism and Discrimination|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|date=15 October 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=8 June 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608154734/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/world/africa/kenya-china-racism.html|archive-date=8 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> As a response to such criticism, China issued the ''Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment'', a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barry Sautman, Yan Hairong|date=Spring 2008|title=The Forest for the Trees: Trade, Investment and the China-in-Africa Discourse|url=https://ira.lib.polyu.edu.hk/bitstream/10397/5416/1/forest_for_the_trees_Pacific%20Affairs.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611215941/https://ira.lib.polyu.edu.hk/bitstream/10397/5416/1/forest_for_the_trees_Pacific%20Affairs.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2020|work=] Institutional Research Archive|location=Hong Kong}}</ref> Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 2008|title=China in Africa – Is China Gaining Control of Africa's Resources?|url=http://www.gpc.edu/~gpcglobe/Forms/ChinainAfrica.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528172646/http://www.gpc.edu/~gpcglobe/Forms/ChinainAfrica.pdf|archive-date=28 May 2010|access-date=14 March 2009|work=gpc.edu|publisher=]|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=====Egypt=====
{{main|China–Egypt relations}}

{{Flagicon|Egypt}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Sudan=====
{{main|China–Sudan relations}}

{{Flagicon|Sudan}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Ethiopia=====
{{main|China–Ethiopia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Ethiopia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Somalia=====
{{main|China–Somalia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Somalia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Tanzania=====
{{main|China–Tanzania relations}}

{{Flagicon|Tanzania}}{{Flagicon|China}}


===Americas=== ===Americas===
====Latin America and the Caribean==== ====Latin America and the Caribbean====
{{See also|China–Latin America relations}} {{See also|China–Latin America relations}}


] delivered a speech at the National Congress of ], 16 July 2014]] ] delivered a speech at the National Congress of ], 16 July 2014]]
] and Xi Jinping in ], 18 July 2014]] ] and Xi Jinping in ], 18 July 2014]]


Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in ] and the Caribbean. During a visit to ], ], ], and ] in November 2004, Chinese President ] announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade.<ref>The Heritage Foundation {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122220834/http://www.heritage.org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/tst040605a.cfm |date=22 January 2009 }}</ref><ref>CNS news.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516095610/http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewForeignBureaus.asp?Page=%5C%5CForeignBureaus%5C%5Carchive%5C%5C200504%5C%5CFOR20050408a.html%2F |date=16 May 2008 }}</ref><ref>Columbia Daily Tribune {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314195307/http://www.showmenews.com/2005/Feb/20050220News014.asp |date=14 March 2007 }}</ref> For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing Cuba's second-largest trading partner after ] in 2005.<ref>United Transportation Union {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722115924/http://www.utu.org/worksite/detail_news.cfm?ArticleID=26869 |date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year-old ] surrounding the ] that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region.<ref>GlobalSecurity.org </ref><ref name="NationNews">{{cite news | url=http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php |title=US calls off Barbados ban |accessdate=24 October 2008 |first=Tony |last=Best |date=24 October 2008 |format= |work=] |pages= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185950/http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php |archivedate=27 September 2007 |quote= }}</ref> Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in ] and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, ], and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese leader Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade.<ref>] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122220834/http://www.heritage.org/Research/TradeandForeignAid/tst040605a.cfm|date=22 January 2009}}</ref><ref>] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314195307/http://www.showmenews.com/2005/Feb/20050220News014.asp|date=14 March 2007}}</ref> For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing as Cuba's second-largest trading partner after ] in 2005.<ref>United Transportation Union {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722115924/http://www.utu.org/worksite/detail_news.cfm?ArticleID=26869 |date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year-old ] surrounding the ] that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region.<ref name="NationNews">{{cite news|url=http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php|title=US calls off Barbados ban|access-date=24 October 2008|first=Tony|last=Best|date=24 October 2008|work=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185950/http://www.nationnews.com/story/296599452302703.php|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>

In its relations with Latin American countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller Latin American countries.<ref name=":102"/>{{Rp|page=107}}


{{Further|Caribbean–China relations}} {{Further|Caribbean–China relations}}
] regional relations with ] are mostly based on ], ], and ]s which have increased significantly since the 1990s. For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the ]. ] regional relations with China are mostly based on ], ], and ]s which have increased significantly since the 1990s. For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the United States.


Additionally, China's policy in the region was the utillisation of "]" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment. Additionally, China's policy in the region was the utilization of "]" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment.


More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the ] at the Mona Campus of the ], with a possible additional one to be established at the Cave Hill Campus.<ref>{{cite news|title=Stronger link |first=Alicia |last=Dells |url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402 |format= |newspaper=] |publisher= |location=Bridgetown, Barbados |date=27 September 2009 |page= |pages= |accessdate=27 September 2009 |trans-title=|quote="The acting Prime Minister added that Barbados looks forward to welcoming the Guangdong Art Troupe to the island next month and noted that Barbados was keen on having a Confucius Institute for the teaching of Mandarin and Chinese history at the UWI Cave Hill Campus in the near future." |ref= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226124446/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402 |archivedate=26 February 2012 }}</ref> These agreements are part of the basis of teaching ] language courses at the regional University.<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} - By David Jessop, CaribbeanWorldNews.com (Friday 20 March 2009)</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218135907/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/article.php?news_id=14272 |date=18 February 2009 }}, CaribbeanNetNews.com, (Saturday, 14 February 2009)</ref> More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the Confucius Institute at the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Stronger link|first=Alicia|last=Dells|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402|newspaper=]|location=Bridgetown, Barbados|date=27 September 2009|access-date=27 September 2009|quote=The acting Prime Minister added that Barbados looks forward to welcoming the Guangdong Art Troupe to the island next month and noted that Barbados was keen on having a Confucius Institute for the teaching of Mandarin and Chinese history at the UWI Cave Hill Campus in the near future.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226124446/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=6402|archive-date=26 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> These agreements are part of the basis of teaching ] language courses at the regional University.<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – By David Jessop, CaribbeanWorldNews.com (Friday 20 March 2009)</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218135907/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/article.php?news_id=14272 |date=18 February 2009 }}, CaribbeanNetNews.com, (Saturday, 14 February 2009)</ref>


China has also expanded several levels of cooperation with the Caribbean region. China and the Government of the ] were said to have formed an agreement where ] from Trinidad and Tobago would be exported to China during its construction boom in preparation for the ].<ref>{{cite web | title = Trinidad and Tobago recognizes China's full market economy status | publisher = People's Daily Online | url = http://english.people.com.cn/200502/01/eng20050201_172519.html | accessdate =2005-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id%3D161210725 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-01-20 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120095546/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id=161210725 |archivedate=20 January 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> In exchange, China has led several construction projects in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region via Chinese owned construction companies. Trinidad and Tobago has also{{clarify|date=October 2012}} mooted the idea of starting direct shipments of ] and ] direct from Trinidad and Tobago to China, to fuel the later's growing need for resources to fuel their economy. China has also expanded several levels of cooperation with the Caribbean region. China and the Government of the ] were said to have formed an agreement where ] from Trinidad and Tobago would be exported to China during its construction boom in preparation for the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Trinidad and Tobago recognizes China's full market economy status|work=People's Daily|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200502/01/eng20050201_172519.html|access-date=1 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007091635/http://english.people.com.cn/200502/01/eng20050201_172519.html|archive-date=7 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id%3D161210725|title=Trinidad News, Trinidad Newspaper, Trinidad Sports, Trinidad politics, Trinidad and Tobago, Tobago News, Trinidad classifieds, Trinidad TV, Sports, Business|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120095546/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/index.pl/article_business_mag?id=161210725|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> In exchange, China has led several construction projects in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region via Chinese owned construction companies. Trinidad and Tobago have also mooted the idea of starting direct shipments of ] and ] direct from Trinidad and Tobago to China, to fuel the latter's growing need for resources to fuel their economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bnamericas.com/en/features/spotlight-chinas-footprint-in-caribbean-infrastructure|title=BNamericas – Spotlight: China's footprint in Caribbean in}}</ref>


Several capital-works or infrastructural projects across the Caribbean region have also been financed by the ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 March 2021|title=China Regional Snapshot: The Caribbean|url=https://gop-foreignaffairs.house.gov/china-snapshot-project-the-caribbean/|access-date=3 May 2021|website=] – Republicans}}</ref>
As the Caribbean political ] have had several messy run-ins{{which|date=October 2012}} with the ] in the ] with respect to recent demands, China has been more sympathetic to the Caribbean position globally and has stepped up ] exercises in the Caribbean for example in direct response to several sanctions placed on governments in the Caribbean region for not following the wishes of the Bush administration.


=====Antigua and Barbuda=====
Several capital-works or infrastructural projects across the Caribbean region have also been financed by the ].
{{Flagicon|Antigua and Barbuda}}{{Flagicon|China}}

Both countries have established diplomatic relations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/3448_664958/|title=Antigua and Barbuda|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819070828/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/ldmzs_664952/gjlb_664956/3448_664958/|archive-date=19 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>


=====Barbados===== =====Barbados=====
{{Main|Barbados–China relations}} {{Main|Barbados–China relations}}


{{Flagicon|Barbados}}{{Flagicon|China}}
Diplomatic relations between ''']''' and the '''People's Republic of China''' were ] 30 May 1977.<ref name="CEIB">{{cite web |url=http://bb.chineseembassy.org/eng/zbgx/t261184.htm |title=Summary of China-Barbados Bilateral Relations |author=Ambassador |date=30 May 2008 |publisher=Embassy of the People's Republic of China: Barbados |location=Bridgetown, Barbados |trans-title=|accessdate=16 January 2012 |quote= |ref= |separator= |postscript=}}</ref> China began providing Barbados with diplomatic aide with the construction of the Sir ] (1986), and other projects such as: construction assistance for the Sir ] (1994), and renovating ]'s Cheapside Market building (2005). In 2005, China exported US$19.19 million worth of goods, while importing only $211,000 from Barbados.<ref name="CEIB" />


Diplomatic relations between ''']''' and the '''People's Republic of China''' were ] 30 May 1977.<ref name="CEIB">{{cite web|url=http://bb.chineseembassy.org/eng/zbgx/t261184.htm|title=Summary of China-Barbados Bilateral Relations|author=Ambassador|date=30 May 2008|publisher=Embassy of the People's Republic of China: Barbados|location=Bridgetown, Barbados|access-date=16 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191143/http://bb.chineseembassy.org/eng/zbgx/t261184.htm|archive-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> China began providing Barbados with diplomatic aide with the construction of the Sir ] (1986), and other projects such as: construction assistance for the Sir ] (1994), and renovating ]'s Cheapside Market building (2005). In 2005, China exported US$19.19 million worth of goods, while importing only $211,000 from Barbados.<ref name="CEIB" />
The current Chinese Ambassador to Barbados is Xu Hong,<ref>{{cite news|title=China marks 63 years |first=A. |last=N. |url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071 |format= |agency= |newspaper=] |publisher= |location= |date=28 September 2012 |at= |accessdate=29 September 2012 |quote="Since I assumed my post as the Chinese Ambassador April this year, I have been much impressed by the sound friendship between our two countries and two peoples, as well as the great potential for future development," Ambassador Xu Hong stated. |ref= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027115600/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071 |archivedate=27 October 2013 }}</ref> who heads the embassy in ], Barbados. Hong replaced the former Ambassador Wei Qiang<ref name="FMPRC">{{cite web|title=Chinese embassy to Barbados|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|date=30 December 2011|accessdate=17 January 2012|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zwjg/2490/2497/t14518.htm}}</ref> in 2012. The current Barbadian Ambassador to Beijing, China is the country's former Prime Minister Sir ].<ref name="BAIC">{{cite web|title=Chinese president accepts credentials from five new ambassadors|publisher=Xinhua News Agency|date=3 March 2010|accessdate=17 January 2012|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/03/c_13195842.htm}}</ref>


The current Chinese Ambassador to Barbados is Xu Hong,<ref>{{cite news|title=China marks 63 years|first=A.|last=N.|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071|newspaper=]|date=28 September 2012|access-date=29 September 2012|quote="Since I assumed my post as the Chinese Ambassador April this year, I have been much impressed by the sound friendship between our two countries and two peoples, as well as the great potential for future development," Ambassador Xu Hong stated.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027115600/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=27071|archive-date=27 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> who heads the embassy in ], Barbados. Hong replaced the former Ambassador Wei Qiang<ref name="FMPRC">{{cite web|title=Chinese embassy to Barbados|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|date=30 December 2011|access-date=17 January 2012|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zwjg/2490/2497/t14518.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231082811/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zwjg/2490/2497/t14518.htm|archive-date=31 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2012. The current Barbadian Ambassador to Beijing, China is the country's former Prime Minister Sir ].<ref name="BAIC">{{cite news|title=Chinese president accepts credentials from five new ambassadors|agency=Xinhua News Agency|date=3 March 2010|access-date=17 January 2012|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/03/c_13195842.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307062717/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-03/03/c_13195842.htm|archive-date=7 March 2010}}</ref>
In 2004 Barbados obtained Approved Destination Status by the government in China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/ |title=List of Chinese countries with ADS status |publisher=] |at= |date=6 August 2009 |trans-title= |quote=() |ref= |separator= |postscript= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103150756/http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/ |archivedate=3 January 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What China Means for Caribbean Tourism |author=Caribbean Journal staff |url=http://www.caribjournal.com/2011/12/17/what-china-could-mean-to-caribbean-tourism/ |agency=Caribbean Journal |date=17 December 2011 |at= |accessdate=30 September 2012 |quote= |ref=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese tourism remains a goal |first=A. |last=N. |url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056 |newspaper=] |date=1 June 2012 |accessdate=30 September 2012 |quote= |ref= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718102047/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056 |archivedate=18 July 2014 }}</ref> Barbados and China are members of the ], the ] and the ].


In 2004 Barbados obtained Approved Destination Status by the government in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/|title=List of Chinese countries with ADS status|website=]|date=6 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103150756/http://www.chinatraveltrends.com/2009/08/approved-destination-status/|archive-date=3 January 2011}} ()</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=What China Means for Caribbean Tourism|url=http://www.caribjournal.com/2011/12/17/what-china-could-mean-to-caribbean-tourism/|work=Caribbean Journal|date=17 December 2011|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812060049/http://www.caribjournal.com/2011/12/17/what-china-could-mean-to-caribbean-tourism/|archive-date=12 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese tourism remains a goal|first=A.|last=N.|url=http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056|newspaper=]|date=1 June 2012|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718102047/http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/newsitem.asp?more=local&NewsID=25056|archive-date=18 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Barbados and China are members of the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states|title=Member States|publisher=United Nations|access-date=25 June 2022|quote=Barbados}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://protocol.un.org/dgacm/pls/site.nsf/files/BB306/$FILE/bb306.pdf|title=Blue Book "Permanent Missions to the United Nations No.&nbsp;306"|date=June 2016|publisher=United Nations|access-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031222127/https://protocol.un.org/dgacm/pls/site.nsf/files/BB306/$FILE/bb306.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.caribank.org/countries-and-members/borrowing-members|title=Borrowing Members|website=Caribbean Development Bank|access-date=25 June 2022|quote=BORROWING MEMBERS Barbados}}</ref>
Following the ], the Barbadian prime minister visited the Chinese Embassy to personally sign the book of condolence to the nation.<ref>, 21 May 2008</ref>

Following the ], the Barbadian prime minister visited the Chinese Embassy to personally sign the book of condolence to the nation.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222102406/http://bb.china-embassy.org/eng/xwdt/t460379.htm |date=22 February 2012 }}, 21 May 2008</ref>


] ]
Over the years a number of building projects have been carried out with Chinese government assistance these include: The ],<ref>{{cite news|title=Wildey Gym Spruce-up |author=Staff writer |url=http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html |agency=Ministry of Commerce of P.R. China, |newspaper=Nation Newspaper |isbn= |issn= |oclc= |pmid= |pmd= |bibcode= |id= |date=15 September 2005 |accessdate=30 November 2009 |trans-title=|quote= The lighting will be improved, and the air-conditioning should be better now," Walrond said. He noted that the experienced technical team from the People’s Republic of China would be working with China State Construction who built the gym, as well as with about 30 Barbadians. |ref= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707040721/http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html |archivedate=7 July 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> two adjustments on the ], a Home Vegetable Growing Experimental Center, embroidery, grass weaving and feather handicraft. A consideration was also giving according to the Prime Minister of Barbados, David Thompson for China to assist with the opening of a new cruise ship facility in Barbados.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307081022/http://cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|dead-url=yes|archive-date=7 March 2016|title=Barbados to open embassy in China |publisher=Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation|accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Over the years a number of building projects have been carried out with Chinese government assistance these include: The Garfield Sobers Gymnasium,<ref>{{cite news|title=Wildey Gym Spruce-up|url=http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html|agency=Ministry of Commerce of P.R. China|newspaper=Nation Newspaper|date=15 September 2005|access-date=30 November 2009|quote= The lighting will be improved, and the air-conditioning should be better now," Walrond said. He noted that the experienced technical team from the People's Republic of China would be working with China State Construction who built the gym, as well as with about 30 Barbadians. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707040721/http://bb2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200509/20050900403271.html|archive-date=7 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> two adjustments on the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre, a Home Vegetable Growing Experimental Center, embroidery, grass weaving and feather handicraft. A consideration was also giving according to the Prime Minister of Barbados, David Thompson for China to assist with the opening of a new cruise ship facility in Barbados.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307081022/http://cbc.bb/index.pl/article1?id=1333244|archive-date=7 March 2016|title=Barbados to open embassy in China|publisher=Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=15 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>


Chinese Premier Wen said that China would like to join hands with Barbados in deepening cooperation in the areas of trade, tourism, architecture, and cultural exchange. Chinese Premier Wen said that China would like to join hands with Barbados in deepening cooperation in the areas of trade, tourism, architecture, and cultural exchange.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3376_665447/3463_664988/3465_664992/200706/t20070608_594417.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219144744/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3376_665447/3463_664988/3465_664992/200706/t20070608_594417.html|archive-date=19 February 2023|title=Wen Jiaobao Holds Talks with Prime Minister of Barbados Arthur at the Great Hall of the People|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>


China's export volume to Barbados in 1999 reached US$2,035,000, while imports from Barbados were at US$13,000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Product Exports by China to Barbados 1999|url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHN/Year/1999/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/BRB/Product/All-Groups|access-date=16 September 2020|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Product Imports by China from Barbados 1999|url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHN/Year/1999/TradeFlow/Import/Partner/BRB/Product/All-Groups|access-date=16 September 2020|website=World Integrated Trade Solution}}</ref>
China's export volume to Barbados in 1999 reached US$2,035,000, while imports from Barbados were at US$13,000.


Both nations have additionally signed bilateral agreements including a ] and a Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments treaty. Both nations have additionally signed bilateral agreements including a ] and a Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments treaty.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


The Chinese government remains one of the main stakeholders in the Barbados-based ] (CDB), which lends to the various territories throughout the ] region.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330194210/http://www.caribank.org/titanweb/cdb/webcms.nsf/AllDoc/E3B470BE4AD4B5EF8725733700799FD6?OpenDocument |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Closer cooperation likely between China and Barbados |author=Staff writers |url=http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html |newspaper=CaribbeanNetNews.com |date=17 February 2009 |accessdate=10 September 2009 |trans-title=|quote= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505132748/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html |archivedate=5 May 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> The Chinese government remains one of the main stakeholders in the Barbados-based Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), which lends to the various territories throughout the Caribbean region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caribank.org/about-cdb/member-countries/nonregional-members/china|title=Caribbean Development Bank (CDB): Non-Regional Members|access-date=9 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628125102/http://www.caribank.org/about-cdb/member-countries/nonregional-members/china|archive-date=28 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Closer cooperation likely between China and Barbados|url=http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html|newspaper=CaribbeanNetNews.com|date=17 February 2009|access-date=10 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505132748/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/news-14318--26-26--.html|archive-date=5 May 2009}}</ref>


=====Cuba===== =====Cuba=====
{{main|China–Cuba relations}} {{main|China–Cuba relations}}


{{Flagicon|Cuba}}{{Flagicon|China}}
'''Cuban–Chinese relations''' are the ] between ] and ]. The relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba’s second largest trading partner after ]. At a ceremonial trade gathering in ] in early 2006, China’s ambassador to Cuba said "Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What’s left is the work to complete our plans."<ref>Marc Frank, , ''The Financial Times'', 29 March 2006</ref>


China-Cuban relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba's second largest trading partner after Venezuela. At a ceremonial trade gathering in ] in early 2006, China's ambassador to Cuba said "Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What's left is the work to complete our plans."<ref>Marc Frank, , ''Financial Times'', 29 March 2006</ref>
Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba.<ref>"Trade with China helps Cuba to move up a gear," Financial Times, 8 March 2006</ref> China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalisation of ] infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.


Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba.<ref>"Trade with China helps Cuba to move up a gear," Financial Times, 8 March 2006</ref> China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalization of ] infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
], the Chinese state ], has an agreement with state-owned ] (Cuba Petroleum) to develop oil resources. As of mid-2008, SINOPEC had done some seismic testing for oil resources on the island of Cuba, but no drilling.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008">{{cite web | first1=Erika | last1=Bolstad | first2=Kevin G. | last2=Hall | url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html | title=GOP claim about Chinese oil drilling off Cuba is untrue | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208154630/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html | archivedate=8 December 2009 | publisher=McClatchy Newspapers | date=11 June 2008}}</ref> The company also has a contract for joint production in one of Cuba's offshore areas of high potential yield, off the coast of ],<ref>{{cite news | title=Firman Cuba y China contrato para producción compartida de petróleo | newspaper=Granma Internacional | date=31 January 2005 | language=es}}</ref> but had done no off-shore drilling as of mid-2008.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008"/>


], the Chinese state ], has an agreement with state-owned ] (Cuba Petroleum) to develop oil resources. As of mid-2008, SINOPEC had done some seismic testing for oil resources on the island of Cuba, but no drilling.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008">{{cite web|last1=Bolstad|first1=Erika|last2=Hall|first2=Kevin G.|date=11 June 2008|title=GOP claim about Chinese oil drilling off Cuba is untrue|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208154630/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/251/story/40776.html|archive-date=8 December 2009|website=]}}</ref> The company also has a contract for joint production in one of Cuba's offshore areas of high potential yield, off the coast of ],<ref>{{cite news|title=Firman Cuba y China contrato para producción compartida de petróleo|newspaper=Granma Internacional|date=31 January 2005|language=es}}</ref> but had done no off-shore drilling as of mid-2008.<ref name="McClatchy-11June2008" />
In November 2005, PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co., Ltd. and CUPET held a ceremony for the signing of two drilling service contracts.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5016208/PetroChina-Great-Wall-Drilling-Co.html | title=PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co. wins contracts in Cuba | work=China Chemical Reporter | date=26 November 2005}}</ref> Great Wall Drilling has provided ]s for oil exploration on Cuba's north coast.

In November 2005, ] Great Wall Drilling Co., Ltd. and CUPET held a ceremony for the signing of two drilling service contracts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5016208/PetroChina-Great-Wall-Drilling-Co.html|title=PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co. wins contracts in Cuba|work=China Chemical Reporter|date=26 November 2005|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517191641/http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5016208/PetroChina-Great-Wall-Drilling-Co.html|archive-date=17 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Great Wall Drilling has provided ]s for oil exploration on Cuba's north coast.<ref>{{cite news|title=CNPC: Inked Pact with Cuba State Oil Firm for greater cooperation|work=Dow Jones Institutional News|date=7 June 2011|location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref>

===== El Salvador =====
{{Main|China-El Salvador relations}}

{{Flagicon|El Salvador}}{{Flagicon|China}}

===== Honduras =====
{{Main|China-Honduras relations}}

{{Flagicon|Honduras}}{{Flagicon|China}}

=====Venezuela=====
{{main|China–Venezuela relations}}

{{Flagicon|Venezuela}}{{Flagicon|China}}


====United States==== ====United States====
{{main|China–United States relations}}
] greets ] ] in a historic visit to China, 1972.]]


{{Flagicon|United States}}{{Flagicon|China}}
Once the UN issue was resolved, relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972, President ] ]. China backed away from support of North Vietnam in its ].{{dubious|date=September 2016}} In late 1978, China became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over ] and ]. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought an inconclusive ] with Vietnam (February–March 1979).


Once the UN issue was resolved, relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972, President ] ]. China backed away from support of North Vietnam in the Vietnam War.{{dubious|date=September 2016}} In late 1978, China became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over ] and ]. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought an inconclusive border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979).<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Stout|first=David|date=15 May 2014|title=The Last Time China Got into a Fight With Vietnam, It Was a Disaster|url=https://time.com/100417/china-vietnam-sino-vietnamese-war-south-china-sea/|magazine=]|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref>
Formal diplomatic relations were established with the U.S. in 1979, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of varying degrees of amiable or wary relations over such contentious issues as ], ], ], ], and ].

Formal diplomatic relations were established with the U.S. in 1979, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of antagonistic relations over such issues as Taiwan, ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/timeline/us-relations-china|title=Timeline: U.S.-China Relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-obama-currency-idUSTRE49S7FQ20081029|title=Obama says China must stop manipulating currency|work=Reuters|date=29 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiafinancial.com/china-keen-to-beef-up-laws-against-bond-securities-fraud|title=China keen to beef up laws against bond, securities fraud|date=26 May 2020}}</ref>


===Asia=== ===Asia===
Generally speaking, China's relations with Central and South Asia have resulted in steadily increasing interdependence and a modestly improved regional integration.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fingar|first=Thomas|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=25|chapter=China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform|oclc=939553543|author-link=Thomas Fingar}}</ref>

====Arab World==== ====Arab World====
{{See also|Sino-Arab relations}} {{See also|Sino-Arab relations}}
{{Flagicon|Arab League}}{{Flagicon|China}}

]. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese ] imports transited the ], with less than 2 percent transiting the ].]] ]. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese ] imports transited the ], with less than 2 percent transiting the ].]]


'''Sino-Arab relations''' have extended historically back to the first ], with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Following the age of ], the Sino-Arab relations were halted for several centuries, until both gained independence in the 19th and 20th century. Today, modern Sino-Arab relations are evolving into a new era, with the SACF (Sino-Arab cooperation Forum) helping ] and the ] to establish a new partnership in an era of the growing ]. '''Sino-Arab relations''' have extended historically back to the first ], with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Following the age of ], the Sino-Arab relations were halted for several centuries, until both gained independence in the 19th and 20th century. Modern relations are evolving into a new era, with the ] (CASCF) as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's Rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order|publisher=]|year=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=56}}</ref>

On 10 March 2023, Saudi Arabia and Iran announced that they had agreed to normalize their relations in a deal brokered by China.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gans|first=Jared|date=11 March 2023|title=Five things to know about the Iran-Saudi deal brokered by China|url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/3895412-five-things-to-know-about-the-iran-saudi-deal-brokered-by-china/|access-date=14 March 2023|website=The Hill}}</ref>


=====Medieval Era===== =====Medieval Era=====
During the ], when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called Arabs 大食(Dàshí or Dashi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/dashi.html|title=Chinese History - Dashi 大食 (www.chinaknowledge.de)|author=Ulrich Theobald|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://asiecentrale.revues.org/index623.html|title=A century of Chinese research on Islamic Central Asian history in retrospect|author=Yingsheng, Liu|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> In modern Chinese, Dashi means Great Food. The modern term for Arab is 阿拉伯 (Ālābó or Alabo). During the ], when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called Arabs "Dàshí" ({{Lang|zh|大食}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/dashi.html|title=Chinese History – Dashi 大食 (http://www.chinaknowledge.de)|author=Ulrich Theobald|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029020558/http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/dashi.html|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://asiecentrale.revues.org/index623.html|title=A century of Chinese research on Islamic Central Asian history in retrospect|journal=Cahiers d'Asie Centrale|issue=9|pages=115–129|author=Yingsheng, Liu|access-date=19 February 2015|date=July 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215118/http://asiecentrale.revues.org/index623.html|archive-date=27 July 2011}}</ref> In modern Chinese, Dashi means Great Food. The modern term for Arab is "Ālābó" ({{Lang|zh|阿拉伯}}).<ref>{{Cite web|title=English translation of 阿拉伯半岛 ( Alabo Bandao / Ālābó Bàndăo ) – Arabia in Chinese|url=https://dictionary.hantrainerpro.com/chinese-english/translation-alabobandao_arabia.htm|access-date=24 March 2023|website=dictionary.hantrainerpro.com}}</ref>


The Arab Islamic ] ] (r. 644-656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an.<ref>{{citation|last=Twitchett|first=Denis|editor-last=van de Ven|editor-first=Hans|chapter=Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy|title=Warfare in Chinese History|year=2000|publisher=Koninklijke Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=90-04-11774-1|pages=106–179 }}</ref> The Arab Islamic ] ] (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an.<ref>{{citation|last=Twitchett|first=Denis|editor-last=van de Ven|editor-first=Hans|chapter=Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy|title=Warfare in Chinese History|year=2000|publisher=Koninklijke Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-11774-7|pages=106–179 }}</ref>


Although the Tang Dynasty and the ] had ], on 11 June 758, an ] embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Turks in order to pay tribute.<ref>{{citation|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|edition=1st paperback|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics|origyear=1963|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|page=26|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=0-520-05462-8}}</ref> Although the Tang Dynasty and the ] had ], on 11 June 758, an ] embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghurs in order to pay tribute.<ref>{{citation|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|edition=1st paperback|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics|orig-date=1963|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|page=26|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-05462-2}}</ref>


The ] was called "Da Shi Guo" (ta shi kuo) 大食國.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZPMZ0AkLzoC&pg=PA3&dq=On+the+knowledge+possessed+by+the+ancient+Chinese+of+the+Arabs+and+Arabian&hl=en&ei=9NnhTaE8h-TRAaaqvagH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=realm%20caliphs%20%20call%20ta%20shi%20kuo&f=false|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON 60 PATERNOSTER ROW.|page=6|isbn=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> The Caliphate was called "Dàshíguó" ({{Lang|zh|大食國}}).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=realm caliphs call ta shi kuo.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=London|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>


An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZPMZ0AkLzoC&pg=PA3&dq=On+the+knowledge+possessed+by+the+ancient+Chinese+of+the+Arabs+and+Arabian&hl=en&ei=9NnhTaE8h-TRAaaqvagH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=713%20envoy%20appeared%20from%20ta%20shi&f=false|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=8|isbn=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=713 envoy appeared from ta shi.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>


There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and ] Ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 198 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785-804 benefited the Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZPMZ0AkLzoC&pg=PA3&dq=On+the+knowledge+possessed+by+the+ancient+Chinese+of+the+Arabs+and+Arabian&hl=en&ei=9NnhTaE8h-TRAaaqvagH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hui%20ho%20ambassadors%20798%20three%20ta%20shi%20ambassadors%20came&f=false|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=10|isbn=|accessdate=2010-06-28}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and ] ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 198 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785 to 804 benefited the Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/onknowledgeposs00bretgoog|quote=hui ho ambassadors 798 three ta shi ambassadors came.|title=On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books|author=E. Bretschneider|year=1871|publisher=Trübner & co.|location=LONDON|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref>


According to Professor Samy S. Swayd ] missionaries made their ] in China during the reign of ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical dictionary of the Druzes|author=Samy S. Swayd|edition=illustrated|series= |volume=Volume 3 of Historical dictionaries of people and cultures |date= |year=2006| isbn=0-8108-5332-9|accessdate=4 April 2012|month= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlCHg5EblxEC&pg=PR41&dq=druze+china&hl=en&sa=X&ei=39R9T4znFIuG8QT28cn5DA&ved=0CGUQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=druze%20china&f=false|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=|quote=The fifth caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r.975-996). . . In his time, the Fatimi "Call" or "Mission" (Da'wa) reached as far east as India and northern China. |page=xli }}</ref> According to Professor Samy S. Swayd, ] missionaries made their ] in China during the reign of ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical dictionary of the Druzes|author=Samy S. Swayd|edition=illustrated|volume=3 of Historical dictionaries of people and cultures|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8108-5332-4|access-date=4 April 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlCHg5EblxEC&q=druze+china&pg=PR41|publisher=Scarecrow Press|quote=The fifth caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r.975-996). . . In his time, the Fatimi "Call" or "Mission" (Da'wa) reached as far east as India and northern China.|page=xli}}</ref>


=====Trade===== =====Trade=====
In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHxsWspxGIIC&q=china+sin+contacts+silk+south+arabian+coast#v=snippet&q=china%20sin%20contacts%20silk%20south%20arabian%20&f=false|accessdate=26 December 2011|title=Islamic desk reference|year=1994|author=E. J. van Donzel|editor=E. J. van Donzel|volume=|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|location=|series=|page=67 |isbn=90-04-09738-4|quote=China (A. al-Sin):. . .After the coming of Islam, the existing trade was continued by the peoples of the South Arabian coast and the Persian Gulf, but the merchants remained on the coast.}}</ref> For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJibpHfnw94C&pg=PA130&dq=According+to+Li+Xun,+frankincense+originally+came+from+Persia.92+Laufer+refers+to+the+Xiangpu+fftff+by+Hong+Chu+%5C%25Ws+(?&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bEf6TozwJoTh0QHgm-y_Ag&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=According%20to%20Li%20Xun%2C%20frankincense%20originally%20came%20from%20Persia.92%20Laufer%20refers%20to%20the%20Xiangpu%20fftff%20by%20Hong%20Chu%20%5C%25Ws%20(%3F&f=false |accessdate=26 December 2011|title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea|year=2010|volume=Volume 10 of East Asian Economic and Socio-cultural Studies - East Asian Maritime History|author=Ralph Kauz|editor=Ralph Kauz|edition=|location= |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=130|isbn=3-447-06103-0}}</ref> In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicdeskrefer00donz_0|url-access=registration|access-date=26 December 2011|title=Islamic desk reference|year=1994|author=E. J. van Donzel|editor=E. J. van Donzel|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|page=|isbn=978-90-04-09738-4|quote=China (A. al-Sin):. . .After the coming of Islam, the existing trade was continued by the peoples of the South Arabian coast and the Persian Gulf, but the merchants remained on the coast.}}</ref> For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJibpHfnw94C&pg=PA130|access-date=26 December 2011|title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea|year=2010|volume=10 of East Asian Economic and Socio-cultural Studies – East Asian Maritime History|author=Ralph Kauz|editor=Ralph Kauz|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|page=130|isbn=978-3-447-06103-2}}</ref>


=====20th century===== =====20th century=====
] under the ] had established relations with ] and ] in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like ] and ] to go the ] to study. Pilgrims also made the ] to ] from China.<ref name="Masumi">{{cite web|url=http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|title=The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam|last=Masumi|first=Matsumoto|publisher=|accessdate=2010-06-28|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724054724/http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|archivedate=24 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ] under the ] had established relations with Egypt and ] in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like ] and ] to go the ] to study. Pilgrims also made the ] to ] from China.<ref name="Masumi">{{cite web|url=http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|title=The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam|last=Masumi|first=Matsumoto|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724054724/http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676&lang=fr|archive-date=24 July 2011|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the ].<ref name="Masumi"/> The Fuad Muslim Library in China was named after King ] by the ] Ma Songting.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&pg=PA251&dq=ma+fuxiang+military+academy&hl=en&ei=_AadTPPfNIP78AaV-OVR&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication|author1=Stéphane A. Dudoignon |author2=Hisao Komatsu |author3=Yasushi Kosugi |year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=|page=251|isbn=978-0-415-36835-3|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> In 1939 ] and Ma Fuliang were sent by the ] to the Middle eastern countries such as ], ], and ] to gain support for the ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&dq=xibei+jiuying+wangshi&q=chiang+bughra#v=snippet&q=chiang%20bughra%20return%20chongqing&f=false|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|author=Hsiao-ting Lin|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=|isbn=0-415-58264-4|page=90|accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the ].<ref name="Masumi" /> The Fuad Muslim Library in China was named after King ] by the ] Ma Songting.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C&q=ma+fuxiang+military+academy&pg=PA251|title=Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication|author1=Stéphane A. Dudoignon|author2=Hisao Komatsu|author3=Yasushi Kosugi|year=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=251|isbn=978-0-415-36835-3|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> In 1939 ] and Ma Fuliang were sent by the Kuomintang to the Middle eastern countries such as Egypt, ], and ] to gain support during the ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting|author=Hsiao-ting Lin|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-58264-3|page=90}}</ref>


] cut off the diplomatic relations with the Republic of China on ] and established the new tie with the People's Republic of China in 1956. By the 1990s all Arab states had finished to recognize the ] as the legitimate state of China. ] cut off the diplomatic relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan and established the new tie with the People's Republic of China in 1956. By the 1990s all Arab states had finished to recognize the People's Republic of China as the legitimate state of China.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


The relations between China and the Arab League as an organization, officially started in 1956, yet it was in 1993, when the Arab League opened its first Office in China, when former Secretary general Essmat Abdel Megeed went to an official Visit to Beijing, in 1996, the Chinese president Jiang Zemin visited the Arab League headquarters during his visit in Cairo, to become the first Chinese leader to have an official visit for the Arab League. The relations between China and the Arab League as an organization, officially started in 1956, yet it was in 1993, when the Arab League opened its first Office in China, when former Secretary general Essmat Abdel Megeed went to an official Visit to Beijing, in 1996, the Chinese leader Jiang Zemin visited the Arab League headquarters during his visit in Cairo, to become the first Chinese leader to have an official visit for the Arab League.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cascf.org/ara/gyam/zgyamgx/|title=中华人民共和国中阿合作论坛|publisher=Cascf.org|access-date=29 May 2020|archive-date=9 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109035743/http://www.cascf.org/ara/gyam/zgyamgx/|url-status=dead}}</ref> China has continued to pay greater attention to the Middle East since the 2000s.<ref name="Atature-2023">{{Cite book|last=Atatüre|first=Süha|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=The US and China as Main Powers in Multipolar World Order 2.0|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} With China, Middle Eastern countries benefit from a potential investment source and long-term buyer of oil and gas without the political complications that come with dealing with the United States.<ref name="Atature-2023" />{{Rp|page=40}}


===== Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum ===== ===== China-Arab States Cooperation Forum =====
The core political norms that China advocates within CASCF are its ]: mutual respect for territory and sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence.<ref name="Murphy-2022">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=59|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> These principles are a conservative interpretation of the ] of state sovereignty.<ref name="Murphy-2022" />
In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister ] said that "the ] is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship."


The most prominent political issue advocated through CASCF is a Middle East peace process aimed at resolving the ] (including the territorial disputes that Lebanon and Syria each have with Israel).<ref name="Murphy-2022a">{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|publisher=Stanford University Press|date=2022|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=61|oclc=1249712936}}</ref> Other issues which have emerged following the ] include the ], and issues in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia.<ref name="Murphy-2022a" /> In recent years, CASCF documents have noted Arab states' support for China's approach in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murphy|first=Dawn C.|title=China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order|date=2022|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3060-4|location=Stanford, California|page=270|oclc=1249712936}}</ref>
"Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation," he said. "No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world."


In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister ] said that the ] is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship, remarking "Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation," he said. "No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world."<ref>{{Cite web|title=1st Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum Ministerial Meeting Held|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2004/Sep/107188.htm|access-date=8 December 2021|website=china.org.cn}}</ref>
The Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum was formally established during President ]'s visit to the League's headquarters in January 2004. Hu noted at the time that the formation of the forum was a continuation of the traditional friendship between China and the Arab world and an important move to promote bilateral ties under new circumstances.


The Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum was formally established during China's paramount leader Hu Jintao's visit to the League's headquarters in January 2004. Hu noted at the time that the formation of the forum was a continuation of the traditional friendship between China and the Arab world and an important move to promote bilateral ties under new circumstances.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
Li stated that "the establishment of the forum would be conducive to expanding mutually beneficial cooperation in a variety of areas."

Li stated that "the establishment of the forum would be conducive to expanding mutually beneficial cooperation in a variety of areas."{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


"The PRC has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said. "The PRC has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said.
Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation. Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation.
At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and ] Secretary General ] signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum. At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and Arab League Secretary General ] signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum.
Li arrived in ] on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to ], the last leg of a ] tour that has taken him to ], ] and ]. Li arrived in ] on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to Egypt, the last leg of a ] tour that has taken him to Saudi Arabia, ] and ].{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


=====The Joint Communiqué=====
The 2nd SACF was held in Beijing in 2006, it discussed Chinese proposal of a Middle east Nuclear-free, and the peace process between Palestinians and Israelis. while the 3rd SAFC is set to be held in Bahrain 2008
One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PRC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


The League of Arab States and the Government of People's Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the ] and the ] have co-organized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bricspolicycenter.org/en/forum-de-cooperacao-china-paises-arabes/|title=China Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF)}}</ref>
=====Comparison=====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:5%;" |
! style="width:50%;" | {{flag|Arab League}}
! style="width:50%;" | {{flag|China}}
|-
| '''Population'''
| 360,029,936
| 1,338,612,968
|-
| '''Area'''
| 13,953,041&nbsp;km² (5,382,910 sq mi)
| 9,640,821&nbsp;km² (3,704,427 sq mi )
|-
| '''Population Density'''
| 24.33/km² (63 /sq mi)
| 139.6/km² (363.3/sq mi)
|-
| '''Capital'''
| ]
| ]
|-
| '''Largest City'''
| ] - 6,758,581 (17,856,000 Metro)
| ] - 19,210,000 Municipality
|-
| '''Organisation and Government Type'''
| ] and ]
| ] and ]
|-
| '''Official languages'''
| ]
| ]
|-
| '''Main Religions'''
| Majority: ] (over 90%)<br>Minority: ], ], ], others
| Majority: ], ], ], ]<br>Minority: ], ], others
|-
| '''GDP (nominal)'''
| ]3.562 trillion ($7,672 ])
| ]12.140 trillion ($8,583 per capita)
|}


This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador ] Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and ] Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arableagueonline.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720072016/http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/arabic/details_ar.jsp?art_id=5057&level_id=725|title=Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich|archive-date=20 July 2011|website=Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich}}</ref>
=====The Joint Communiqué=====
One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PROC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009


====West Asia====
The League of Arab States and the Government of People’s Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the ] and the ] have coorganized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China.


=====Iran=====
In order to implement article 4 of the Joint Communiqué, both parties shall develop this Executive Program for 2008 and 2009. It aims to enhance the cooperation between the League of Arab States and China in the field of environmental protection, which is in line with the common aspiration of the two parties and their long term interests, and will help to promote the friendship between the two parties.
{{main|China–Iran relations}}


{{Flagicon|Iran}}{{Flagicon|China}}
The two parties will try to involve relevant government departments and
sectors, and will actively promote and seek cooperation on the projects and
activities in the following areas:


=====Turkey=====
01*Environmental Policies and Legislation
{{main|China–Turkey relations}}
02*Biodiversity Conservation
03*Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, Waste Management and Control
of Other Kinds of Pollution
04*Cooperation on Combating Desertification and Managing Water Resources in
Arid Areas
05*Coordinating the Stand on Global Environmental Issues
06*Environmental Industry
07*Enhancing Environmental Education and Raising Public Awareness in
Environment
08*Other Projects that the two may develop and implement other projects of common interest after negotiating with relevant government departments and sectors.
09*Financial Arrangements
10*Final Provisions


{{Flagicon|Turkey}}{{Flagicon|China}}
This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador ] Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and ] Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720072016/http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/arabic/details_ar.jsp?art_id=5057&level_id=725 |date=20 July 2011 }}</ref>


====Central Asia==== ====Central Asia====
{{Main|China–Kazakhstan relations|China–Kyrgyzstan relations|China–Tajikistan relations|China–Turkmenistan relations|China–Uzbekistan relations}}
As the Chinese economy booms, a major priority is securing natural resources to keep pace with demand, and investment into China's central Asian neighbors are doing leaps and bounds to meet this demand. Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields, China and ] have constructed an ] and are planning to construct a ]. In ] and ], China has invested in hydroelectric projects. In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries. The ], of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power.<ref>YaleGlobal Online {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410163921/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=4930 |date=10 April 2009 }}</ref>


After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the newly independent Central Asian countries inherited the border disagreements with China, which had themselves been inherited from czarist Russia and the Qing dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peyrouse|first=Sebastien|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=218|chapter=China and Central Asia|oclc=939553543}}</ref> In the years after the independence of the Central Asian countries, China negotiated bilaterally to resolve its borders with them individually.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016">{{Cite book|last=Peyrouse|first=Sebastien|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=233|chapter=China and Central Asia|oclc=939553543}}</ref> Ultimately, China obtained territory significantly less than it had originally claimed.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016" /> Resolution of these disputes on territorial terms generally favorable to the Central Asian countries created goodwill for China, avoided conflict, and also resulted in recognition that the czarist era borders were imposed unjustly on China.<ref name="Peyrouse-2016" />
] has called China's efforts to build trade links that extend through Central Asia to the Middle East a New ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thediplomat.com/2014/01/chinas-westward-strategy/ |title=China’s Westward Strategy |last1=Chen |first1=Yo-Jung |date=15 January 2014 |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |accessdate=18 January 2014}}</ref>

Access to energy and natural resources are important priorities for China in its Central Asian relations.<ref name="Alfred-2023">{{Cite book|last=Alfred|first=Gerstl|title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower?|publisher=]|year=2023|isbn=978-1-03-239508-1|editor-last=Kironska|editor-first=Kristina|chapter=China in its Immediate Neighborhood|editor-last2=Turscanyi|editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=215}} China is one of the main energy partners of the Central Asian countries.<ref name="Pron-2023">{{Cite book|last=Proń|first=Elżbieta|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=China in Central Asia: New Developments in 2013-2021|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=94}} Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields,<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} China and ] have constructed an ] and are planning to construct a natural gas pipeline. In ] and ], China has invested in hydroelectric projects.<ref name="Pron-2023" />{{Rp|page=94}}

China also seeks to improve land connections with Eurasia through its relations with the Central Asian countries.<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} ] ] has called China's efforts to build trade links that extend through Central Asia to the Middle East a New ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chen|first1=Yo-Jung|date=15 January 2014|title=China's Westward Strategy|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/chinas-westward-strategy/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117211640/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/chinas-westward-strategy/|archive-date=17 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|website=]}}</ref> In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries.

The ], of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power.<ref>] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410163921/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=4930|date=10 April 2009}}</ref> The ] changed China's view of Central Asia, causing China to pay increasing attention to potential concerns of terrorism, separatism, and extremism arising from the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Huasheng|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|pages=173–174|chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking|oclc=939553543}}</ref> One of China's main interests in Central Asia therefore is stability in Xinjiang, which shares a border with three Central Asian countries.<ref name="Alfred-2023" />{{Rp|page=215}} The Central Asian countries cooperate with China in suppressing support for separatist groups like the ].<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=116}} Following the ] and the increased involvement of Russia in the region, China's foreign policy makers began to view the Central Asia as both an area for cooperation and competition between major powers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Huasheng|title=The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform|date=2016|publisher=]|others=Thomas Fingar|isbn=978-0-8047-9764-1|location=Stanford, California|page=174|chapter=Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking|oclc=939553543}}</ref>

] (also depicted as China + Central Asia; C+C5) is a meeting of the Foreign Ministers' of China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. It was started in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hashimova|first=Umida|date=20 July 2020|title=China Launches 5+1 Format Meetings With Central Asia|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/china-launches-51-format-meetings-with-central-asia/|access-date=16 June 2021|website=The Diplomat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=20 May 2021|title=China and Central Asia: Bilateral Trade Relationships and Future Outlook|url=https://www.china-briefing.com/news/china-and-central-asia-bilateral-trade-relationships-and-future-outlook/|access-date=16 June 2021|website=China Briefing News}}</ref> In 2023, Xi Jinping and leaders of the five Central Asian countries held the ] in ], and the summit resulted in 54 agreements, 19 new cooperation mechanisms and platforms, and nine multilateral documents.<ref>{{cite web|date=24 May 2023|author=Stefan Wolff|url=https://theconversation.com/how-china-is-increasing-its-influence-in-central-asia-as-part-of-global-plans-to-offer-an-alternative-to-the-west-206035|title=How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west|work=]}}</ref>


====East Asia==== ====East Asia====
As of 2022, the general trend is that China and the other East Asian countries have increased their ties with each other, especially in economic matters and in conducting joint military exercises.<ref name=":Ma&Kang">{{Cite book|last1=Ma|first1=Xinru|title=Beyond Power Transitions: The Lessons of East Asian History and the Future of U.S.-China Relations|last2=Kang|first2=David C.|date=2024|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-55597-5|series=Columbia Studies in International Order and Politics|location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=173–175}} Trade with China comprised 39% of all East Asia regional trade as of 2020.<ref name=":Ma&Kang" />{{Rp|page=171}}
===== Japan =====

=====Japan=====
{{main|Sino–Japanese relations|History of Sino-Japanese relations}} {{main|Sino–Japanese relations|History of Sino-Japanese relations}}
Having fought two wars against Japan (] and ]), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the ] is a perennial issue. The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its ] past to the satisfaction of China. ] comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some ] regarding the 1937 ] have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after ] became the ] in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of ].<ref name="Ref_ac">. Foreign Policy. 9 February 2010.</ref> However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable ]s.<ref>. '']'', London, 29 Aug 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</ref>


Having fought two wars against Japan (] and ]), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the ] is a perennial issue. The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its ] past to the satisfaction of China. ] comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some Japanese history textbooks regarding the 1937 ] have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after ] became the ] in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of ].<ref name="Ref_ac"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024071131/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/09/nanjing_by_the_numbers |date=24 October 2014 }}. Foreign Policy. 9 February 2010.</ref> However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable ]s.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415150316/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/mining/7970872/Backlash-over-China-curb-on-metal-exports.html |date=15 April 2018 }}. '']'', London, 29 August 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.</ref>
===== North Korea =====

=====North Korea=====
{{main|China–North Korea relations|History of Sino-Korean relations}} {{main|China–North Korea relations|History of Sino-Korean relations}}


{{Flagicon|North Korea}}{{Flagicon|China}}
] in Pyongyang, 2010]]


] in Pyongyang, 2010]]China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "]" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the U.S., and China) to resolve tensions on the ]. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN countries and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as ]. On 15 November 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development. Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire of the United States and its allies who are close in proximity to China, such as India, and Japan.<ref name="econo">{{cite news|date=19 November 2011|title=America in the Asia-Pacific: We're back|newspaper=]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21538803|url-status=live|access-date=2 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101111329/http://www.economist.com/node/21538803|archive-date=1 January 2012}}</ref>
===== South Korea =====

=====South Korea=====
{{main|China–South Korea relations}} {{main|China–South Korea relations}}

Diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and ] were formally established on 24 August 1992.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhao|first=Suisheng|title=The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy|date=2023|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2|location=Stanford, California|page=69|oclc=1332788951}}</ref> Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s the PRC recognized only North Korea while South Korea in turn recognized only the ] in Taiwan. South Korea was the last Asian country to establish relations with the People's Republic of China. In recent years, China and South Korea have endeavored to boost their strategic and cooperative partnership in numerous sectors, as well as promoting high level relationship. Trade, tourism and multiculturalism, in specific, have been the most important factors of strengthening two neighbouring countries cooperative partnership.<ref name="Jung-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Jung|first=H. Pak|author-link=Jung H. Pak|date=July 2020|title=Trying to loosen the linchpin: China's approach to South Korea|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/FP_20200606_china_south_korea_pak_v2.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Global China|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030214819/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/FP_20200606_china_south_korea_pak_v2.pdf|archive-date=30 October 2020|via=Brookings.edu}}</ref>

While the dispute of ] had initiated conflicts between the two countries in various sectors, at the end of October 2017, the two countries ended the 1-year-long diplomatic dispute and have been working swiftly to get their relationship back on track since, strengthening exchanges and cooperation between each other, creating harmony of interests, and agreed to resume exchanges and cooperation in all areas. All economic and cultural bans from China towards South Korea were also lifted as a result, with political and security cooperation, businesses and cultural exchanges between the two countries getting back to healthy state.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Upon resumption of relationship, China and South Korea have been organizing presidential and governmental visits, working together on the Korean Peninsula, assisting with the development of other countries, and cooperating in numerous areas.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


====South Asia==== ====South Asia====
China's current trade volume with all ]n nations reaches close to $187.554 billion a year.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0282167|doi-access=free|title=A study on the belt and road initiative's trade and its influencing factors: Evidence of China-South Asia's panel data|year=2023|last1=Zhou|first1=Ling|last2=Mao|first2=Yanghai|last3=Fu|first3=Qinyi|last4=Xu|first4=Danlu|last5=Zhou|first5=Jiaqi|last6=Zeng|first6=Shaolong|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=18|issue=4|pages=e0282167|pmid=37058500|pmc=10104349|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1882167Z}}</ref>
China's current trade volume with all ]n nations reaches close to US$20 billion a year.


Beijing runs ]es with many partners, including ], ], ] and ]. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, Chinese Authorities have helped Pakistan establish nuclear power plants of its own to meet its nuclear needs, which officially consist primarily of energy requirements, although, as per certain perspectives, this could be used for Pakistani and Chinese military, quite possibly defence, purposes. China also lends to and invests in South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref>UCLA Asia Institute {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416183745/http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=23468 |date=16 April 2014 }}</ref> Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, ] and ]. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, Chinese Authorities have helped Pakistan establish nuclear power plants of its own to meet its nuclear needs, which officially consist primarily of energy requirements, although, as per certain perspectives, this could be used for Pakistani and Chinese military, quite possibly defence, purposes. China also lends to and invests in South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal<ref>UCLA Asia Institute {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416183745/http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=23468 |date=16 April 2014 }}</ref>


=====Bangladesh===== =====Bangladesh=====
{{main|Bangladesh–China relations}} {{main|Bangladesh–China relations}}

{{Flagicon|Bangladesh}}{{Flagicon|China}} {{Flagicon|Bangladesh}}{{Flagicon|China}}


Early relations with the ] were cold due to China's veto at the ] to block Bangladesh's accession to the ]. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the ] (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.physorg.com/news7697.html|title=Bangladesh, Pakistan Team Up With China On Space Cooperation|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the ] (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangladesh, Pakistan Team Up With China on Space Cooperation|url=http://www.physorg.com/news7697.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330072007/http://www.physorg.com/news7697.html|archive-date=30 March 2012|access-date=19 February 2015|website=]}}</ref>


=====India===== =====India=====
{{main|Foreign relations of India#China|China–India relations}} {{main|Foreign relations of India#China|China–India relations}}
] in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries surpassed US$60 thousand million by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431 |title=Indo-China trade to surpass $60 bn before 2010 |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=2008-06-06 |accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref>]]
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 ], 1967 ] and continuing boundary disputes over ] and ], Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalise relations.


{{Flagicon|India}}{{Flagicon|China}}
A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, ] ] visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from China. However, in June 1999, during the ] crisis, then-External Affairs Minister ] visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between India and China were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from ] to India of the 17th ] in January 2000 with delicacy and tact.


] in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries surpassed US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431|title=Indo-China trade to surpass $60 bn before 2010|work=Business Standard|date=6 June 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006140815/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?tp=on&autono=39431|archive-date=6 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite news|author=Saibal Dasgupta |date=2008-01-17|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms |title=China is India's largest trade ally – International Business – Biz – The Times of India |work=The Times of India |accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref> The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also brought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668 |title=news.outlookindia.com |publisher=Outlookindia.com |accessdate=2009-11-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050425231736/http://outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668 |archivedate=25 April 2005 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from ]'s ] in 2008<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920 |title=US blames India, China for blocking Doha talks |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=2008-07-29 |accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref> to regional ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms |title=India, China to work on FTA recommendations- Foreign Trade-Economy-News-The Economic Times |publisher=Economictimes.indiatimes.com |date=2008-02-20 |accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref> Similar to ], India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm |title=Front Page : India, China to promote cooperation in civil nuclear energy |work=The Hindu |date=2008-01-15 |accessdate=2009-11-21 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM |title=Article: India, China top Asian FDI list in Africa. &#124; AccessMyLibrary – Promoting library advocacy |publisher=AccessMyLibrary |date=2007-03-28 |accessdate=2009-11-21}}</ref> and have competed for control over its large natural resources.<ref>, 16 November 2007</ref>
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 ], 1967 ] and continuing boundary disputes over ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-kashmir-idUSKBN1XA0M9|title=India, China clash over Kashmir as it loses special status and is divided|date=31 October 2019|work=Reuters|last1=Bukhari|first1=Zeba Siddiqui}}</ref> Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations.<ref>John W. Garver, ''Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century'' (2001), post 1950</ref>
India and China agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, General Secretary ] visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from China. However, in June 1999, during the ] crisis, then-External Affairs Minister ] visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between China and India were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from ] to India of the 17th ] in January 2000 with delicacy and tact.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India.<ref>{{cite news|author=Saibal Dasgupta|date=17 January 2008|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms|title=China is India's largest trade ally – International Business – Biz|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024093515/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2706372,prtpage-1.cms|archive-date=24 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The increasing economic reliance between China and India has also brought the two nations closer politically, with both China and India eager to resolve their boundary dispute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668|title=news.outlookindia.com|publisher=Outlookindia.com|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050425231736/http://outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=291668|archive-date=25 April 2005}}</ref> They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from ]'s ] in 2008<ref>{{cite news|date=29 July 2008|title=US blames India, China for blocking Doha talks|work=]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920|url-status=live|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331142407/http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=329920|archive-date=31 March 2012}}</ref> to regional free trade agreement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms|title=India, China to work on FTA recommendations- Foreign Trade-Economy-News|work=The Economic Times|date=20 February 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522033948/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2798864,prtpage-1.cms|archive-date=22 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Similar to ], China and India have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm|title=Front Page: India, China to promote cooperation in civil nuclear energy|date=15 January 2008|access-date=21 November 2009|location=Chennai, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105061635/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/15/stories/2008011555490100.htm|archive-date=5 November 2012|work=]}}</ref> However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest investors in Africa<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM|title=Article: India, China top Asian FDI list in Africa. &#124; AccessMyLibrary – Promoting library advocacy|publisher=AccessMyLibrary|date=28 March 2007|access-date=21 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135056/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30143539_ITM|archive-date=16 December 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> and have competed for control over its large natural resources.<ref> ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010204148/http://allafrica.com/stories/200711160462.html|date=10 October 2012}}, 16 November 2007</ref>
China and India agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shukla|first=Saurabh|date=15 December 2010|title=Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao arrives in India, trade tops agenda|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/chinese-pm-s-india-visit/business/story/chinese-premier-wen-jiabao-arrives-in-india-trade-tops-agenda-87155-2010-12-15|access-date=3 May 2021|website=India Today}}</ref>

Bilateral relations between the two became strained due to the ] and then later by the ]. Relations were further strained by the ].


=====Pakistan===== =====Pakistan=====
{{main|Foreign relations of Pakistan|China–Pakistan relations}} {{main|Foreign relations of Pakistan|China–Pakistan relations}}

{{Peacock|section|date=December 2013}}
{{see also|China–Pakistan Economic Corridor}}
Pakistan and China have very strong relations that have even been compared to ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=7 June 2017}}</ref> More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with ] as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty-free export zone (Sost Dry Port) in Pakistan's Northern Areas. Pakistan and China, as per common knowledge and perspective, are arguably strong allies and trade and contacts have steadily increased over the years. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of that country's 3rd major port at ],<ref></ref> timber transhipments from Mozambique, as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions.<ref></ref>
{{Flagicon|Pakistan}}{{Flagicon|China}}
Trade and goodwill between Pakistan and China are relatively strong due to the bordered Muslims area of Xinjiang, who used ] as a transit to ] for pilgrimage. This has been unstable after the Chinese crackdown on Xinjiang residents during Ramadan. ]i students often go to ] to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of ]. They also share the ], one of the highest paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from Nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology, where Pakistan helped China get hold of western technology which it could otherwise not acquire.

A common quotation referred to Pak China Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher then the Heights of Himalayas and deeper than the depths of Arabian Sea".
Pakistan and China have enjoyed strong relations, which encompass military, economic and diplomatic ties, since the 1960s.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last=Nasser Amin|year=2019|title=The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present|url=https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53|access-date=10 May 2020|publisher=Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies, p51|publication-place=London Churchill College|archive-date=16 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716130610/https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53|url-status=dead}}</ref> UK scholar Nasser Amin considers the Sino-Pak entente to be a special kind of relationship in the post-war global system, since there are no natural ties or affinities of culture, religion or ideology that have existed between Islamabad and Beijing; rather, the close relationship appears to substantiate a fundamental premise of the ]: namely, that states join in alliance with other states on the basis of power considerations, in this case a shared hostility to India.<ref name="auto" />

The ] (CPEC) is a collection of infrastructure projects that are currently under construction throughout Pakistan.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603013419/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2997650 |date=3 June 2018 }}{{cite news|title=China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales|first1=Tom|last1=Hussain|newspaper=]|date=19 April 2015|location=Islamabad|publisher=mcclatchydc}}</ref><ref name="Kiani">{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1287040|title=With a new Chinese loan, CPEC is now worth $62bn|newspaper=Dawn|location=Pakistan|date=30 September 2016|access-date=19 November 2016|first=Khaleeq|last=Kiani|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930033525/http://www.dawn.com/news/1287040|archive-date=30 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> CPEC is intended to rapidly modernize Pakistani infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and ]s.<ref name="Kiani" /><ref>{{cite web|date=23 November 2016|title=CPEC: The devil is not in the details|url=http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153597/cpec-the-devil-is-not-in-the-details|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123090242/http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153597/cpec-the-devil-is-not-in-the-details|archive-date=23 November 2016|access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/846370/economic-corridor-chinese-official-sets-record-straight/|title=Economic corridor: Chinese official sets record straight|date=2 March 2015|newspaper=]|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303061541/http://tribune.com.pk/story/846370/economic-corridor-chinese-official-sets-record-straight/|archive-date=3 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mcclatchydc">{{cite news|title=China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales|first1=Tom|last1=Hussain|newspaper=]|date=19 April 2015|location=Islamabad|publisher=mcclatchydc}}</ref> The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting ] to ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/|title=Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier's go-ahead|date=16 August 2013|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924152121/https://tribune.com.pk/story/591372/boosting-trade-pak-china-economic-corridor-plan-gets-premiers-go-ahead/|archive-date=24 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty-free export zone (] Dry Port) in Pakistan's ]. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of ] – the country's 3rd most major port,<ref>] to give Beijing direct access to the Middle East</ref> timber transhipments from Mozambique, as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IB24Df02.html|title=South Asia news: China-Pakistan rail link on horizon|access-date=21 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522132551/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IB24Df02.html|archive-date=22 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Trade and goodwill between Pakistan and China are relatively strong due to the bordered Muslims area of ], who used Pakistan as a transit to ] for pilgrimage. ] students often go to China to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of ] in the 1960s. They also share the ], one of the highest paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}


=====Sri Lanka===== =====Sri Lanka=====
{{main|China–Sri Lanka relations}} {{main|China–Sri Lanka relations}}

{{Flagicon|Sri Lanka}}{{Flagicon|China}} {{Flagicon|Sri Lanka}}{{Flagicon|China}}


====Southeast Asia==== ====Southeast Asia====
{{see also|Bamboo network|China–Malaysia relations}} {{see also|Bamboo network}}
China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where ] is intent upon establishing a preeminent ]. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China - politically, economically, and militarily.<ref>USCC </ref> China's ] into a ] in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the ], a network of ] businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.<ref name="FT2">{{cite news|last=Quinlan|first=Joe|title=Insight: China's capital targets Asia's bamboo network|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/67554d8a-920f-11dc-8981-0000779fd2ac.html|newspaper=Financial Times|date=13 November 2007}}</ref><ref name="Weidenbaum">{{cite book|author=Murray L Weidenbaum|title=The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcRlgZttsMUC|date=1 January 1996|publisher=Martin Kessler Books, Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-82289-1|pages=4–8}}</ref> China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent ]. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China – politically, economically, and militarily.<ref> ], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723191529/http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2005hearings/written_testimonies/05_07_21_22wrts/ott_marvin_wrts.pdf|date=23 July 2006}}</ref> China's ] into a ] in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the ], a network of ] businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.<ref name="FT2">{{cite news|last=Quinlan|first=Joe|title=Insight: China's capital targets Asia's bamboo network|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/67554d8a-920f-11dc-8981-0000779fd2ac.html|newspaper=Financial Times|date=13 November 2007|access-date=30 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423172454/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/67554d8a-920f-11dc-8981-0000779fd2ac.html|archive-date=23 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Weidenbaum">{{cite book|author=Murray L Weidenbaum|title=The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/bamboonetworkhow00weid|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1996|publisher=Martin Kessler Books, Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-82289-1|pages=–8|access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref>


Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the ], the ] during the ] and ] communist insurgencies in ], as well as the ] and ] in ]. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the ] government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974. China's conflict with the government of ] over the support of the ] in Cambodia resulted in the ] and other border conflicts. China's relationship with ] is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country, starting 17 April 2011.<ref> ''People's Daily'', 7 April 2011.</ref> Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the ], the ] during the ] and ] communist insurgencies in ], as well as the ] and ] in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the ] government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974 and in 2015 Malaysia reached a status of comprehensive strategic partnership with China. China's invasion of ] resulted in the ] and other border conflicts; this war caused long-lasting animosity within Vietnam against China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Path|first=Kosal|date=3 July 2018|title=The Duality of Vietnam's Deference and Resistance to China|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09592296.2018.1491449|journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft|publication-place=]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=499–521|doi=10.1080/09592296.2018.1491449|issn=0959-2296|s2cid=158561213}}</ref> Relations between the two states were only normalized in 1991 as Vietnam's closest ally, the Soviet Union, collapsed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Robert S.|author-link=Robert S. Ross|date=4 July 2021|title=China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|journal=]|volume=30|issue=130|pages=613–629|doi=10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737|issn=1067-0564|s2cid=230609101}}</ref> Today, Vietnam and China have a healthy trade relationship, though tensions persist over the countries' boundaries in the South China Sea, among other disputes. Despite China's support of the ]'s ] regime in ], which lasted long after its deposition, China enjoys a harmonious relationship with Cambodia. This relationship includes strong military and economic ties, with Cambodia defending China on the global stage; Cambodia's government has weak popular support, opening it to coercion by the Chinese government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Sung Chull|date=1 December 2019|title=China and Its Neighbors: Asymmetrical Economies and Vulnerability to Coercion|url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S1013251119500073|journal=Issues & Studies|volume=55|issue=4|page=1950007|doi=10.1142/S1013251119500073|s2cid=214499088|issn=1013-2511}}</ref> China's relationship with ] is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country, starting 17 April 2011.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010063152/http://english.people.com.cn/90001/98649/7343316.html |date=10 October 2012 }} ''People's Daily'', 7 April 2011.</ref>


China is the largest trading partner of nearly all the Southeast Asian countries and one of the region's main sources of ].<ref name=":Han">{{Cite book|last=Han|first=Enze|title=The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia|date=2024|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-769659-0|location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} Over the course of 2008 to 2009, China became the largest trading partner of ASEAN.<ref name=":Han" />{{Rp|page=40}}
In 2002, China and ASEAN agreed to create a code covering conduct in the South China Sea, that has yet to be finalized.<ref> ''The Economist'', 9 June 2011.</ref>


==== Cambodia ====
In 2010, China claimed "indisputable sovereignty" over the ], but said that the other nations in the area could continue to navigate its waters.<ref>Pomfret, John. ''The Washington Post'', 31 July 2010.</ref> Ted Carpenter of the Cato Institute has called these claims "breathtakingly bold".<ref>Barton, Paul C. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023034323/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2011/10/gannett-guam-central-to-pacific-military-operations-101911/ |date=23 October 2011 }} ''Gannett'', 19 October 2011.</ref>
{{main|Cambodia–China relations}}


{{Flagicon|Cambodia}}{{Flagicon|China}}
In 2011, China objected to a growing coalition of nations that were grouping together to resist Chinese sovereignty over the South China Sea, saying that these nations could not "counterbalance and contain China as they expected."<ref>Cheng, Dean. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425042111/http://defense.aol.com/2011/10/05/china-grows-more-belligerent-unexpectedly/?icid=related1 |date=25 April 2012 }} ''Aol Defense'', 5 October 2011.</ref> Later that year China updated its strategy to "prevent more members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations from joining the Washington-led containment policy", through the use of "]."<ref>Ten Kate, Daniel. ''Bloomberg News'', 20 November 2011.</ref> This has proven more effective with the poorer ASEAN countries, as these are dependent on Chinese support.<ref>Petty, Martin. ''Reuters'', 8 July 2012.</ref>

==== Indonesia ====
{{main|China–Indonesia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Indonesia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Malaysia ====
{{main|China–Malaysia relations}}

{{Flagicon|Malaysia}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Myanmar ====
{{main|China–Myanmar relations}}

{{Flagicon|Myanmar}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Philippines ====
{{main|China–Philippines relations}}

{{Flagicon|Philippines}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Singapore ====
{{main|China–Singapore relations}}

{{Flagicon|Singapore}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Thailand ====
{{main|China–Thailand relations}}

{{Flagicon|Thailand}}{{Flagicon|China}}

==== Vietnam ====
{{main|China–Vietnam relations}}

{{Flagicon|Vietnam}}{{Flagicon|China}}


===Europe=== ===Europe===
{{see also|China–European Union relations}} {{see also|China–European Union relations}}
Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, were generally friendly in the early 21st century, with close political and trade relations with the ] nations being a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s.
The end of the long-held animosity between ] and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet President ] in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the ], China's relations with ] and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of ] for China, as well as for ]s and ]. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the United States. Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, generally have been friendly in the early 21st century, and, indeed, close political and trade relations with the ] nations have been a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s. In November 2005, President Hu Jintao visited the ], ], and ] and announced China's eagerness to enter into greater political and economic cooperation with its European partners.


China's relationship with the Central and Eastern European Countries was generally limited during the Cold War period due to the Sino-Soviet Split and the Warsaw Pact membership of these countries.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Garlick|first=Jeremy|title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption|date=2024|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}</ref>{{Rp|page=138}} Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, these countries distanced themselves from their communist pasts and oriented towards the European Union.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=138}} China's interest in Central and Eastern Europe has grown since most of those countries joined the European Union in 2004 because of the Chinese view that partnering with those countries would help Chinese economic integration with Europe more broadly.<ref name="Arezina-2023">{{Cite book|last=Arezina|first=Sanja|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=]|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=China's Relations with Central and Eastern European Countries in a Multipolar World Order 2.0|oclc=1353290533}}</ref>{{Rp|page=160}} After the ] caused capital investment by traditional European economic powers, China established a significant presence in Central European and Eastern European markets.<ref name="Arezina-2023" />{{Rp|page=160}} Cooperation further increased following the institution of the ] in 2012.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=138}} Generally, China's foreign relations are weaker in Central and Eastern Europe than other developing regions.<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=139}}
===Oceania===
{{Main|Sino-Pacific relations}}
China maintains diplomatic relations with eight countries in Oceania: ], ], the ], ], ], ], ] and ] whilst ] has diplomatic relations with the other six. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (], ], Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. the PRC also wants to establish a preeminent ] in the Pacific Islands.


In the late 2010s, Europe took a more cautioned approach towards China, referring to the country as a "systemic rival" beginning in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=von der Burchard|first=Hans|date=12 March 2019|title=EU slams China as 'systemic rival' as trade tension rises|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-slams-china-as-systemic-rival-as-trade-tension-rises/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112737/https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-slams-china-as-systemic-rival-as-trade-tension-rises//|archive-date=2 October 2020|access-date=19 July 2020|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 March 2019|title=Brussels officially labels China a 'systemic rival'|website=New Europe|url=https://www.neweurope.eu/article/brussels-officially-labels-china-a-systemic-rival/|url-status=dead|access-date=19 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230035155/https://www.neweurope.eu/article/brussels-officially-labels-china-a-systemic-rival/|archive-date=30 December 2020}}</ref> The ], an investment agreement first proposed in 2013 and completed in 2020, was halted before its ratification after the ] announced plans in 2021 to reduce dependence on China in strategic areas of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=30 December 2020|title=EU and China reach agreement in principle on investment|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_2541|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113054629/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2541|archive-date=13 January 2021|access-date=20 January 2021|publisher=European Commission|quote="The EU and China have today concluded in principle the negotiations for a Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI). This deal follows a call between Chinese President Xi Jinping and European Commission President von der Leyen, European Council President Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel on behalf of the Presidency of the EU Council, as well as French President Emmanuel Macron."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Siebold|first1=Sabine|last2=Blenkinsop|first2=Philip|date=5 May 2021|title=EU puts up guard to Chinese firms, cools on trade deal|work=]|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/eu-executive-slows-push-china-investment-deal-2021-05-05/|access-date=6 May 2021}}</ref>
====Policy====
In 2003, China announced it intended to enhance its diplomatic ties with the ], and increase the economic aid package it provided to that organisation. At the same time, Chinese delegate Zhou Whenzhong added: "he PIF should refrain from any exchanges of an official nature or dialogue partnership of any form with Taiwan".<ref>, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, November 24, 2003</ref>


The European Union has been China's most reliable partner with regard to clean energy and addressing ].<ref name="Lewis-2023">{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=Joanna I.|title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector|date=2023|publisher=The ]|isbn=978-0-262-54482-5|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>{{Rp|page=52}}
In 2006, Chinese Premier ] announced that China would increase its economic cooperation with Pacific Island States. The PRC would provide more economic aid, abolish tariffs for exports from the Pacific's least developed countries, annul the debt of those countries, distribute free anti-] medicines, and provide training for two thousand Pacific Islander government officials and technical staff.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn">, ''China Daily'', 5 April 2006</ref>


==== France ====
Also in 2006, Wen became the first Chinese premier to visit the Pacific islands, which the ''Taipei Times'' described as "a longtime diplomatic battleground for China and Taiwan". Similarly, according to ], Professor of Pacific Studies at the ], "There have been more Pacific Islands minister visits to China than to any other country".<ref>, ''Taipei Times'', 3 April 2006</ref>
{{main|China–France relations}}


{{Flagicon|France}}{{Flagicon|China}}
In 2007, ], the Chinese official press agency, stated that Pacific Islands Forum member countries had "spoke highly of the generous assistance China has provided to the region over the past many years and expressed the hope for a further enhanced cooperation with China".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013083733/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/19/content_6909470.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 19 October 2007</ref>


==== Italy ====
In December 2007, Dr John Lee of the magazine ''Islands Business'' asked himself and his readers:
{{main|China–Italy relations}}
:''"Why is China so interested in the Pacific? After all, despite the differences in size, population, wealth, and influence between China and islands in the region, the Chinese have literally rolled out the red carpet for Pacific leaders. Meetings between Chinese and Pacific leaders are not perfunctory ‘meet and greets’ in the bland boardrooms of hotels. They are often elaborate state functions with all the bells and whistles that state meetings can offer. In a word, the Chinese want ‘influence’. China sends more diplomats around the world than any other country. In terms of the Pacific, there is a more disturbing game being played out, namely the ‘chequebook diplomacy’, that is taking place between China and Taiwan in their competition for diplomatic recognition at the expense of the other. Taiwan matters profoundly to China—and it is largely why China is interested in the Pacific."''<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222025019/http://www.islandsbusiness.com/islands_business/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace%3DMiddleMiddle/focusModuleID%3D17755/overideSkinName%3DissueArticle-full.tpl |date=22 February 2013 }}, Dr John Lee, ''Islands Business'', December 2007</ref>


{{Flagicon|Italy}}{{Flagicon|China}}
That same month, John Henderson of the ] stated that, in his view, many Pacific Islanders are worried "that their livelihood is being taken away by Chinese traders coming in, often getting in buying political privileges, playing a role in rigging elections". Henderson suggested that the ] and ] could be repeated in countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu. He added that this might lead the PRC to increase its role in the region further, in order to protect ethnic Chinese Pacific Islanders.<ref>, TV3 (New Zealand), 13 December 2007</ref> A spokesman for the Chinese embassy in Fiji, Hu Lihua, responded by stating: "China does not pose a military threat to any other country. China opposes all forms of hegemonism and power politics and will never seek hegemony or engage in expansion."<ref>, ''Fiji Times'', 18 December 2007</ref> A representative of ] similarly rejected the idea that there might be anti-Chinese riots in Fiji, and added: "The Chinese in Fiji have an excellent relationship with locals and we contribute toward the economy. We have been successful in understanding local customs. Many of us have learnt the language and have assimilated."<ref>, ''Fiji Times'', 22 December 2007</ref>


In March 2019, during Chinese President ]'s visit to ], ] signed a ] on China's ] with Italy. Additionally, with this memorandum, Italy became the only G7 country to join the BRI.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 July 2023|title=Italy's decision on China's Belt and Road Initiative and beyond|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/china-belt-and-road-italy-trade/}}</ref>
The final report of the April 2008 ] addressed China's influence in the Pacific in the following terms:
:''"It was noted that so far China did not seem interested in exporting ]. Its interaction with the region was economically focused or motivated by rivalry winth Taiwan.''
:''Noting China’s growing military power and its emerging role as a major aid donor in the region, participants agreed that while China’s visibility had increased rapidly there remained uncertainty over what it was seeking to achieve, especially in the long term. Securing energy supplies was one obvious goal. One strand of thought that had emerged was that the Chinese themselves were not entirely clear about their aims in the region."''<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620120848/http://www.australia2020.gov.au/final_report/index.cfm |date=20 June 2012 }}, p.363, Australian government website</ref>


==== Russia ====
In June 2008, a report from the ] stated that China's aid policy towards the Pacific was almost certainly aimed solely at encouraging Pacific countries not to grant diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, and that there was no sign of the PRC attempting to increase its military influence or its access to the region's natural resources.<ref>, ABC Radio Australia, 11 June 2008</ref> ] reports that, according to the Institute's findings, "China's chequebook diplomacy in the South Pacific and secrecy over its aid programme to small island nations is having a destabilising impact on the region", due to "concerns that dollar diplomacy was influencing local politics."<ref>, Reuters, 11 June 2008</ref> A spokesman of the Chinese Foreign Ministry responded: "This assistance is on the basis of mutual benefit. It must help the local economy to develop and promote people's livelihoods. China would never interfere in these countries' internal affairs."<ref>, Reuters, 12 June 2008</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019205517/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/12/content_8356107.htm |date=19 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 12 June 2008</ref>
{{main|Sino-Russian relations since 1991}}


{{Flagicon|Russia}}{{Flagicon|China}}
In June 2009, parliamentary delegations from four Pacific Island countries were jointly received by ], ] of the ]. The delegation comprised Isaac Figir, Speaker of the ], Tu'ilakepa, Speaker of the ], ], head of the Public Accounting Commission of ], and Billy Talagi, head of the Legislative Committee of ] (a ]).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112037/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/17/content_11557797.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 17 June 2009</ref><ref>, Radio Chine Internationale, 12 June 2009</ref> The delegation also met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who spoke of increased "economic and trade cooperation"; Xinhua reported that the Pacific Island legislators "expressed appreciation for China's assistance" and "reiterated their countries' adherence to the one-China policy".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112043/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/16/content_11553009.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 16 June 2009</ref>


The end of the long-held animosity between ] and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet ] ] in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the ], China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of ] for China, as well as for ]s and ]. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the U.S.
In August and September 2010, the ] began an unprecedented "goodwill visit" to its Pacific allies, touring Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, New Zealand and Australia. Its aim, as reported by the '']'' during the ships' four-day stop in Tonga, was "enhancing friendship and strengthening military cooperation".<ref>, ''People's Daily'', 3 September 2010</ref>


==== Ukraine ====
In April 2011, the ] issued a new report noting that China, in its approach to the Pacific, had been "shifting from grant aid to soft loans", which were "leading to increasing problems of indebtedness" and "making Pacific governments vulnerable to political pressure from Beijing". The report suggested that countries may struggle to repay the loans within the set timeframe, and that "outstanding loans may well tie Pacific countries to Beijing", in a context of diplomatic competition with Taipei. The report also noted, however, that some loans "are destined for projects that will create economic growth; growth that will create jobs, reduce poverty and help make repayments".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317204017/http://www.radioaustralianews.net.au/stories/201104/3182042.htm |date=17 March 2012 }}, ABC Radio Australia, 4 April 2011</ref>
{{Main|China–Ukraine relations}}


As part of the Soviet Union, ] recognized the PRC in October 1949.<ref name="China-2009"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030155622/http://unian.net/eng/news/news-343479.html|date=30 October 2009}}, ] (28 October 2009)</ref> After ] from the Soviet Union in 1991, the two countries built formal diplomatic relations in 1992,<ref name="China-2009" /> and declared a strategic partnership in 2011.<ref name="Institut Montaigne-2022">{{Cite web|date=9 February 2022|title=The China-Ukraine Partnership: Surviving a Deteriorating Strategic Environment|url=https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/china-ukraine-partnership-surviving-deteriorating-strategic-environment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302044103/https://www.institutmontaigne.org/en/blog/china-ukraine-partnership-surviving-deteriorating-strategic-environment|archive-date=2 March 2022|access-date=2 March 2022|website=]}}</ref>
In May 2011, addressing the ] in ], PRC Ambassador to Fiji Han Zhiqiang stated that Sino-Pacific cooperation had resulted in "plenty of substantial outcomes and benefits for the people in this region". He indicated that the volume of trade between the PRC and Pacific Island countries had increased by about 50% between 2009 and 2010, reaching ] 2.46 billion. The value of PRC exports to the region that year was €1.74 billion (up by 42% from 2009), whilst the value of its imports from the Pacific Islands was €730 million, up almost 100%. PRC investments in the Pacific Islands in 2010 -primarily to Samoa, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji- had reached almost €72 million.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107185239/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/05/c_13859143.htm |date=7 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 5 May 2011</ref>


During the ], China abstained in the ] condemning Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=牛弹琴|date=4 March 2022|title=联大谴责俄罗斯 为什么这35个国家投了弃权票？|trans-title=The UN General Assembly condemns Russia. Why did these 35 countries abstain from voting?|url=https://news.ifeng.com/c/8E5esEzsqyL|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705133920/https://i.ifeng.com/c/8E5esEzsqyL|archive-date=5 July 2022|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Nichols|first1=Michelle|last2=Pamuk|first2=Humeyra|date=26 February 2022|title=Russia vetoes U.N. Security action on Ukraine as China abstains|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-vetoes-un-security-action-ukraine-china-abstains-2022-02-25/|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324064829/https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-vetoes-un-security-action-ukraine-china-abstains-2022-02-25/|archive-date=24 March 2022}}</ref> The Ukrainian embassy issued a statement in Chinese condemning Russia on ], which drew over 300 million views in a day.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vincent Ni|date=22 February 2022|title=Ukraine crisis poses dilemma for China but also opportunity|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/22/ukraine-crisis-poses-dilemma-for-china-but-also-opportunity|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302193058/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/22/ukraine-crisis-poses-dilemma-for-china-but-also-opportunity|archive-date=2 March 2022|access-date=2 March 2022|website=]}}</ref> Chinese company ] has published anti-war videos from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=乌克兰华人接到噩耗痛哭：好朋友为国牺牲，同学弟弟奔赴战场|trans-title=Ukrainian Chinese cried bitterly after receiving the bad news: good friends sacrificed for the country, classmates and younger brothers rushed to the battlefield|url=https://www.163.com/v/video/VC0A51VMK.html|website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=西安生活7年的乌克兰留学生发声引热议：俄没资格为乌做决定|trans-title=A Ukrainian student who has lived in Xi'an for 7 years speaks out: Russia is not qualified to make decisions for Ukraine|url=https://www.163.com/v/video/VC0A51RTB.html|website=]}}</ref> However, Beijing's failure to criticise Russia increased local hostility towards stranded Chinese in Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hille|first=Kathrin|date=2 March 2022|title=Chinese people stranded in Kyiv become target of Ukrainian anger|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/af0dbe39-e31a-4db0-8ea9-6e0cb842f7b4|url-status=live|access-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302003554/https://www.ft.com/content/af0dbe39-e31a-4db0-8ea9-6e0cb842f7b4|archive-date=2 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2022|title=中国网友不当言论引起乌克兰"排华浪潮"？我驻乌大使馆"跑路"？警惕流言，擦亮双眼！_政务_澎湃新闻|url=https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_16877818|website=]}}</ref>
In April 2012 ] continued to widen its diplomatic influence with loans and aid with the region.<ref> 27 April 2012</ref>


In September 2022, ], the ] of the ], told a group of Russian legislators that the ] "understands and supports Russia...on the situation in Ukraine".<ref name="Ramzy-2022">{{Cite news|last=Ramzy|first=Austin|date=11 September 2022|title=Russia says that a senior Chinese official expressed support for the invasion of Ukraine.|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/11/world/russia-says-that-a-senior-chinese-official-expressed-support-for-the-invasion-of-ukraine.html|access-date=11 September 2022|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
=====Australia=====
{{main|Australia–China relations}}
As an emerging and developing economy, China is a very important trading partner and destination for Australian ] export for the growth of Australian economy. The two countries are currently strengthening their economic relations. The 2007 election of ] as Prime Minister of Australia has been seen as favourable to Sino-Australian relations, notably in view of the fact that he is the first Australian Prime Minister to speak fluent Mandarin, and that closer engagement with Asia is one of the ].


==== United Kingdom ====
In 2004, Rudd, who at the time was Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, had delivered a speech in Beijing entitled "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century".<ref>{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Kevin Rudd, 6 July 2004</ref>
{{Main|China–United Kingdom relations}}


China established ] on 17 June 1954. The United Kingdom was the first major Western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.<ref name="britain"/>
In February 2008, Australia reportedly "chastised Taiwan for its renewed push for independence" and "reiterated its support for a one-China policy".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.theage.com.au/national/china-australia-hold-strategic-meeting-20080205-1q43.html |title=China, Australia hold strategic meeting |author=O'Malley, Sandra |date=5 February 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> In April, however, Rudd addressed Chinese students at ],<ref name="news.com.au_1111116026176">{{cite news |url=http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/rudd-in-tough-tibet-talks/story-e6frfkp9-1111116026176 |title=Rudd in tough Tibet talks |date=10 April 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> and, speaking in ], referred to "significant human rights problems in Tibet".<ref>, Jane Macartney, ''The Times'', 9 April 2008</ref><ref>, ''The Independent'', 10 April 2008</ref> Rudd also raised the issue in talks with Chinese ] ], in a context of "simmering diplomatic tension" according to ].<ref>{{dead link|date=January 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, TV3, 10 April 2008</ref> In August 2008, Rudd met Wen once more, and expressed his concerns on "questions of human rights, of religious freedom, of Tibet, of internet freedom".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.theage.com.au/world/rudd-expresses-concerns-to-china-20080808-3sce.html |title=Rudd expresses concerns to China |author=Ede, Charisse |date=8 August 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref>
*China maintains an ] in London.<ref name="britain"/>
*The United Kingdom is accredited to China through its ] in ], and consulate generals in ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=British Embassy Beijing|work=GOV.UK|url=https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-beijing|access-date=15 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229180906/https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-beijing|archive-date=29 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>


The UK governed the territories of ], from 1841 to 1941 and 1945 to 1997, as well as ] from 1898 to 1930.
=====Fiji=====
] was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975.<ref name="news.xinhuanet.com"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190938/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-02/09/content_10787984.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 9 February 2009</ref> Fiji's current ambassador to China is Sir ].<ref>, Fijilive, 17 May 2008</ref> China's ambassador to Fiji is Cai Jinbiao.<ref>, Chinese embassy in Fiji, 15 March 2008</ref>


Both countries share common membership of the ], the ] ], and the ]. Bilaterally the two countries have the ].
Among the ] countries, Fiji was, in 2010, the second largest importer of PRC exports, after Papua New Guinea, and had a ] of ]127m in its trade relations with China.<ref name="Pacific trade with China"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331150616/http://www.solomonstarnews.com/news/business/10150-pacific-trade-with-china |date=31 March 2012 }}, ''Solomon Star'', 17 February 2011</ref>


===Oceania===
Fiji's foreign policy under Prime Minister ] (2000–2006) was (in the latter's own words) to "look north" - i.e., strengthen its relations with Asia in general and China in particular. Qarase stated: "We look now for new markets, where there is flexibility of entry and a readiness to meet the export needs of small, isolated island countries. This is what we would like to engage on with China as we increasingly look north for the answers to our trade and investment aspirations."<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn"/>
{{Main|Sino-Pacific relations}}


China maintains diplomatic relations with ten countries in Oceania: ], ], the ], ], ], ], ], the ], ] and ] whilst Taiwan has diplomatic relations with the other four. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (], ], Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. the PRC also wants to establish a preeminent sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
In 2005, Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian visited Fiji, where he was greeted by government delegates with "full traditional Fijian ceremony of welcome" - although he did not meet his counterpart President ], nor Prime Minister Qarase. Ambassador Cai expressed China's "disappointment" at Fiji for having authorised the visit. Later that year, relations were slightly strained once more when Fiji supported Taiwan's wish to join the ].<ref name="archives.pireport.org"> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216145246/http://archives.pireport.org/archive/2006/August/tcp-fiji.htm |date=16 February 2012 }}, Alumita L Durutalo, '']'', vol. 18, n°2, autumn 2006, pp.396-399</ref> Nonetheless, Qarase's government did not vary from its official recognition of the "One China" policy.


====Policy====
Following the ], the PRC distanced itself from the Western nations which condemned the overthrow of Qarase's government. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs deputy director general Deng Hongbo stated:
In 2003, China announced it intended to enhance its diplomatic ties with the ], and increase the economic aid package it provided to that organisation. At the same time, Chinese delegate Zhou Whenzhong added: "he PIF should refrain from any exchanges of an official nature or dialogue partnership of any form with Taiwan".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819190012/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46835.htm |date=19 August 2017 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 24 November 2003</ref>
:''"We have always respected Fiji's status as an independent nation and we have called on the other countries to do the same and reconsider their attitudes towards Fiji and the current situation in the country."''<ref>, ''Fiji Times'', 10 November 2007</ref>


In 2006, Chinese Premier ] announced that China would increase its economic cooperation with Pacific Island States. The PRC would provide more economic aid, abolish tariffs for exports from the Pacific's least developed countries, annul the debt of those countries, distribute free anti-] medicines, and provide training for two thousand Pacific Islander government officials and technical staff.<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006175713/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-04/05/content_560910.htm |date=6 October 2012 }}, ''China Daily'', 5 April 2006</ref>
The post-coup "interim government" led by Commodore ] has continued Qarase's "look north" policy. In July 2007, Finance Minister ] responded to the contrast between Western criticism and Chinese support for Bainimarama's government:
:''"Fiji has friends in China, ], it has friends in other Asian countries. We’re no longer relying on Australia and ]. And in any event, ]."''<ref>, NiuFM, 9 July 2007</ref>


Also in 2006, Wen became the first Chinese premier to visit the Pacific islands, which the ''Taipei Times'' described as "a longtime diplomatic battleground for China and Taiwan". Similarly, according to ], Professor of Pacific Studies at the ], "There have been more Pacific Islands minister visits to China than to any other country".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912133356/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2006/04/03/2003300678 |date=12 September 2012 }}, ''Taipei Times'', 3 April 2006</ref>
Later that year, a China/Fiji Trade and Economic Commission was set up to enhance economic relations between the two countries.<ref>, FijiLive, 3 September 2007</ref> The PRC has maintained a position of support, calling on other countries to show "understanding" for Fiji's situation.<ref name="RNZI_36744">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=36744 |title=China calls for more understanding from Fiji’s neighbours |date=29 November 2007 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> And although Fiji has no diplomatic relations with Taiwan, the latter's Trade Mission representative in Fiji, Victor Chin, has also called on the international community not to pressure Fiji: "I think we should give the interim government the benefit of the doubt. They committed to have an election when everything is ready. I think we should take their words for it."<ref>, Fiji Broadcasting Corporation, 25 March 2008</ref>


In 2007, ], the Chinese official press agency, stated that Pacific Islands Forum member countries had "spoke highly of the generous assistance China has provided to the region over the past many years and expressed the hope for a further enhanced cooperation with China".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013083733/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/19/content_6909470.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 19 October 2007</ref>
In March 2008, following ], Fiji expressed its support for China's actions in dealing with ].<ref>, Fijilive, 24 March 2008</ref> Shortly thereafter, police in Fiji arrested seventeen people who were protesting in support of Tibet outside China's embassy in ]. Those arrested were "mainly women who had gathered peacefully", according to a ] correspondent, and included ] activist ].<ref name="RNZI_39072">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39072 |title=Fiji police arrest women protesting over Tibet outside Chinese embassy |date=10 April 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref>


In December 2007, Dr John Lee—Visiting Fellow at the Sydney-based ]—opined in a column for '']'':
A May 2008 article in '']'' stated that "China's aid to Fiji has skyrocketed since the coup in December 2006", from €650,000 to over €100,000,000. The author of the article commented: "Just as Australia and other Western donors are trying to squeeze rebel Government, China has dramatically stepped up its aid, effectively dissipating any pressure Western donors might have been generating." The author suggested that China did not wish to risk antagonising Fiji and thus unwittingly push the Bainimarama government towards seeking aid from Taiwan: "China clearly finds itself boxed into a corner. On the one hand, Western states are asking it to help isolate the new dictatorship in Fiji. On the other, China faces the risk of losing a Fiji starved of funds to its renegade province, Taiwan."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/dont-ignore-the-big-new-player-in-fiji/2008/05/08/1210131163040.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1 |title=Don't ignore the big new player in Fiji |author=Hanson, Fergus |date=9 May 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref>
:''"Why is China so interested in the Pacific? After all, despite the differences in size, population, wealth, and influence between China and islands in the region, the Chinese have literally rolled out the red carpet for Pacific leaders. Meetings between Chinese and Pacific leaders are not perfunctory 'meet and greets' in the bland boardrooms of hotels. They are often elaborate state functions with all the bells and whistles that state meetings can offer. In a word, the Chinese want 'influence'. China sends more diplomats around the world than any other country. In terms of the Pacific, there is a more disturbing game being played out, namely the 'chequebook diplomacy', that is taking place between China and Taiwan in their competition for diplomatic recognition at the expense of the other. Taiwan matters profoundly to China—and it is largely why China is interested in the Pacific."''<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222025019/http://www.islandsbusiness.com/islands_business/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace%3DMiddleMiddle/focusModuleID%3D17755/overideSkinName%3DissueArticle-full.tpl |date=22 February 2013 }}, Dr John Lee, ''Islands Business'', December 2007</ref>


That same month, John Henderson of the ] stated that, in his view, many Pacific Islanders are worried "that their livelihood is being taken away by Chinese traders coming in, often getting in buying political privileges, playing a role in rigging elections". Henderson suggested that the ] and ] could be repeated in countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu. He added that this might lead the PRC to increase its role in the region further, in order to protect ethnic Chinese Pacific Islanders.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045628/https://www.threenow.co.nz/tv/threefans/home.html |date=28 July 2020 }}, ] (New Zealand), 13 December 2007</ref> A spokesman for the Chinese embassy in Fiji, Hu Lihua, responded by stating: "China does not pose a military threat to any other country. China opposes all forms of hegemonism and power politics and will never seek hegemony or engage in expansion."<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512194925/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=76796 |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''Fiji Times'', 18 December 2007</ref> A representative of ] similarly rejected the idea that there might be anti-Chinese riots in Fiji, and added: "The Chinese in Fiji have an excellent relationship with locals and we contribute toward the economy. We have been successful in understanding local customs. Many of us have learnt the language and have assimilated."<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512222538/http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=77086 |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''Fiji Times'', 22 December 2007</ref>
In August 2008, while on a visit to China, Commodore Bainimarama spoke of the "very close and cordial relations that our two countries share in our trade, cultural and sporting linkages", and added:
:''"Fiji will not forget that when other countries were quick to condemn us following ], ] and ], China and other friends in Asia demonstrated a more understanding and sensitive approach to events in Fiji. The Government of the People’s Republic of China expressed confidence in our ability to resolve our problems in our way, without undue pressure of interference."''<ref>, ''Fiji Daily Post'', 12 August 2008</ref>


The final report of the April 2008 ] addressed China's influence in the Pacific in the following terms:
In February 2009, at a time when Fiji was facing pressure from the ] over its apparent lack of progress towards a restoration of democracy, Chinese Vice-President ] paid a state visit to Fiji and met Prime Minister Bainimarama.<ref>, Radio Chine Internationale, 8 February 2009</ref> On that occasion, Xi stated that he wished to "further enhance exchanges and cooperation in such fields as culture, education, public health and tourism". Xinhua reported that, during Xi's visit, China and Fiji had "signed a number of cooperative deals" by which China would provide Fiji with "economic and technical assistance".<ref name="news.xinhuanet.com"/> China committed itself to increasing its imports from Fiji. Bainimarama, for his part, re-affirmed his country's recognition of the One China policy, and, as reported by ], "thanked the Chinese government for fully recognizing Fiji's sovereignty and adopting a policy of non-interference in its domestic affairs".<ref>, Fiji Village, 10 February 2009</ref>
:''"It was noted that so far China did not seem interested in exporting ]. Its interaction with the region was economically focused or motivated by rivalry winth Taiwan.''
:''Noting China's growing military power and its emerging role as a major aid donor in the region, participants agreed that while China's visibility had increased rapidly there remained uncertainty over what it was seeking to achieve, especially in the long term. Securing energy supplies was one obvious goal. One strand of thought that had emerged was that the Chinese themselves were not entirely clear about their aims in the region."''<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620120848/http://www.australia2020.gov.au/final_report/index.cfm |date=20 June 2012 }}, p.363, Australian government website</ref>

In June 2008, a report from the ] stated that China's aid policy towards the Pacific was almost certainly aimed solely at encouraging Pacific countries not to grant diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, and that there was no sign of the PRC attempting to increase its military influence or its access to the region's natural resources.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905105935/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/200806/s2270720.htm?tab=pacific |date=5 September 2008 }}, ABC Radio Australia, 11 June 2008</ref> ] reports that, according to the institute's findings, "China's chequebook diplomacy in the South Pacific and secrecy over its aid programme to small island nations is having a destabilising impact on the region", due to "concerns that dollar diplomacy was influencing local politics."<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203113308/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSYD18440 |date=3 December 2008 }}, Reuters, 11 June 2008</ref> A spokesman of the Chinese Foreign Ministry responded: "This assistance is on the basis of mutual benefit. It must help the local economy to develop and promote people's livelihoods. China would never interfere in these countries' internal affairs."<ref>, Reuters, 12 June 2008</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019205517/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/12/content_8356107.htm |date=19 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 12 June 2008</ref>

In June 2009, parliamentary delegations from four Pacific Island countries were jointly received by ], ] of the ]. The delegation comprised Isaac Figir, Speaker of the ], Tu'ilakepa, Speaker of the ], ], head of the Public Accounting Commission of Fiji, and Billy Talagi, head of the Legislative Committee of ] (a ]).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112037/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/17/content_11557797.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 17 June 2009</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083741/http://french.cri.cn/720/2009/06/12/261s193970.htm |date=20 February 2012 }}, Radio Chine Internationale, 12 June 2009</ref> The delegation also met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who spoke of increased "economic and trade cooperation"; Xinhua reported that the Pacific Island legislators "expressed appreciation for China's assistance" and "reiterated their countries' adherence to the one-China policy".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112043/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/16/content_11553009.htm |date=2 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 16 June 2009</ref>

In August and September 2010, the ] began an unprecedented "goodwill visit" to its Pacific allies, touring Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, New Zealand and Australia. Its aim, as reported by the '']'' during the ships' four-day stop in Tonga, was "enhancing friendship and strengthening military cooperation".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012112622/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7128492.html |date=12 October 2012 }}, ''People's Daily'', 3 September 2010</ref>

In April 2011, the Lowy Institute issued a new report noting that China, in its approach to the Pacific, had been "shifting from grant aid to soft loans", which were "leading to increasing problems of indebtedness" and "making Pacific governments vulnerable to political pressure from Beijing". The report suggested that countries may struggle to repay the loans within the set timeframe, and that "outstanding loans may well tie Pacific countries to Beijing", in a context of diplomatic competition with Taipei. The report also noted, however, that some loans "are destined for projects that will create economic growth; growth that will create jobs, reduce poverty and help make repayments".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317204017/http://www.radioaustralianews.net.au/stories/201104/3182042.htm |date=17 March 2012 }}, ABC Radio Australia, 4 April 2011</ref>

In May 2011, addressing the University of the South Pacific in ], PRC Ambassador to Fiji Han Zhiqiang stated that Sino-Pacific cooperation had resulted in "plenty of substantial outcomes and benefits for the people in this region". He indicated that the volume of trade between the PRC and Pacific Island countries had increased by about 50% between 2009 and 2010, reaching ] 2.46 billion. The value of PRC exports to the region that year was €1.74 billion (up by 42% from 2009), whilst the value of its imports from the Pacific Islands was €730 million, up almost 100%. PRC investments in the Pacific Islands in 2010 -primarily to Samoa, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji- had reached almost €72 million.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107185239/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/05/c_13859143.htm |date=7 November 2012 }}, Xinhua, 5 May 2011</ref>

In April 2012 China continued to widen its diplomatic influence with loans and aid with the region.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107185404/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303815404577334522576045372 |date=7 November 2018 }} 27 April 2012</ref>

In late May 2022, Chinese Foreign Minister ] announced that China was pursuing a regional Pacific&ndash;wide agreement known as the ] with ten Pacific Islands states. This multilateral agreement would cover various issues including law enforcement cooperation and training, communications infrastructure, cybersecurity, climate change, healthcare, and a proposed China-Pacific Islands Free Trade Area. In response, the ] ] opposed the proposed agreement, claiming it would create a new "Cold War" between China and the West. The ] ] and ] ] also vowed to increase Australian investment and developmental assistance to the Pacific Islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=China is pursuing a Pacific-wide pact with 10 island nations on security, policing and data – report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/25/china-is-pursuing-a-pacific-wide-pact-with-10-island-nations-on-security-policing-and-data-report|access-date=1 June 2022|work=]|date=25 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530042117/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/25/china-is-pursuing-a-pacific-wide-pact-with-10-island-nations-on-security-policing-and-data-report|archive-date=30 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Though China and the Pacific Islands states did not reach a consensus on the proposed multilateral agreement, Beijing succeeded in signing several bilateral agreements with Pacific states including separate security and civil aviation agreements with the Solomon Islands, ten bilateral agreements with the Solomon Islands, and an agreement to build a police fingerprint laboratory in Fiji.<ref>{{cite news|title=China, Pacific islands fail to reach consensus on security pact|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/30/china-pacific-islands-fail-to-reach-consensus-on-security-pact|access-date=1 June 2022|publisher=]|date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531075305/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/30/china-pacific-islands-fail-to-reach-consensus-on-security-pact|archive-date=31 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Torress-Bennett|first1=Aileen|last2=Perry|first2=Nick|title=China falls short on big Pacific deal but finds smaller wins|url=https://apnews.com/article/suva-fiji-wang-yi-china-bb340b0386872a711ef6bb6c6468a73f|access-date=1 June 2022|work=]|date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531011509/https://apnews.com/article/suva-fiji-wang-yi-china-bb340b0386872a711ef6bb6c6468a73f|archive-date=31 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Australia=====
{{main|Australia–China relations}}

As an emerging and developing economy, China is a very important trading partner and destination for Australian ] export for the growth of Australian economy. The two countries are currently strengthening their economic relations. The 2007 election of ] as Prime Minister of Australia has been seen as favourable to Sino-Australian relations, notably in view of the fact that he is the first Australian Prime Minister to speak fluent Mandarin, and that closer engagement with Asia is one of the ].<ref>David S. G. Goodman, "Australia and the China threat: Managing ambiguity." ''Pacific Review'' 30.5 (2017): 769–782 https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1339118 .</ref>

In 2004, Rudd, who at the time was Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, had delivered a speech in Beijing entitled "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century".<ref>, Kevin Rudd, 6 July 2004</ref>

In February 2008, Australia reportedly "chastised Taiwan for its renewed push for independence" and "reiterated its support for a one-China policy".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/national/china-australia-hold-strategic-meeting-20080205-1q43.html|title=China, Australia hold strategic meeting|author=O'Malley, Sandra|date=5 February 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809181937/http://news.theage.com.au/national/china-australia-hold-strategic-meeting-20080205-1q43.html|archive-date=9 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> In April, however, Rudd addressed Chinese students at ],<ref name="news.com.au_1111116026176">{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/rudd-in-tough-tibet-talks/story-e6frfkp9-1111116026176|title=Rudd in tough Tibet talks|date=10 April 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805050622/http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/rudd-in-tough-tibet-talks/story-e6frfkp9-1111116026176|archive-date=5 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and, speaking in ], referred to "significant human rights problems in Tibet".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709014617/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3711490.ece|date=9 July 2008}}, Jane Macartney, '']'', 9 April 2008</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013173712/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/leading-articles/leading-article-aussie-rules-806956.html |date=13 October 2008 }}, ''The Independent'', 10 April 2008</ref> Rudd also raised the issue in talks with Chinese ] Wen Jiabao, in a context of "simmering diplomatic tension" according to ].<ref>{{dead link|date=January 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, TV3, 10 April 2008</ref> In August 2008, Rudd met Wen once more, and expressed his concerns on "questions of human rights, of religious freedom, of Tibet, of internet freedom".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.theage.com.au/world/rudd-expresses-concerns-to-china-20080808-3sce.html|title=Rudd expresses concerns to China|author=Ede, Charisse|date=8 August 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521022118/http://news.theage.com.au/world/rudd-expresses-concerns-to-china-20080808-3sce.html|archive-date=21 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated issues and tensions between the countries, especially after Australia called for an international, independent inquiry into the origins of the disease.<ref name="reut_Aust">{{Cite web|title=Australia and China spat over coronavirus inquiry deepens|last1=Duran|first1=Paulina|last2=Needham|first2=Kirsty|work=]|date=18 May 2020|access-date=29 December 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronarivus-australia/australia-and-china-spat-over-coronavirus-inquiry-deepens-idUSKBN22V083}}</ref><ref name="reut_Aust2">{{Cite web|title=Australia says world needs to know origins of COVID-19|last=Packham|first=Colin|work=]|date=25 September 2020|access-date=29 December 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-australia-china/australia-says-world-needs-to-know-origins-of-covid-19-idUSKCN26H00T}}</ref> The subsequent changes that China made to its trade policies have been interpreted as political retaliation and economic ] against Australia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52562549|title=Coronavirus: China's new army of tough-talking diplomats|publisher=BBC News|date=12 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theage.com.au/politics/federal/china-relations-sour-over-tariff-threat-to-australian-barley-20200510-p54rjc.html|title=China relations sour over tariff threat to Australian barley|date=10 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="japa_Miti">{{Cite web|title=Mitigating China's economic coercion|last=Nagy|first=Stephen R.|newspaper=]|date=21 May 2020|access-date=23 December 2020|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2020/05/21/commentary/mitigating-chinas-economic-coercion/|quote=economic coercion}}</ref><ref name="broo_Grea">{{Cite web|title=Great expectations: The unraveling of the Australia-China relationship|last=Kassam|first=Natasha|publisher=]|date=20 July 2020|access-date=23 December 2020|url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/great-expectations-the-unraveling-of-the-australia-china-relationship/|quote=economic coercion}}</ref>

=====Fiji=====
{{main|China–Fiji relations}}


] was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975.<ref name="news.xinhuanet.com"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190938/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-02/09/content_10787984.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 9 February 2009</ref> Among the ] countries, Fiji was, in 2010, the second largest importer of PRC exports, after Papua New Guinea, and had a trade deficit of ]127m in its trade relations with China.<ref name="Pacific trade with China"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331150616/http://www.solomonstarnews.com/news/business/10150-pacific-trade-with-china |date=31 March 2012 }}, ''Solomon Star'', 17 February 2011</ref>
In May, ] ] ] described Fiji's "relationship with the government and the people of the People's Republic of China as one of its most important".<ref name="China support for Fiji questioned">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8108536.stm |title=China support for Fiji questioned |date=19 June 2009 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref>


Fiji's foreign policy under Prime Minister ] was to "look north" – i.e., strengthen the country's relations with Asia in general and China in particular. Following the ], China contrasted itself from Western countries which largely condemned the overthrow of Qarase's government. Post-coup prime minister ] continued Qarase's "look north" policy. In July 2007, Finance Minister ] responded to the contrast between Western criticism and Chinese support for Bainimarama's government:
In June 2009, the Fiji Democracy and Freedom Movement, an organisation founded in Australia to campaign for the restoration of democracy in Fiji, sent a petition to the Chinese embassy in ], asking China to "withdraw support for the military regime".<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219112812/http://www.radioaustralianews.net.au/stories/200906/2590327.htm?desktop |date=19 February 2012 }}, Radio Australia, 5 June 2009</ref> At the same time, Australian Foreign Minister ] asked China "not to use contacts with Fiji to undermine efforts to pressure Fiji to hold elections".<ref name="China support for Fiji questioned"/>
:''"Fiji has friends in China, it has friends in ], it has friends in other Asian countries. We're no longer relying on ] and ]. And in any event, the ] was not doing much for Fiji anyway."''<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512152832/http://www.niufm.com/?t=3&View=FullStory&newsID=2162 |date=12 May 2013 }}, NiuFM, 9 July 2007</ref>


In 2007, a China/Fiji Trade and Economic Commission was set up to enhance economic relations between the two countries.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627214845/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/09/03/03fijilive9.html |date=27 June 2013 }}, FijiLive, 3 September 2007</ref> A May 2008 article in '']'' stated that "China's aid to Fiji has skyrocketed since the coup in December 2006", from €650,000 to over €100,000,000. The author of the article commented: "Just as Australia and other Western donors are trying to squeeze rebel Government, China has dramatically stepped up its aid, effectively dissipating any pressure Western donors might have been generating."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/dont-ignore-the-big-new-player-in-fiji/2008/05/08/1210131163040.html?page=fullpage|title=Don't ignore the big new player in Fiji|author=Hanson, Fergus|date=9 May 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026031511/http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/dont-ignore-the-big-new-player-in-fiji/2008/05/08/1210131163040.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1|archive-date=26 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
Despite close relations between Fiji and the PRC, Taiwan provides continuous free medical assistance to the country. A Taiwanese medical team visits Fiji on an annual basis to offer its services in hospitals and clinics. The Fiji government has expressed its gratitude for the help.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004063011/http://www.fijisun.com.fj/main_page/view.asp?id=41807 |date=4 October 2011 }}, ''Fiji Sun'', 26 June 2010</ref>


=====Federated States of Micronesia===== =====Federated States of Micronesia=====
The ] opened an embassy in Beijing.<ref>, ] government website, 10 May 2007</ref> The ] opened an embassy in Beijing.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125035819/http://www.fsmgov.org/press/pr051007.htm |date=25 January 2010 }}, ] government website, 10 May 2007</ref>


=====New Zealand===== =====New Zealand=====
{{main|China–New Zealand relations}} {{main|China–New Zealand relations}}

Diplomatic relations with ] were first established in 1972. the PRC diplomatic representative to New Zealand, Zhang Limin, is also accredited to New Zealand's ], the ] and, since 2008, ]. The People's Republic of China in December 2007 became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116105311/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/18/content_10215471.htm |date=16 November 2013 }}, Xinhua, 18 October 2008</ref> and provides economic aid to the Cook Islands.<ref name="RNZI_41933">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=41933 |title=Cook Islands to receive more aid from China |date=10 September 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref>
Diplomatic relations with ] were first established in 1972. the PRC diplomatic representative to New Zealand, Zhang Limin, is also accredited to New Zealand's ], the ] and, since 2008, ]. The People's Republic of China in December 2007 became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116105311/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/18/content_10215471.htm |date=16 November 2013 }}, Xinhua, 18 October 2008</ref> and provides economic aid to the Cook Islands.<ref name="RNZI_41933">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=41933|title=Cook Islands to receive more aid from China|date=10 September 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307215524/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=41933|archive-date=7 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>


In September 2007, New Zealand reaffirmed its adherence to the "One China" policy.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013130352/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-09/25/content_6791476.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, 25 September 2007</ref> In September 2007, New Zealand reaffirmed its adherence to the "One China" policy.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013130352/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-09/25/content_6791476.htm |date=13 October 2012 }}, 25 September 2007</ref>


In April 2008, New Zealand became the first ] to sign a ] agreement with the PRC.<ref>, ''International Herald Tribune'', 7 April 2008</ref> In April 2008, New Zealand became the first ] to sign a ] agreement with the PRC.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212164653/http://iht.com/articles/2008/04/07/business/7tradefw.php |date=12 February 2009 }}, ''International Herald Tribune'', 7 April 2008</ref>


On 29 September 2008, New Zealand's delegate in United Nations openly praised the improving relations between the two governments of Beijing and Taipei.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/63/generaldebate/newzealand.shtml|title=UN General Assembly - 63rd Session General Debate - New Zealand|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> On 29 September 2008, New Zealand's delegate in United Nations openly praised the improving relations between the two governments of Beijing and Taipei.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/63/generaldebate/newzealand.shtml|title=UN General Assembly – 63rd Session General Debate – New Zealand|access-date=19 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016022618/http://www.un.org/en/ga/63/generaldebate/newzealand.shtml|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>


In July 2009, Niuean ] ] stated that, if development aid were not forthcoming from New Zealand, he would request aid from China instead.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10583605">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10583605 |title=PM faces blunt threat from Niue |author=Trevett, Claire |date=10 July 2009 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> In July 2009, Niuean ] ] stated that, if development aid were not forthcoming from New Zealand, he would request aid from China instead.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10583605">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10583605|title=PM faces blunt threat from Niue|author=Trevett, Claire|date=10 July 2009|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020231557/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10583605|archive-date=20 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>


=====Papua New Guinea===== =====Papua New Guinea=====
Diplomatic relations with ] were established in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent. Diplomatic relations with ] were established in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Huang|first1=Xiaoming|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jm6krAh2LS0C&dq=china+make+Diplomatic+relations+with+Papua+New+Guinea+in+1976%2C&pg=PA126|title=China and the International System: Becoming a World Power|last2=Patman|first2=Robert G.|date=20 March 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-75639-9}}</ref>


Papua New Guinea is one of China's biggest trade partners in Oceania. Papua New Guinea exports far more to China than does any other ] country, and imports three times more from China than does any other such country. It is also one of the few countries in the region to maintain a ] in its relations with China; its surplus reached a record high of ]427m in 2010.<ref name="Pacific trade with China"/> Papua New Guinea is one of China's biggest trade partners in Oceania. Papua New Guinea exports far more to China than does any other ] country, and imports three times more from China than does any other such country. It is also one of the few countries in the region to maintain a trade surplus in its relations with China; its surplus reached a record high of ]427m in 2010.<ref name="Pacific trade with China" />


In 1999, the government of Prime Minister ] recognised Taiwan. Skate lost power less than a week later, and Papua New Guinea's diplomatic recognition reverted to China.<ref>, Bruce Jacobs, ''Taipei Times'', 14 May 2008</ref> In 1999, the government of Prime Minister ] recognised Taiwan. Skate lost power less than a week later, and Papua New Guinea's diplomatic recognition reverted to China.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919125656/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/05/14/2003411855 |date=19 September 2012 }}, Bruce Jacobs, ''Taipei Times'', 14 May 2008</ref>


In 2003, Chinese embassy in ] published a statement of concern in reaction to comments in the Papua New Guinea press questioning the justification for PNG's relations with the People's Republic. The embassy statement insisted that relations between the two countries were mutually beneficial, reasserted Chinese claims to Taiwan, and concluded: "It is our sincere hope that the local media will report on China and its relations with PNG in a just and objective way, so as to further enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of our two countries."<ref>, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 7 August 2003</ref> In 2003, Chinese embassy in ] published a statement of concern in reaction to comments in the Papua New Guinea press questioning the justification for PNG's relations with the People's Republic. The embassy statement insisted that relations between the two countries were mutually beneficial, reasserted Chinese claims to Taiwan, and concluded: "It is our sincere hope that the local media will report on China and its relations with PNG in a just and objective way, so as to further enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of our two countries."<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143746/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46834.htm |date=10 February 2012 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 7 August 2003</ref>


In July 2003, PNG Governor General Sir ] visited China, re-affirmed his country's adherence to the One China policy, and, according to a statement published by Chinese embassy, "thank the government and the people of China for their commitment in providing aid to PNG's development".<ref>, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 28 July 2003</ref> In July 2003, PNG Governor General Sir ] visited China, re-affirmed his country's adherence to the One China policy, and, according to a statement published by Chinese embassy, "thank the government and the people of China for their commitment in providing aid to PNG's development".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143753/http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46833.htm |date=10 February 2012 }}, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 28 July 2003</ref>


In 2005, relations cooled somewhat when Papua New Guinea, along with Fiji, supported Taiwan's wish to join the ].<ref name="archives.pireport.org"/> In 2005, relations cooled somewhat when Papua New Guinea, along with Fiji, supported Taiwan's wish to join the ].<ref name="archives.pireport.org"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216145246/http://archives.pireport.org/archive/2006/August/tcp-fiji.htm|date=16 February 2012}}, Alumita L Durutalo, '']'', vol. 18, n°2, autumn 2006, pp.396–399</ref>


It was announced that members of the ] would receive training provided by China. Traditionally, military training aid in Papua New Guinea had been provided by ], namely, ], New Zealand and the United States.<ref name="RNZI_39839">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39839 |title=Concern in PNG at defence training links with China |date=19 May 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> It was announced that members of the ] would receive training provided by China. Traditionally, military training aid in Papua New Guinea had been provided by ], namely, ], New Zealand and the U.S.<ref name="RNZI_39839">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39839|title=Concern in PNG at defence training links with China|date=19 May 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223170519/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=39839|archive-date=23 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>


=====Samoa===== =====Samoa=====
The diplomatic relations between China and ] were established in 1975.<ref name="english.cri.cn">, Xinhua, 4 April 2011</ref> The diplomatic relations between China and ] were established in 1975.<ref name="english.cri.cn"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020104633/http://english.cri.cn/6909/2011/04/10/2021s631192.htm |date=20 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 4 April 2011</ref>


In the late 1980s, China began sending doctors to the Samoan National Hospital, and sent over a hundred over the following two decades.<ref name="english.cri.cn"/> Samoa significantly increased its volume of imports from China in the late 2000s, while also increasing its exports to that country. In 2010, Samoa reached a record ] in its relations with China, at ]70m.<ref name="Pacific trade with China"/> In 2007, China provided Samoa with an x-ray machine and several volunteer doctors.<ref name="RNZI_35612">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=35612 |title=Samoa national hospital to get Chinese funded x-ray machine |date=8 October 2007 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> In 2008, China donated over €1,360,000 to Samoa to fund its education policies.<ref name="RNZI_37542">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=37542 |title=China to give Samoa more money for education |date=20 January 2008 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> In the late 1980s, China began sending doctors to the Samoan National Hospital, and sent over a hundred over the following two decades.<ref name="english.cri.cn" /> Samoa significantly increased its volume of imports from China in the late 2000s, while also increasing its exports to that country. In 2010, Samoa reached a record trade deficit in its relations with China, at ]70m.<ref name="Pacific trade with China" /> In 2007, China provided Samoa with an x-ray machine and several volunteer doctors.<ref name="RNZI_35612">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=35612|title=Samoa national hospital to get Chinese funded x-ray machine|date=8 October 2007|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213172837/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=35612|archive-date=13 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008, China donated over €1,360,000 to Samoa to fund its education policies.<ref name="RNZI_37542">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=37542|title=China to give Samoa more money for education|date=20 January 2008|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213172846/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=37542|archive-date=13 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>


In March 2008, following ], the speaker of the Samoan ] (legislative assembly), Tolofuaivalelei Falemoe Leiataua, stated that foreign leaders should not interfere with China as it deals with "internal affairs", and that they should not meet the ].<ref>, Xinhua, 27 March 2008</ref><ref>, ''Samoa Observer'', 27 March 2008</ref> In March 2008, following unrest in Tibet, the speaker of the Samoan ] (legislative assembly), Tolofuaivalelei Falemoe Leiataua, stated that foreign leaders should not interfere with China as it deals with "internal affairs", and that they should not meet the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009054653/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-03/27/content_6568524.htm |date=9 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 27 March 2008</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117152536/http://www.samoaobserver.ws/ |date=17 January 2013 }}, ''Samoa Observer'', 27 March 2008</ref>


In June 2008, Samoa announced it would be opening diplomatic missions in China and Japan - the country's first diplomatic offices in Asia.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051535/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/23/content_8423639.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 23 June 2006</ref> In September, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that China and Samoa have always "conducted fruitful cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, agriculture, sports, culture, education and health, as well as international affairs", and that China intended to "make more tangible efforts to support Samoa's economic and social development".<ref>, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 17 September 2008</ref> In June 2008, Samoa announced it would be opening diplomatic missions in China and Japan – the country's first diplomatic offices in Asia.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051535/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/23/content_8423639.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}, Xinhua, 23 June 2006</ref> In September, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that China and Samoa have always "conducted fruitful cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, agriculture, sports, culture, education and health, as well as international affairs", and that China intended to "make more tangible efforts to support Samoa's economic and social development".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214194642/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx/t513637.htm |date=14 February 2012 }}, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 17 September 2008</ref>


In 2010, the Chinese government-funded China-Samoa Agricultural Demonstration Farm was established in Nu'u with an aim "to train the Samoan farmers on voluntary basis through Chinese agricultural planting techniques". About 500 Samoan farmers received training from Chinese agricultural experts.<ref name="english.cri.cn"/> In 2010, the Chinese government-funded China-Samoa Agricultural Demonstration Farm was established in Nu'u with an aim "to train the Samoan farmers on voluntary basis through Chinese agricultural planting techniques". About 500 Samoan farmers received training from Chinese agricultural experts.<ref name="english.cri.cn" />


In 2011, 57 Samoan students were studying in China on a Chinese government sponsorship.<ref name="english.cri.cn"/> In 2011, 57 Samoan students were studying in China on a Chinese government sponsorship.<ref name="english.cri.cn" />


=====Tonga===== =====Tonga=====
{{main|China–Tonga relations}}
Relations with ] were first established in 1998. In 2000, noble ] of Nukunuku (later to become ]) banned all Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District. This followed alleged complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630094452/http://www.tongatapu.net.to/tonga/news/briefs/20000819.htm |date=30 June 2012 }}, Tongatapu.net</ref> In 2001, ] (of about three or four thousand people) was hit by a wave of about a hundred racist assaults. The Tongan government decided not to renew the work permits of over 600 Chinese storekeepers, and admitted the decision was in response to "widespread anger at the growing presence of the storekeepers".<ref>, John Braddock, WSWS, 18 December 2001</ref>


That same year, however, Tonga and China decided to strengthen their "military relations".<ref>, ''People's Daily'', 15 May 2001</ref> In 2008, China provided Tonga with military supplies worth over €340,000.<ref>"Chinese Government Donates Military Supplies to TDS", Tonga Now, 9 January 2008</ref> Relations with ] were first established in 1998. In 2000, noble ] of Nukunuku (later to become ]) banned all Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District. This followed alleged complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630094452/http://www.tongatapu.net.to/tonga/news/briefs/20000819.htm |date=30 June 2012 }}, Tongatapu.net</ref> In 2001, Tonga and China decided to strengthen their "military relations".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609041409/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200105/15/eng20010515_70060.html |date=9 June 2013 }}, ''People's Daily'', 15 May 2001</ref> In 2008, China provided Tonga with military supplies worth over €340,000.<ref>"Chinese Government Donates Military Supplies to TDS", Tonga Now, 9 January 2008</ref>


In 2006, rioters caused severe damage to shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in ].<ref name="radioaustralia.net.au"> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104024039/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/infocus/s1842245.htm |date=4 November 2007 }}, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, 7 February 2007</ref><ref>, ''People's Daily'', 17 November 2006</ref> In 2006, rioters caused severe damage to shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in ].<ref name="radioaustralia.net.au"> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104024039/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/infocus/s1842245.htm |date=4 November 2007 }}, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, 7 February 2007</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512170138/http://english.people.com.cn/200611/17/eng20061117_322437.html |date=12 May 2013 }}, ''People's Daily'', 17 November 2006</ref>


In April 2008, Tongan King ] visited China, reaffirmed his country's adherence to the "One China" policy, and, according to the Chinese State news agency ], "supported the measures adopted to handle ] in ]".<ref>, Xinhua, 10 April 2008</ref> King Tupou V also met Chinese Defense Minister ] to "enhance exchange and cooperation between the two militaries". Xinhua stated that China and Tonga have "fruitful cooperation in politics, economy, trade, agriculture and education, and kept a sound coordination in regional and international affairs".<ref>, Xinhua, 15 April 2008</ref> In April 2008, Tongan King ] visited China, reaffirmed his country's adherence to the "One China" policy, and, according to the Chinese State news agency ], "supported the measures adopted to handle ] in ]".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014071057/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/10/content_7954657.htm |date=14 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 10 April 2008</ref> King Tupou V also met Chinese Defense Minister ] to "enhance exchange and cooperation between the two militaries". Xinhua stated that China and Tonga have "fruitful cooperation in politics, economy, trade, agriculture and education, and kept a sound coordination in regional and international affairs".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016060355/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/15/content_7981846.htm |date=16 October 2012 }}, Xinhua, 15 April 2008</ref>


In early 2010, Chinese aid to Tonga included assistance in the reconstruction of Nuku'alofa's central business district; "an agricultural project in ]"; health clinics set up in ] and Vaini; the provision of seven Chinese doctors for a two-year period; and an allocation of €2.2&nbsp;million "for social and economic development", including "soft loans and interest free loans to the Tonga Government".<ref name="RNZI_52337">{{cite news |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=52337 |title=China to send doctors to Tonga |date=8 March 2010 |work=] |accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> In early 2010, Chinese aid to Tonga included assistance in the reconstruction of Nuku'alofa's central business district; "an agricultural project in ]"; health clinics set up in ] and Vaini; the provision of seven Chinese doctors for a two-year period; and an allocation of €2.2&nbsp;million "for social and economic development", including "soft loans and interest free loans to the Tonga Government".<ref name="RNZI_52337">{{cite news|url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=52337|title=China to send doctors to Tonga|date=8 March 2010|work=]|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609192423/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=52337|archive-date=9 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>


In April 2011, the ] reported that, of all Pacific countries, Tonga was carrying the highest burden of debt from Chinese loans, amounting to 32% of Tonga's ]. Simultaneously, the ] warned Tonga was "facing debt distress", a "very high possibility that Tonga be unable to service its debts in the future".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific"/> In April 2011, the ] reported that, of all Pacific countries, Tonga was carrying the highest burden of debt from Chinese loans, amounting to 32% of Tonga's ]. Simultaneously, the ] warned Tonga was "facing debt distress", a "very high possibility that Tonga be unable to service its debts in the future".<ref name="FEATURE: China in the Pacific" />


=====Vanuatu===== =====Vanuatu=====
{{main|China–Vanuatu relations}}
In 2006, Vanuatu signed an economic cooperation agreement with ], whereby the latter was to assist Vanuatu's economic development, and remove tariffs on imports from Vanuatu. China also added Vanuatu to its list of approved tourism destinations for Chinese tourists. Ni-Vanuatu trade minister James Bule said his country had also requested China's assistance "in supplying machines so we can establish a plant in Vanuatu to produce bio fuel".<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143746/http://vanuatudaily.com/news/currentweek.php?misc=search&subaction=showfull&id=1144793205&archive=&cnshow=news&ucat=1&start_from=& |date=10 February 2012 }}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 11 April 2006</ref> By contrast, Opposition leader Serge Vohor has said China is exerting too much influence on the ni-Vanuatu government's policy.<ref name="vanuatudaily.com"> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210143743/http://vanuatudaily.com/news/currentweek.php?misc=search&subaction=showfull&id=1142202701&archive=&cnshow=news&ucat=1&start_from=& |date=10 February 2012 }}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 12 March 2006</ref>

In 2006, Vanuatu signed an economic cooperation agreement with China, whereby the latter was to assist Vanuatu's economic development, and remove tariffs on imports from Vanuatu. China also added Vanuatu to its list of approved tourism destinations for Chinese tourists. Ni-Vanuatu trade minister James Bule said his country had also requested China's assistance "in supplying machines so we can establish a plant in Vanuatu to produce bio fuel".<ref>{{usurped|1=}}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 11 April 2006</ref> By contrast, Opposition leader Serge Vohor has said China is exerting too much influence on the ni-Vanuatu government's policy.<ref name="vanuatudaily.com">{{usurped|1=}}, ''Vanuatu Daily'', 12 March 2006</ref>


In May 2009, Vanuatu appointed its first ever ambassador to China, former Minister of Finance ].<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623114911/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4668 |date=23 June 2013 }}, '']'', 22 May 2009</ref> Jimmy "call for China to have a foot firmly planted in the Pacific through ]", which -the '']'' remarked- "no doubt caused ruffled feathers among other foreign diplomatic partners".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623135002/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4834 |date=23 June 2013 }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 June 2009</ref> In May 2009, Vanuatu appointed its first ever ambassador to China, former Minister of Finance ].<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623114911/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4668 |date=23 June 2013 }}, '']'', 22 May 2009</ref> Jimmy "call for China to have a foot firmly planted in the Pacific through ]", which -the '']'' remarked- "no doubt caused ruffled feathers among other foreign diplomatic partners".<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623135002/http://www.dailypost.vu/index.php?news=4834 |date=23 June 2013 }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 June 2009</ref>


In July 2010, Chinese Ambassador Cheng Shuping announced that China would fund a number of projects in Vanuatu, "including the National Convention Centre and the expansion of Prime Minister’s Offices", as well as "the design and reconstruction of the Francophone Wing of the ] Emalus Campus".<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 July 2010</ref> In July 2010, Chinese Ambassador Cheng Shuping announced that China would fund a number of projects in Vanuatu, "including the National Convention Centre and the expansion of Prime Minister's Offices", as well as "the design and reconstruction of the Francophone Wing of the ] Emalus Campus".<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''Vanuatu Daily Post'', 23 July 2010</ref>


== Countries without diplomatic relations with the PRC ==
China recognizes all 193 UN member states, the Holy See and Palestine as sovereign states. However, it does not have diplomatic relations with 11 UN member states, nor with the Holy See. These sovereign entities recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate Chinese state.


The following countries do not recognize the People's Republic of China. Instead, these countries recognize the Republic of China.<ref>Pasha L. Hsieh, "Rethinking non-recognition: Taiwan's new pivot to ASEAN and the one-China policy." ''Cambridge Review of International Affairs'' 33.2 (2020): 204–228 .</ref>
==Trans-national issues==
China has 14 neighbouring nations by land, and 7 neighbours by sea (8 if counting Taiwan). Only Russia has as many neighbouring nations (14 by land, 12 by sea). Many disputes have arisen and resolved and many yet are undetermined. Recently these issues have been politicized by United States as part of their ] and ].


{{static row numbers}}{{sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
===Countries have no diplomatic relations with the PRC===
{| class="wikitable static-row-numbers sticky-header col1left"
China recognizes all 193 UN member states, the Holy See and Palestine as sovereign states. However, it does not have diplomatic relations with 19 UN member states, nor with the Holy See. These sovereign entities recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate Chinese state, while ] has diplomatic relations with neither the PRC nor the ROC.

On 13 June 2017, President of Panama declared that diplomatic relations between the Republic of Panama and the People's Republic of China had been established.

The following countries do not recognize the People's Republic of China. Instead, these countries recognize the Republic of China.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|- |-
! Name ! Name
!Previous ! Previous relations with the PRC

relations with the PRC
! Duration of previous relations with the PRC ! Duration of previous relations with the PRC
! References ! References
|- |-
! {{flag|Belize}} | {{flag|Belize}}
| {{yes}} | {{yes}}
| 1987–1989 | 1987–1989
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 2 February 1987 and severed on 23 October 1989. Belize terminated the recognition of the PRC and then recognized the ROC on 11 October 1989. | Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 2 February 1987 and severed on 23 October 1989. Belize terminated the recognition of the PRC and then recognized the ROC on 11 October 1989.
|- |-
! {{flag|Burkina Faso}}
| {{yes}}
| 1973–1994
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 4 February 1973 and severed on 2 February 1994. Burkina Faso resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 2 February 1994. The relations with the ROC were first established in 1961 and severed in 1973.
|- |-
! {{flag|Dominican Republic}} | {{flag|Eswatini}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
| N/A |N/A
|In 1993, first basic assignment of informal relations between the PRC and the Dominican Republic was signed.

In 1994, the Office of Commercial Development of the PRC in the Dominican Republic was established in ].

In 2005, the Office of Commercial Development of the Dominican Republic in the PRC was moved from Hong Kong to Beijing.
|-
! {{flag|El Salvador}}
| {{no}}
| N/A
| |
|- |-
! {{flag|Guatemala}} | {{flag|Guatemala}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
| N/A |N/A
| |
|- |-
|-
! {{flag|Haiti}}
| {{flag|Haiti}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
| N/A | N/A
|In 1996, the Bureau of Commercial Development of the PRC in the Republic of Haiti and Bureau of Commercial Development of the Republic of Haiti in the PRC were established in ] and Beijing as the assignment between two countries. |In 1996, the Bureau of Commercial Development of the PRC in the Republic of Haiti and Bureau of Commercial Development of the Republic of Haiti in the PRC were established in ] and Beijing as the assignment between two countries.
|- |-
! {{flag|Honduras}} | {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| {{No}}
|N/A
|
|-
! {{flag|Kiribati}}
| {{yes}}
| 1980–2003
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 25 June 1980 and severed on 29 November 2003. Kiribati established diplomatic ties with the ROC on 7 November 2003.
|-
! {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| {{yes}} | {{yes}}
| 1990–1998 | 1990–1998
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 16 November 1990 and severed on 11 December 1998. Marshall Islands recognized the ROC on 20 November 1998. | Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 16 November 1990 and severed on 11 December 1998. Marshall Islands recognized the ROC on 20 November 1998.
|- |-
! {{flag|Nauru}} | {{flag|Palau}}
| {{yes}}
| 2002–2005
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 21 July 2002 and severed on 27 May 2005. Nauru resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 14 May 2005. The relations with the ROC were first established in 1980 and severed in 2002.
|-
! {{flag|Nicaragua}}
| {{yes}}
| 1985–1990
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 7 December 1985 and severed on 9 November 1990. Nicaragua resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 6 November 1990. The relations with the ROC were first established in 1962 and severed in 1985.
|-
! {{flag|Palau}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
|N/A |N/A
| |
|- |-
! {{flag|Paraguay}} | {{flag|Paraguay}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
|N/A |N/A
|
| ] seeks the establishment of the diplomatic relations with the PRC.
|- |-
! {{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} | {{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
|N/A |N/A
| |
|- |-
! {{flag|Saint Lucia}} | {{flag|Saint Lucia}}
| {{yes}} | {{yes}}
| 1997–2007 | 1997–2007
| Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 1 September 1997 and severed on 5 May 2007. Saint Lucia resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 30 April 2007. The relations with the ROC were first established in 1984 and severed in 1997. | The relations with the ROC were first established in 1984 and severed in 1997. Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 1 September 1997 and severed on 5 May 2007. Saint Lucia resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 30 April 2007.
|- |-
! {{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} | {{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
|N/A |N/A
| |
|- |-
! {{flag|Solomon Islands}} | {{flag|Tuvalu}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
|N/A |N/A
| |
|- |-
! {{flag|Swaziland}} | {{flag|Vatican City}}
| {{no}}
|N/A
|
|-
! {{flag|Tuvalu}}
| {{no}}
|N/A
|
|-
! {{flag|Vatican City}}
| {{no}} | {{no}}
| N/A<ref>] has no diplomatic relations with the PRC. In 1950, the ambassador of Holy See moved to ].</ref> | N/A<ref>] has no diplomatic relations with the PRC. In 1950, the ambassador of Holy See moved to ].</ref>
| Since the establishment of the PRC, Catholicism has been permitted to operate only under the supervision of the ]. All worship must legally be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the ], which does not accept the ]. The Holy See was banished from China following the incident around the death of ] in 1950. | Since the establishment of the PRC, Catholicism has been permitted to operate only under the supervision of the ]. All worship must legally be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the ], which does not accept the ]. The Holy See was banished from China following the incident around the death of ] in 1951.
In 2016, negotiation of diplomatic relations between the ] and the PRC started. See ]. In 2016, negotiation of diplomatic relations between the ] and the PRC started. See ].
|} |}


==International organizations==
{{main|China and the United Nations}}

Membership in International Organizations:<ref name="ciaworldfactbook"/>

China holds a permanent seat, which affords it veto power, on the ] (UN). Prior to 1971, the Republic of China on ] held China's UN seat, but, as of that date, the People's Republic of China successfully lobbied for Taiwan's removal from the UN and took control of the seat, supported by ] as well as ]s, ], ], and other ], and the ] countries like ].

Membership in UN system organizations

{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* ] and Security Council
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
|}

] leaders at the ] in ], Australia, 15 November 2014]]

Other memberships
{|
|-
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (dialogue partner)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
| valign="top" |
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (observer)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (observer)
* ] (observer)
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
|}

===International territorial disputes===<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
Territorial disputes with other countries include:<ref name="ciaworldfactbook">, CIA World Factbook</ref>

*The '''Republic of China''' on ] officially claims to be the legitimate government of "]", with the ''de jure'' administration of the whole ], including all areas it claims but does not control, as well as ''']'''. Meanwhile, the PRC claims the ''de jure'' administration of ], as well as mainland-nearby islands of ] and ], currently controlled by the ROC.
*10 features in the ] (Korean: Amnok) river are in dispute with ''']'''.
*Border dispute with ''']'''; India claims control of ], which China seized during the ] of 1962, while China claims most of the Indian state of ] (called ] by China).
*Portions of the boundary with ''']'''<ref>China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless negotiations are ongoing as of 2008.</ref>
*China claims the administration of ] (Diaoyutai), currently held by ''']'''.
*] administered and occupied by the People's Republic, but claimed by ''']'''.
*Involved in a dispute with '''the''' ''']''' over ].
*Involved in a ] with ''']''', '''the ]''', ''']''', and possibly ''']'''.
*] disputes with ''']''' in the ]; ''']''' in the Yellow and ]s; ''']''' in the East China Sea (], ]); ''']''', the ''']''', ''']''', ''']''' and ''']''' in the ].

Territorial disputes listed above as between the PRC and ROC ("Taiwan") stems from the question of which government is the legitimate government of China. The Republic of China which views itself as the successor state of the Qing Dynasty did not renounce any territory which fell under de facto control of other states (i.e. Mongolia), but has largely been a non-participant in enforcing these claims. The People's Republic of China which inherited the claims has settled a number of such disputes with Mongolia and Russia via bilateral treaties, not recognized by the Republic of China. In this respect, the territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring countries may be considered a subset of those between the ROC and said countries.

Bloomberg News reports that these disputes are undermining China's attempts to charm its neighbors away from American influence.<ref>Forsythe, Michael and Sakamaki, Sachiko Bloomberg News, 26 September 2010</ref> China has come to rely more on military power to resolve these disputes. China has made double digit percentage increases in its military budget for many years, though as a percentage of its fast growing GDP falling from 1.4% in 2006 to 1.3% in 2011.<ref> ''Bloomberg News''. 4 March 2012.</ref> This may lead to a China causing its own encirclement by nations that are ever more firmly aligned against an increasingly well armed and dominant China.<ref> ''Wall Street Journal''. 5 March 2012.</ref> As of 2013 this has caused even the Philippines to invite back onto their soil not just the Americans, but also the Japanese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/06/29/made-in-china-a-us-japan-philippines-axis/|title=Made in China: A US-Japan-Philippines Axis?|author1=Zachary Keck |author2=The Diplomat |work=The Diplomat|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref>

In May 2015, U.S. Secretary of Defense ] warned China to halt its rapid island-building in the ].<ref>"". '']''. 27 May 2015.</ref>

===Refugee asylum===
Refugees by country of origin are: 300,897 (from ]), estimated 30,000-50,000 (from ]).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-9eSrZtYAAC&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=Refugees+by+country+of+origin+are:+300,897+(from+Vietnam),+estimated+30,000-50,000&source=bl&ots=AvPaSWOh0m&sig=DHefmY_7zTt7AwXo3RK9j31sJ5k&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiPq_Ty98bRAhWE5iYKHaM3Ad0Q6AEIIDAB#v=onepage&q=Refugees%20by%20country%20of%20origin%20are:%20300,897%20(from%20Vietnam),%20estimated%2030,000-50,000&f=false|title=The World Factbook: 2010 Edition (CIA's 2009 Edition)|last=Agency|first=Central Intelligence|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=9781597975414|language=en}}</ref>

===Human trafficking===
] Trafficking in Persons Report<ref name=TIPreport2011>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2011/|title=Trafficking in Persons Report 2011|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref>]]
China is a source, transit, and destination country for ]. Women, men, and children are trafficked for purposes of ] and ]; the majority of trafficking in China is internal, but there is also international trafficking of Chinese citizens; women are lured through false promises of legitimate employment into commercial sexual exploitation in ], ], ], and Japan; Chinese men and women are smuggled to countries throughout the world at enormous personal expense and then forced into commercial sexual exploitation or exploitative labor to repay debts to traffickers; women and children are trafficked into China from ], ], ], ], and ] for forced labor, ], and ]; most North Koreans enter ] voluntarily, but others reportedly are trafficked into China from North Korea; domestic trafficking remains the most significant problem in China, with an estimated minimum of 10,000–20,000 victims trafficked each year; the actual number of victims could be much greater; some experts believe that the serious and prolonged imbalance in the male-female birth ratio may now be contributing to Chinese and foreign girls and women being trafficked as potential brides.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook"/>

] Tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - "China failed to show evidence of increasing efforts to address transnational trafficking; while the government provides reasonable protection to internal victims of trafficking, protection for Chinese and foreign victims of transnational trafficking remain inadequate."<ref name="ciaworldfactbook"/>

===Illicit drugs===
{{Main|Illegal drug trade in China}}
Chinese drug laws are very harsh, and the death sentence for traffickers is not unusual. Many foreigners have been sentenced to death in China for drug trafficking.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/SA-woman-executed-in-China-20111212|title=SA woman executed in China|work=News24|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenta.ru/news/2011/11/26/penalty/|title=Lenta.ru: Мир: В КНР россиянку приговорили к смертной казни за контрабанду наркотиков|publisher=|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref>

==Major international treaties==

China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties.<ref name="ciaworldfactbook"/>

Treaties signed on behalf of ] are applicable only to the Republic of China on ]. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; ]; ]; Conventional Weapons Convention; ]; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); ]; ]; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol).

Treaties include the ] (signed but not ratified); Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol); Treaty on the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (Treaty of Pelindaba, signed protocols 1 and 2); ]; Treaty on Outer Space; ] (signed Protocol 2); Treaty on Seabed Arms Control; and Treaty on the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone (Treaty of Rarotonga, signed and ratified protocols 2 and 3).

China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: ], Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-], Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.

China is a major transshipment point for ] produced in the ] region of ]. There is a growing domestic ] problem and it is a source country for ]s, despite new regulations on its large ].<ref name="ciaworldfactbook"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*Alden, Christopher. '' China Returns to Africa: A Superpower and a Continent Embrace'' (2008)
*Bader, Jeffrey A. ''Obama and China's Rise: An Insider's Account of America's Asia Strategy'' (2013)
*Bickers, Robert. ''The scramble for China: Foreign devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914'' (2011)
*Chang, Gordon H. ''Friends and Enemies: The United States, China, and the Soviet Union 1948-1972'' (1990)
* Chi, Madeleine. ''China Diplomacy, 1914-1918'' (Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1970)
*Cohen, Warren I. '' America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations'' (2010)
* Elleman, Bruce A. ''Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795-1989'' (2001) 363 pp.
*Feis, Herbert. ''China Tangle: American Effort in China from Pearl Harbour to the Marshall Mission'' (1960)
* ]. ''Articulating the Sino-sphere: Sino-Japanese relations in space and time'' (2009)
*Gosset, David. "China's subtle diplomacy," 2011
* Hsü, Immanuel C.Y. ''China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858–1880'' (1960),
*Hunt, Michael H. ''The Genesis of Chinese Communist foreign-policy'' (1996)
*Jian, Chen. ''China's road to the Korean War'' (1994)
* Lopes Junior, Gutemberg Pacheco '']'' (2015)
*Luthi, Lorenz. ''The Sino-Soviet split: Cold War and the Communist world'' (2008)
* Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''The international relations of the Chinese empire Vol. 1'' (1910) to 1859; ;
* Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''The international relations of the Chinese empire'' vol 2 1861-1893 (1918) ;
* Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''The international relations of the Chinese empire'' vol 3 1894-1916. (1918)
* Nish, Ian. (1990) "An Overview of Relations between China and Japan, 1895–1945." ''China Quarterly'' (1990) 124 (1990): 601-623.
*Perdue, Peter. ''China marches West: The Qing conquest of Central Eurasia'' (2005)
*Rowe, William T. ''China's last Empire: The great Qing'' (2009)
* Sun, Youli, and You-Li Sun. ''China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1931-1941'' (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993)
*Sutter, Robert G. ''Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China's International Politics Since 1949'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2013) 355 pages
* Sutter, Robert G. ''Historical Dictionary of Chinese Foreign Policy'' (2011)
*Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-Sheck and the struggle for modern China'' (2009)
*Wang, Dong. ''The United States and China: A History from the Eighteenth Century to the Present'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2013), {{ISBN|0-742-557-82-0}}
*Westad, Odd Arne. ''Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750'' (Basic Books; 2012) 515 pages; comprehensive scholarly history
* Zhang, Yongjin. ''China in the International System, 1918-20: the Middle Kingdom at the periphery'' (Macmillan, 1991)


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|China}} {{Portal|China}}
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
** ] ** ]
** ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
Line 868: Line 1,576:
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


==External links== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
* '']'', 13 May 2015

* - Official website
==Further reading==
* from the
{{Library resources box}}
*

* - analysis by Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006
*Alden, Christopher. '' China Returns to Africa: A Superpower and a Continent Embrace'' (2008)
*
* Amin, Nasser. "The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present" ''Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies'' 7 (2019): 51–66 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716130610/https://londonchurchillcollege.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/JCDMS-V7-MASTER-FILE-FINALD10-260819_Final-Copy.pdf#page=53 |date=16 July 2020 }}
* ''The New York Times'', 20 July 2009
* Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. ''Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations'' (Routledge, 2020).
*
*Cohen, Warren I. '' America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations'' (2010)
* Doshi, Rush. ''The Long Game: China's Grand Strategy to Displace American Order'' (Oxford UP, 2021)
* Fenby, Jonathan. ''The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present'' (3rd ed. 2019) popular history.
* Ferdinand, Peter. "Westward ho—the China dream and 'one belt, one road': Chinese foreign policy under Xi Jinping." ''International Affairs'' 92.4 (2016): 941–957.
*]. ''Articulating the Sino-sphere: Sino-Japanese relations in space and time'' (2009)
* Fravel, M. Taylor. ''Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949'' (Princeton University Press, 2019)
* Garver, John W. ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic'' (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history.
* Garver, John W. ''Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century' (2001), post 1950''
* {{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Weixing|year=2019|title=Xi Jinping's 'Major Country Diplomacy': The Role of Leadership in Foreign Policy Transformation|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=28|issue=115|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/10670564.2018.1497904|s2cid=158345991}}
* Lampton, David M. ''Following the Leader: Ruling China, from Deng Xiaoping to Xi Jinping'' (U of California Press, 2014).
* Lanuzo, Steve L. "The Impact of Political Liberalization on Sino Myanmar Cooperation" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045608/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1059977.pdf |date=28 July 2020 }}.
* Liu, Guoli, ed., ''.'' (Transaction, 2004). {{ISBN|0-202-30752-2}}
* Lu, Ning. ''The dynamics of foreign-policy decisionmaking in China'' (Routledge, 2018).
* Meijer, Hugo. ''Awakening to China’s Rise: European Foreign and Security Policies toward the People’s Republic of China'' (Oxford University Press, 2022)
* Quested, Rosemary K.I. ''Sino-Russian relations: a short history'' (Routledge, 2014)
* Ryan, Keegan D. "The Extent of Chinese Influence in Latin America" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714184138/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069724.pdf |date=14 July 2019 }}.
* Sutter, Robert G. ''Historical Dictionary of Chinese Foreign Policy'' (2011)
*Sutter, Robert G. ''Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China's International Politics Since 1949'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2013) 355 pages
* Swaine, Michael D. "Chinese views of foreign policy in the 19th party congress." ''China Leadership Monitor'' 55 (2018). re 2017 Congress
*Westad, Odd Arne. ''Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750'' (Basic Books; 2012) 515 pages; comprehensive scholarly history
* Woo, Hunje. "Increased Chinese Economic Influence and its Impact on the Changing Security Environment on the Korean Peninsula" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200628011237/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1069836.pdf |date=28 June 2020 }}
*Yahuda, Michael. ''End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao'' (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016)


{{Foreign relations of China}} {{Foreign relations of China}}
{{China topics|state=autocollapse}} {{China topics}}
{{Foreign relations of Asia}} {{Foreign relations of Asia}}
{{States with limited recognition}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Foreign Relations Of The People's Republic Of China}}
] ]

Latest revision as of 22:43, 5 January 2025

This article is about the foreign relations of the People's Republic of China. For the foreign relations of the Republic of China, see Foreign relations of Taiwan.
This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (October 2022)

Official diplomatic relations between world states and China
  People's Republic of China (PRC)   Republic of China (ROC)   States that have diplomatic relations with the PRC   States that have diplomatic relations with the ROC   States that have diplomatic relations with neither
Countries of the world indicating decade diplomatic relations commenced with the People's Republic of China: 1949/1950s (dark red), 1960s (red), 1970s (orange), 1980s (beige), 1990s/2000s (yellow) and 2010s/2020s (green). Countries not recognized by or not recognizing the PRC are in grey.
Politics of China
Leadership
Leadership generations
Succession of power
Party and state leaders
Orders of precedence
Related systems
Communist Party
History
Constitution & ideology Organization
National People's Congress (14th) State representative Executive organ Military organ Supervisory organ Judicial organs
United front
Historical parties:
Propaganda
Cross-Strait relations
Foreign relations
Related topics
flag China portal

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), has full diplomatic relations with 180 out of the other 192 United Nations member states, Cook Islands, Niue and the State of Palestine. As of 2024, China has had the most diplomatic missions of any state.

China officially claims it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace". The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment for China's reform and opening up and modernization of construction, and to maintain world peace and propel common development." An example of a foreign policy decision guided by "sovereignty and territorial integrity" is not engaging in diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the Republic of China (Taiwan), which the PRC does not recognise as a separate nation.

China is a member of many international organizations, holding key positions such as a permanent membership on the United Nations Security Council. In the early 1970s, the PRC replaced the ROC as the recognised government of "China" in the UN following Resolution 2758. As a nuclear power, China signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in the United Nations.

History

For history before 1800, see Foreign relations of imperial China. For history since 1800, see History of foreign relations of China.

Foreign policy

An Air China Boeing 777 in China-France 50 years anniversary livery
Main article: Foreign policy of ChinaFurther information: China and the United Nations

Since the start of the period of Reform and Opening Up in 1978, China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations.

China traditionally operates separate tracks of government-to-government and party-to-party relations, the latter for example via the Communist Party's International Liaison Department.

Asian neighbors

China's relations with its Asian neighbors became more stable during the last decades of the 20th century. It has cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participated in the ASEAN Regional Forum. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005, the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS). Relations have improved with Vietnam since the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War and subsequent Sino-Vietnamese conflicts although maritime disputes remain.

A territorial dispute with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the South China Sea remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the East China Sea with Japan. For the countries involved, these conflicts have had a negative impact on China's reputation.

The 2023 edition of China's "standard map" unveiled by its Ministry of Natural Resources on 28 August 2023, met with objections from its Asian neighbors the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, and India, all of which are involved in territorial disputes with China.

India

Relations with India have fluctuated greatly over the years. After years of competition, general distrust between the two, and several border conflicts, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states stabilized, only for relations to suffer a massive hit in the late 2010s due to multiple border standoffs that resulted in deaths on both sides. While both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years, and China became India's largest trading partner in 2010, there is increasing unease in India regarding the perceived Chinese advantage in their trade relationship. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. The dispute over Aksai Chin (formerly a part of the Indian territory of Ladakh) and South Tibet (China) or Arunachal Pradesh (India) is not settled and plagues Sino-Indian relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival Pakistan and neighboring Bangladesh, Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the U.S.

Relations between the two countries have deteriorated over the past decade, especially after 2020–2021 skirmishes along the border in the Galwan Valley involving Indian and Chinese military personnel.

International territorial disputes

Main article: Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China

China has had border or maritime disputes with several countries, including with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on 21 July 2008, Russia finally resolved the last remaining border dispute along the 4300 km border between the two countries by ceding a small amount of territory to China.

Territorial disputes with other countries below:

Territorial disputes listed above as between the PRC and ROC ("Taiwan") stems from the question of which government is the legitimate government of China. The Republic of China which views itself as the successor state of the Qing Dynasty did not renounce any territory which fell under de facto control of other states (i.e. Mongolia), but has largely been a non-participant in enforcing these claims. The People's Republic of China which inherited the claims has settled a number of such disputes with Mongolia and Russia via bilateral treaties, not recognized by the Republic of China. In this respect, the territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring countries may be considered a subset of those between the ROC and said countries.

Bloomberg News reports that these disputes are undermining China's attempts to charm its neighbors away from American influence. China has come to rely more on military power to resolve these disputes. China has made double digit percentage increases in its military budget for many years, though as a percentage of its fast growing GDP falling from 1.4% in 2006 to 1.3% in 2011. This may lead to a China causing its own encirclement by nations that are ever more firmly aligned against an increasingly well armed and dominant China. As of 2013 this has caused even the Philippines to invite back onto their soil not just the Americans, but also the Japanese.

Hu Jintao of China and George W. Bush meet while attending an APEC summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004.

In March 2024, it was revealed that Japan and the European Union are set to engage in discussions regarding cooperation on advanced materials for next-generation chips and batteries, aiming to decrease their dependence on China. EU Commissioner for Innovation and Research, Iliana Ivanova, highlighted the potential mutual benefits of establishing a dialogue framework.

21st century

Further information: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea, Political status of Taiwan, and Chinese intelligence activity abroad

At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) general secretary Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line had varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval.

In 2007, Foreign Affairs Ministry spokesman Qin Gang made an eight-point statement explaining the diplomatic philosophy of China in response to U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney's earlier remarks on China's military spending and China's anti-satellite test in January 2007 posing a global threat.

Chinese leader Xi Jinping presented two pandas to Moscow Zoo at a ceremony with Vladimir Putin on 5 June 2019

In 2011, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi outlined plans for an "integrated approach" that would serve China's economic development.

In 2016, during the 6th Plenum of 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Party General Secretary Xi Jinping has presented efforts for greater transparency in the decision-making process in local governance, which also represent his effort in establishing a positive image of China's Communist Party overseas.

At their annual meeting on 13 June 2021, country leaders from the Group of Seven (G7) criticized China for a series of abuses. The G7 nations—the US, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Canada and Japan—had been hesitant about acting separately. Pressured by US President Joe Biden, they unanimously agreed on a sharp criticism, followed by a similar strong unanimous attack by NATO members the next day. The criticisms focused on the mistreatment of the Uyghur minority, the systematic destruction of democracy in Hong Kong, repeated military threats against Taiwan, unfair trade practices, and lack of transparency regarding the origins of COVID-19. China has rejected all criticism of what it considers to be strictly internal policy matters. On the other hand, the constellation of critics is essential to the Chinese economy in terms of jobs, investments and purchases of its huge quantity of exports.

China's early success in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic facilitated its mask diplomacy. Chinese ownership of much of the global medical supply chain enhanced its ability to send doctors and medical equipment to suffering countries. China soon followed its mask diplomacy with vaccine diplomacy. China's infection rates were sufficiently low that it could send vaccines abroad without domestic objections. Academic Suisheng Zhao writes that "ust by showing up and helping plug the colossal gaps in the global supply, China gained ground."

Economic policy

See also: Made in China 2025, Go Out policy, and Debt-trap diplomacy

China increased its standing as a responsible global actor during the 2007–2008 financial crisis. When Western countries were nearing financial disaster, China created credit for spending on infrastructure. This both helped stabilize the global economy and it also provided an opportunity for China to retool its own infrastructure.

The Communist Party's Seventeenth National Congress in 2007 made the negotiation of free trade agreements a priority and was further emphasized following a 2015 State Council opinion. The pace of China's free trade agreement negotiations has accelerated since 2007.

China has invested in many infrastructure projects around Eurasia and Africa, including the Eurasian Land Bridge, Sino-Myanmar pipelines and railway and an economic corridor and a port in Pakistan.

Debt trap allegations

China financed Hambantota International Port in Sri Lanka, which drew allegations of debt-trap diplomacy when Sri Lanka defaulted on its loans and China took control of the port for 99 years. Some western analysts have suggested China's debt-trap diplomacy may hide hegemonic intentions and challenges to states' sovereignty. A 2022 study from Johns Hopkins University's China Africa Research Initiative found that contrary to popular narratives regarding Hambantota port, there were no Chinese debt-to-equity swaps, no asset seizures, and no "hidden debt." It concluded that "the popular narrative of Sri Lanka getting caught in a Chinese debt-trap has been debunked on many occasions." Numerous other academics have also argued that the notion of a Chinese "debt-trap" is false, and have called the allegation a "meme" based on anxiety about China's rise, a function of China-US rivalries rather than reality, and that such allegations of "neo-colonialism" are false or misrepresentations. As of 2021, China had not seized the Sri Lankan port or any other asset from another country.

Recent initiatives

Main articles: Belt and Road Initiative and List of projects of the Belt and Road Initiative
Map of Asia, showing the OBOR initiative
Belt and Road Initiative   China  Members of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank   The six Belt and Road corridors  Maritime silk road China in red, Members of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank in orange, the six corridors in black China Britain Business Council: One Belt One Road

As the Trump administration in the United States opened a trade and tariff war with China in 2017, China's response has been to set up its own multinational trading arrangements. In late March 2019, Xi Jinping moved forward with major trading deals with France and Italy. French President Emmanuel Macron and Xi Jinping signed a series of large-scale trade agreements that covers many sectors over a period of years. The centerpiece was a €30 billion purchase of airplanes from Airbus. The new trade agreement also covered French exports of chicken, a French-built offshore wind farm in China, and a Franco-Chinese cooperation fund, as well as co-financing between BNP Paribas and the Bank of China. Other plans include billions of euros to be spent on modernizing Chinese factories, as well as new ship building. The same week Xi Jinping signed an infrastructure plan with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte. Italy became the first European power to join the Belt and Road Initiative.

As of fall 2023, Italy has started the process to exit the Belt and Road Initiative by not renewing the five-year Belt and Road Initiative Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) of 2019 at the end of 2023. With anticipated Italy's notice not to renew, the MOU will officially end in March 2024. Eighty percent of the 193-member United Nations have participated in the Belt and Road Initiative, and the developed Western countries have largely stayed away.

China–United States trade war

Main article: China–United States trade war

The world's two largest economies have engaged in an escalating trade war through increasing tariffs and other measures since 2018.

Lawrence J. Lau argues that a major cause is the growing battle China and the U.S. for global economic and technological dominance. He argues, "It is also a reflection of the rise of populism, isolationism, nationalism and protectionism almost everywhere in the world, including in the US."

RCEP

Main article: Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a free trade agreement between the Asia-Pacific nations of Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. The agreement covers approximately 30% of the global population and 30% of the global economy. In January 2022, RCEP became the world's largest trade bloc (in economic terms) and continues to be the world's largest as of at least early 2024.

The 2017 decision by United States President Donald Trump to withdraw from the Trans-Pacific Partnership strengthened the appeal of the RCEP.

International treaties and organizations

Main article: China and the United Nations

International treaties

China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties.

Treaties signed on behalf of China before 1949 are applicable only to the Republic of China on Taiwan. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; Biological Weapons Convention; Chemical Weapons Convention; Conventional Weapons Convention; Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); Nuclear Safety Convention; Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol).

China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.

Membership in international organizations

China holds a permanent seat and veto power on the United Nations Security Council. Prior to 1971, the Republic of China based on the island of Taiwan held China's UN seat. On 25 October 1971, the People's Republic of China took control of the seat with the passing of UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 by a vote of 76 to 35 with 17 abstentions, with support coming from several NATO countries, the Soviet Union, and India, and a notable opponent being the United States.

China plays a leadership role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a multilateral security group which aims to reduce the "three evils" of terrorism, separatism, and extremism.

China was active in the Six-party talks in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s. China hoped to play a lead role in developing the Six-Party Talks into a lasting multilateral security mechanism for northeast Asia, but ultimately the talks failed. China's efforts in the unsuccessful tasks nonetheless raised its international standing.

As of at least 2024, China has positive relationships with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

Membership in UN system organizations
BRICS leaders at the G-20 summit in Brisbane, Australia, 15 November 2014
Other memberships

Diplomatic relations

See also: Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China

List of countries which the People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with:

# Country Date
1  Russia 2 October 1949
2  Bulgaria 3 October 1949
3  Czech Republic 4 October 1949
4  Romania 5 October 1949
5  Hungary 6 October 1949
6  North Korea 6 October 1949
7  Poland 7 October 1949
8  Mongolia 16 October 1949
9  Albania 23 November 1949
10   Switzerland 17 January 1950
11  Vietnam 18 January 1950
12  India 1 April 1950
13  Indonesia 13 April 1950
14  Sweden 9 May 1950
15  Denmark 11 May 1950
16  Myanmar 8 June 1950
17  Liechtenstein 14 September 1950
18  Finland 28 October 1950
19  Pakistan 21 May 1951
20  United Kingdom 17 June 1954
21  Norway 5 October 1954
22  Serbia 2 January 1955
23  Afghanistan 20 January 1955
24    Nepal 1 August 1955
25  Egypt 30 May 1956
26  Syria 1 August 1956
27  Yemen 24 September 1956
28  Sri Lanka 7 February 1957
29  Cambodia 19 July 1958
30  Iraq 25 August 1958
31  Morocco 1 November 1958
32  Algeria 20 December 1958
33  Sudan 4 February 1959
34  Guinea 14 October 1959
35  Ghana 5 July 1960
36  Cuba 28 September 1960
37  Mali 25 October 1960
38  Somalia 14 December 1960
39  Laos 25 April 1961
40  Tanzania 9 December 1961
41  Uganda 18 October 1962
42  Kenya 14 December 1963
43  Burundi 21 December 1963
44  Tunisia 10 January 1964
45  France 27 January 1964
46  Republic of the Congo 22 February 1964
47  Central African Republic 29 September 1964
48  Zambia 29 October 1964
49  Benin 12 November 1964
50  Mauritania 19 July 1965
51  Canada 13 October 1970
52  Equatorial Guinea 15 October 1970
53  Italy 6 November 1970
54  Ethiopia 24 November 1970
55  Chile 15 December 1970
56  Nigeria 10 February 1971
57  Kuwait 22 March 1971
58  Cameroon 26 March 1971
59  Austria 28 May 1971
60  Sierra Leone 29 July 1971
61  Turkey 4 August 1971
62  Iran 16 August 1971
63  Belgium 25 October 1971
64  Peru 2 November 1971
65  Lebanon 9 November 1971
66  Rwanda 12 November 1971
67  Senegal 7 December 1971
68  Cyprus 14 December 1971
69  Iceland 14 December 1971
70  Malta 31 January 1972
71  Mexico 14 February 1972
72  Argentina 16 February 1972
73  Mauritius 15 April 1972
74  Netherlands 18 May 1972
75  Greece 5 June 1972
76  Guyana 27 June 1972
77  Togo 19 September 1972
78  Japan 29 September 1972
79  Germany 11 October 1972
80  Maldives 14 October 1972
81  Madagascar 6 November 1972
82  Luxembourg 16 November 1972
83  Jamaica 21 November 1972
84  Democratic Republic of the Congo 24 November 1972
85  Chad 28 November 1972
86  Australia 21 December 1972
87  New Zealand 22 December 1972
88  Spain 9 March 1973
89  Burkina Faso 15 September 1973
90  Guinea-Bissau 15 March 1974
91  Gabon 20 April 1974
92  Malaysia 31 May 1974
93  Trinidad and Tobago 20 June 1974
94  Venezuela 28 June 1974
95  Niger 20 July 1974
96  Brazil 15 August 1974
97  Gambia 14 December 1974
98  Botswana 6 January 1975
99  Philippines 9 June 1975
100  Mozambique 25 June 1975
101  Thailand 1 July 1975
102  São Tomé and Príncipe 12 July 1975
103  Bangladesh 4 October 1975
104  Fiji 5 November 1975
105  Samoa 6 November 1975
106  Comoros 13 November 1975
107  Cape Verde 25 April 1976
108  Suriname 17 May 1976
109  Seychelles 30 June 1976
110  Papua New Guinea 12 October 1976
111  Liberia 17 February 1977
112  Jordan 7 April 1977
113  Barbados 30 May 1977
114  Oman 25 May 1978
115  Libya 9 August 1978
116  United States 1 January 1979
117  Djibouti 8 January 1979
118  Portugal 2 February 1979
119  Ireland 22 June 1979
120  Ecuador 2 January 1980
121  Colombia 7 February 1980
122  Zimbabwe 18 April 1980
123  Kiribati 25 June 1980
124  Vanuatu 26 March 1982
125  Antigua and Barbuda 1 January 1983
126  Angola 12 January 1983
127  Ivory Coast 2 March 1983
128  Lesotho 30 April 1983
129  United Arab Emirates 1 November 1984
130  Bolivia 9 July 1985
131  Grenada 1 October 1985
132  Nicaragua 7 December 1985
133  Uruguay 3 February 1988
134  Qatar 9 July 1988
—  State of Palestine 20 November 1988
135  Bahrain 18 April 1989
136  Federated States of Micronesia 11 September 1989
137  Namibia 22 March 1990
138  Saudi Arabia 21 July 1990
139  Singapore 3 October 1990
140  San Marino 18 June 1991
141  Estonia 11 September 1991
142  Latvia 12 September 1991
143  Lithuania 14 September 1991
144  Brunei 30 September 1991
145  Uzbekistan 2 January 1992
146  Kazakhstan 3 January 1992
147  Tajikistan 4 January 1992
148  Ukraine 4 January 1992
149  Kyrgyzstan 5 January 1992
150  Turkmenistan 6 January 1992
151  Belarus 20 January 1992
152  Israel 25 January 1992
153  Moldova 30 January 1992
154  Azerbaijan 2 April 1992
155  Armenia 6 April 1992
156  Slovenia 12 May 1992
157  Croatia 13 May 1992
158  Georgia 9 June 1992
159  South Korea 24 August 1992
160  Slovakia 1 January 1993
161  Eritrea 14 July 1993
162  North Macedonia 12 October 1993
163  Andorra 29 June 1994
164  Monaco 16 January 1995
165  Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 April 1995
166  Bahamas 23 May 1997
—  Cook Islands 25 July 1997
—  Saint Lucia (suspended) 1 September 1997
167  South Africa 1 January 1998
168  Tonga 2 November 1998
169  Timor-Leste 20 May 2002
170  Nauru 21 July 2002
171  Dominica 23 March 2004
172  Montenegro 6 July 2006
173  Costa Rica 1 June 2007
—  Niue 12 December 2007
174  Malawi 28 December 2007
175  South Sudan 9 July 2011
176  Panama 12 June 2017
177  Dominican Republic 1 May 2018
178  El Salvador 21 August 2018
179  Solomon Islands 28 September 2019
180  Honduras 26 March 2023

Relations by region and country

Generally, the political and sociological concept of face has a significant role in Chinese diplomacy.

Africa

Main article: Africa–China relations

African UnionChina

China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries which are generally recognized in Africa. It has embassies in each of these 53 African countries, and each of those likewise have embassies in Beijing. China does not maintain relations with Eswatini, which recognizes Taiwan instead of the PRC. China also does not recognize Western Sahara, a disputed territory which is claimed and administered by Morocco.

Following the Cold War, Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy.

The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between African countries and China. Chinese foreign aid is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC. Through FOCAC, China provides aid in the forms of debt forgiveness, aid grants, concessional loans, and interest-free loans.

In addition to the mechanism of FOCAC, China engages with subregional multilateral groups in Africa, including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community (EAC).

Diplomatic history

Early modern bilateral relations were mainly affected by the Cold War and the ideology of communism. The establishment of modern Sino-African relations dates back to the late 1950s when China signed the first official bilateral trade agreement with Algeria, Egypt, Guinea, Somalia, Morocco and Sudan. Zhou Enlai made a ten-country tour to Africa between December 1963 and January 1964. Zhou Enlai visited Ghana and established close relations with Kwame Nkrumah, a leader who strived for a united Africa. Relations at that time were often reflective of Chinese foreign policy in general: China "began to cultivate ties and offer economic, technical and military support to African countries and liberation movements in an effort to encourage wars of national liberation and revolution as part of an international united front against both superpower". In 1965 Ben Bella was overthrown in Algeria, with a result that the Soviets gained influence in North Africa and the Middle East. Kwame Nkrumah, the most prominent leader of sub-Saharan Africa, was deposed while on a trip to China in early 1966. The new rulers shifted Ghana to the West's side of the Cold War.

China originally had close ties with the anti-apartheid and liberation movement, African National Congress (ANC), in South Africa, but as China's relations with the Soviet Union worsened and the ANC moved closer to the Soviet Union, China shifted away from the ANC towards the Pan-Africanist Congress. In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity. China adopted several principles, among them supporting the independence of African countries while investing in infrastructure projects. The Somali Democratic Republic established good relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War era. When Somalia sought to create a Greater Somalia, it declared war on Ethiopia, with the aid of the Soviet Union, Somalia took Ogaden in three months, but the Soviet Union shifted its support from Somalia to Ethiopia, and Ethiopia retook the Ogaden region. This angered Siad Barre, and expelled all Soviet advisors and citizens from Somalia, but Somalia maintained good relations with China, which segregated with the traditional Soviet Communism. China and Zaire shared a common goal in Central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the FNLA (and later, UNITA) in order to prevent the MPLA, who were supported and augmented by Cuba, from coming to power. During the Cold War, a few smaller nations also entered in alliances with China, such as Burundi under Michel Micombero.

The political status of Taiwan has been a key political issue for the People's Republic of China (PRC). In 1971, the support of African nations was crucial in the PRC joining the United Nations (UN), taking over the seat of the ROC on Taiwan. However, while many African countries such as Algeria, Egypt and Zambia have stressed their support to the PRC's one-China policy, Eswatini maintains relations with Taipei. For the quest of a permanent UN Security Council seat for Africa, Nigeria, the most populous African country, relies on Chinese support while Egypt looks to U.S. backing.

In its relations with African countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller African countries.

Economic relations

Main article: Africa–China economic relations
Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative

In 1980, the total Sino-African trade volume was US$1 billion. By 1999, it had reached US$6.5 billion. By 2005, the total Sino-African trade had reached US$39.7 billion before it jumped to US$55 billion in 2006, making China the second largest trading partner of Africa after the U.S., which had trade worth US$91 billion with African nations. China also passed the traditional African economic partner and former colonial power France, which had trade worth US$47 billion. In 2010, trade between Africa and China was worth US$114 billion and in 2011, US$166.3 billion. In the first 10 months of 2012 it was US$163.9 billion.

There are an estimated 800 Chinese corporations doing business in Africa, most of which are private companies investing in the infrastructure, energy and banking sectors. Unconditional and low-rate credit lines (rates at 1.5% over 15 years to 20 years) have taken the place of the more restricted and conditional Western loans. Since 2000, more than US$10 billion in debt owed by African nations to China has been canceled.

Military relations

Military cooperation goes back to the Cold War period when China was keen to help African liberation movements. Apart from some traditional allies such as Somalia and Tanzania, China also had military ties with non-aligned countries such as Egypt. Military equipment worth $142 million was sold to African countries between 1955 and 1977. Two decades after the collapse of the Soviet Union, military relations are now based on business interests rather than ideology.

In 2004, China deployed around 1,500 soldiers under the UN umbrella, dispatched between Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. China is also present via its military attachés; as of 2007, it has 14 attachés in 14 different African countries while there are 18 African countries who maintain their attachés in Beijing. Apart from peacemaking, China provides military training and equipment to a few countries, though this does not require military forces to be deployed.

Culture

Africa is a host of three Chinese cultural centers. The first overseas Chinese center was opened in Mauritius in 1988. Two other followed in Egypt and Benin. The Confucius Institute, which focuses on the promotion of the Chinese language and culture, has 20 centers distributed around 13 African countries.

Historically, little is known about early African immigration to China, although there is no doubt and much consensus that the human species was originally from Africa. Due to recent developments in relations, many have been relocating for better opportunities. Places dubbed 'Little Africa' and 'Chocolate city' are increasingly receiving new immigrants, mostly Nigerians. Most of the African immigrants are concentrated in the area of Guangzhou with an estimated number of 20,000. It is estimated that there are around 10,000 illegal African immigrants in China and police crackdowns have intensified since early 2009.

In contrast, early modern Chinese immigration to the African continent is slightly better documented. In 1724, a few Chinese convicts were brought as laborers to South Africa from the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia) by the Dutch Empire. In the early 19th century, another wave of immigrants came to South Africa as workers brought by the British to work in agriculture, infrastructure building and mining. In recent years, there has been an increasing presence of Chinese in Africa. Estimates vary by source though Xinhua, China's official news agency, states that there are no less than 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living in Africa. The number of Chinese illegal immigrants remains unknown.

Due to the low prices of Chinese-made weaponry and military equipment, an increasing number of African countries shifted their source of supply from traditional providers such as Russia to China. However, the selling of arms to some states accused by Western countries of war crimes, such as Sudan, have prompted criticism in the West.

Criticism

The Zimbabwean example is relevant. Relations between China and Robert Mugabe's regime in Zimbabwe have also been the focus of criticism by a few Western countries. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with jet fighters, vehicles and other military equipment. China declared in 2007 that it was dropping all kinds of assistance and limiting assistance to humanitarian aid. In July 2008, the Chinese diplomacy asked Mugabe "to behave" though critics see that as a way for China to protect its own interests in the country should there be a regime change.

Chinese role in Africa has sparked much criticism, including accusations of neocolonialism and racial discrimination. As a response to such criticism, China issued the Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardise Enterprises' Overseas Investment, a charter and guide of conduct to Chinese companies operating abroad. Other criticism include the flooding of the African markets with low-cost Chinese-made products, thus harming the growth and the survival of local industries and businesses.

Egypt
Main article: China–Egypt relations

EgyptChina

Sudan
Main article: China–Sudan relations

SudanChina

Ethiopia
Main article: China–Ethiopia relations

EthiopiaChina

Somalia
Main article: China–Somalia relations

SomaliaChina

Tanzania
Main article: China–Tanzania relations

TanzaniaChina

Americas

Latin America and the Caribbean

See also: China–Latin America relations
Xi Jinping delivered a speech at the National Congress of Brazil, 16 July 2014
Cristina Fernández and Xi Jinping in Argentina, 18 July 2014

Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in South America and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese leader Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade. For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing as Cuba's second-largest trading partner after Venezuela in 2005. In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year-old U.S. law surrounding the International Criminal Court that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region.

In its relations with Latin American countries, China has shown a willingness to grant diplomatic audiences at the highest levels to even delegations from the smaller Latin American countries.

Further information: Caribbean–China relations

Caribbean regional relations with China are mostly based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the United States.

Additionally, China's policy in the region was the utilization of "dollar diplomacy" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment.

More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the Confucius Institute at the University of the West Indies. These agreements are part of the basis of teaching Mandarin Chinese language courses at the regional University.

China has also expanded several levels of cooperation with the Caribbean region. China and the Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago were said to have formed an agreement where asphalt from Trinidad and Tobago would be exported to China during its construction boom in preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics. In exchange, China has led several construction projects in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean region via Chinese owned construction companies. Trinidad and Tobago have also mooted the idea of starting direct shipments of oil and liquid natural gas direct from Trinidad and Tobago to China, to fuel the latter's growing need for resources to fuel their economy.

Several capital-works or infrastructural projects across the Caribbean region have also been financed by the Chinese government.

Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua and BarbudaChina

Both countries have established diplomatic relations.

Barbados
Main article: Barbados–China relations

BarbadosChina

Diplomatic relations between Barbados and the People's Republic of China were established on 30 May 1977. China began providing Barbados with diplomatic aide with the construction of the Sir Garfield Sobers Gymnasium (1986), and other projects such as: construction assistance for the Sir Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre (1994), and renovating Bridgetown's Cheapside Market building (2005). In 2005, China exported US$19.19 million worth of goods, while importing only $211,000 from Barbados.

The current Chinese Ambassador to Barbados is Xu Hong, who heads the embassy in Christ Church, Barbados. Hong replaced the former Ambassador Wei Qiang in 2012. The current Barbadian Ambassador to Beijing, China is the country's former Prime Minister Sir Lloyd Erskine Sandiford.

In 2004 Barbados obtained Approved Destination Status by the government in China. Barbados and China are members of the United Nations and the Caribbean Development Bank.

Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, the Barbadian prime minister visited the Chinese Embassy to personally sign the book of condolence to the nation.

The Wildey Gymnasium in Barbados which was built in 1992 with assistance of the P.R.C.

Over the years a number of building projects have been carried out with Chinese government assistance these include: The Garfield Sobers Gymnasium, two adjustments on the Lloyd Erskine Sandiford Centre, a Home Vegetable Growing Experimental Center, embroidery, grass weaving and feather handicraft. A consideration was also giving according to the Prime Minister of Barbados, David Thompson for China to assist with the opening of a new cruise ship facility in Barbados.

Chinese Premier Wen said that China would like to join hands with Barbados in deepening cooperation in the areas of trade, tourism, architecture, and cultural exchange.

China's export volume to Barbados in 1999 reached US$2,035,000, while imports from Barbados were at US$13,000.

Both nations have additionally signed bilateral agreements including a Double taxation agreement and a Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments treaty.

The Chinese government remains one of the main stakeholders in the Barbados-based Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), which lends to the various territories throughout the Caribbean region.

Cuba
Main article: China–Cuba relations

CubaChina

China-Cuban relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba's second largest trading partner after Venezuela. At a ceremonial trade gathering in Havana in early 2006, China's ambassador to Cuba said "Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What's left is the work to complete our plans."

Bilateral trade between China and Cuba in 2005 totaled US$777 million, of which US$560 million were Chinese exports to Cuba. China is sending a growing amount of durable goods to Cuba. Chinese goods have become the primary tools both in the planned revitalization of Cuban transport infrastructure and in the "Energy Revolution" of 2006 to provide electricity to the Cuban populace.

Sinopec, the Chinese state oil company, has an agreement with state-owned Cupet (Cuba Petroleum) to develop oil resources. As of mid-2008, SINOPEC had done some seismic testing for oil resources on the island of Cuba, but no drilling. The company also has a contract for joint production in one of Cuba's offshore areas of high potential yield, off the coast of Pinar del Río, but had done no off-shore drilling as of mid-2008.

In November 2005, PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co., Ltd. and CUPET held a ceremony for the signing of two drilling service contracts. Great Wall Drilling has provided drilling rigs for oil exploration on Cuba's north coast.

El Salvador
Main article: China-El Salvador relations

El SalvadorChina

Honduras
Main article: China-Honduras relations

HondurasChina

Venezuela
Main article: China–Venezuela relations

VenezuelaChina

United States

Main article: China–United States relations

United StatesChina

Once the UN issue was resolved, relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972, President Richard Nixon visited China. China backed away from support of North Vietnam in the Vietnam War. In late 1978, China became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought an inconclusive border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979).

Formal diplomatic relations were established with the U.S. in 1979, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of antagonistic relations over such issues as Taiwan, balance of trade, intellectual property rights, nuclear proliferation, currency intervention, securities fraud and human rights.

Asia

Generally speaking, China's relations with Central and South Asia have resulted in steadily increasing interdependence and a modestly improved regional integration.

Arab World

See also: Sino-Arab relations

Arab LeagueChina

China's Critical Sea lines of communication. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese crude oil imports transited the Strait of Malacca, with less than 2 percent transiting the Lombok Strait.

Sino-Arab relations have extended historically back to the first Caliphate, with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Following the age of Imperialism, the Sino-Arab relations were halted for several centuries, until both gained independence in the 19th and 20th century. Modern relations are evolving into a new era, with the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF) as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states.

On 10 March 2023, Saudi Arabia and Iran announced that they had agreed to normalize their relations in a deal brokered by China.

Medieval Era

During the Tang dynasty, when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called Arabs "Dàshí" (大食). In modern Chinese, Dashi means Great Food. The modern term for Arab is "Ālābó" (阿拉伯).

The Arab Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an.

Although the Tang Dynasty and the Abbasid Caliphate had fought at Talas, on 11 June 758, an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghurs in order to pay tribute.

The Caliphate was called "Dàshíguó" (大食國).

An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle".

There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and Uyghur Khaganate ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 198 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785 to 804 benefited the Chinese.

According to Professor Samy S. Swayd, Fatimid missionaries made their Dawah in China during the reign of Al-Aziz Billah.

Trade

In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China. For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via Srivijaya.

20th century

China under the Kuomintang had established relations with Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like Wang Jingzhai and Muhammad Ma Jian to go the Al-Azhar University to study. Pilgrims also made the Hajj to Mecca from China. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Fuad Muslim Library in China was named after King Fuad I of Egypt by the Chinese Muslim Ma Songting. In 1939 Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by the Kuomintang to the Middle eastern countries such as Egypt, Turkey, and Syria to gain support during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Gamal Abdel Nasser cut off the diplomatic relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan and established the new tie with the People's Republic of China in 1956. By the 1990s all Arab states had finished to recognize the People's Republic of China as the legitimate state of China.

The relations between China and the Arab League as an organization, officially started in 1956, yet it was in 1993, when the Arab League opened its first Office in China, when former Secretary general Essmat Abdel Megeed went to an official Visit to Beijing, in 1996, the Chinese leader Jiang Zemin visited the Arab League headquarters during his visit in Cairo, to become the first Chinese leader to have an official visit for the Arab League. China has continued to pay greater attention to the Middle East since the 2000s. With China, Middle Eastern countries benefit from a potential investment source and long-term buyer of oil and gas without the political complications that come with dealing with the United States.

China-Arab States Cooperation Forum

The core political norms that China advocates within CASCF are its Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect for territory and sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence. These principles are a conservative interpretation of the Westphalian norms of state sovereignty.

The most prominent political issue advocated through CASCF is a Middle East peace process aimed at resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict (including the territorial disputes that Lebanon and Syria each have with Israel). Other issues which have emerged following the Arab Spring include the Syrian civil war, and issues in Iraq, Libya, Yemen, Sudan, and Somalia. In recent years, CASCF documents have noted Arab states' support for China's approach in Hong Kong.

In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister Li Zhaoxing said that the Arab world is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship, remarking "Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation," he said. "No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world."

The Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum was formally established during China's paramount leader Hu Jintao's visit to the League's headquarters in January 2004. Hu noted at the time that the formation of the forum was a continuation of the traditional friendship between China and the Arab world and an important move to promote bilateral ties under new circumstances.

Li stated that "the establishment of the forum would be conducive to expanding mutually beneficial cooperation in a variety of areas."

"The PRC has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said. Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation. At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and Arab League Secretary General Amr Moussa signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum. Li arrived in Cairo on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to Egypt, the last leg of a Middle East tour that has taken him to Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman.

The Joint Communiqué

One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PRC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009

The League of Arab States and the Government of People's Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce and the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection have co-organized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China.

This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador Ahmed Benhelli Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and Xu Qinghua Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection.

West Asia

Iran
Main article: China–Iran relations

IranChina

Turkey
Main article: China–Turkey relations

TurkeyChina

Central Asia

Main articles: China–Kazakhstan relations, China–Kyrgyzstan relations, China–Tajikistan relations, China–Turkmenistan relations, and China–Uzbekistan relations

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the newly independent Central Asian countries inherited the border disagreements with China, which had themselves been inherited from czarist Russia and the Qing dynasty. In the years after the independence of the Central Asian countries, China negotiated bilaterally to resolve its borders with them individually. Ultimately, China obtained territory significantly less than it had originally claimed. Resolution of these disputes on territorial terms generally favorable to the Central Asian countries created goodwill for China, avoided conflict, and also resulted in recognition that the czarist era borders were imposed unjustly on China.

Access to energy and natural resources are important priorities for China in its Central Asian relations. China is one of the main energy partners of the Central Asian countries. Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields, China and Kazakhstan have constructed an oil pipeline from Kazakhstan to China and are planning to construct a natural gas pipeline. In Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, China has invested in hydroelectric projects.

China also seeks to improve land connections with Eurasia through its relations with the Central Asian countries. General Secretary Xi Jinping has called China's efforts to build trade links that extend through Central Asia to the Middle East a New Silk Road. In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power. The terrorist attacks of 11 September changed China's view of Central Asia, causing China to pay increasing attention to potential concerns of terrorism, separatism, and extremism arising from the region. One of China's main interests in Central Asia therefore is stability in Xinjiang, which shares a border with three Central Asian countries. The Central Asian countries cooperate with China in suppressing support for separatist groups like the East Turkestan Islamic Movement. Following the invasion of Afghanistan by the United States and the increased involvement of Russia in the region, China's foreign policy makers began to view the Central Asia as both an area for cooperation and competition between major powers.

China plus Central Asia (also depicted as China + Central Asia; C+C5) is a meeting of the Foreign Ministers' of China and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. It was started in 2020. In 2023, Xi Jinping and leaders of the five Central Asian countries held the China-Central Asia Summit in Xi'an, and the summit resulted in 54 agreements, 19 new cooperation mechanisms and platforms, and nine multilateral documents.

East Asia

As of 2022, the general trend is that China and the other East Asian countries have increased their ties with each other, especially in economic matters and in conducting joint military exercises. Trade with China comprised 39% of all East Asia regional trade as of 2020.

Japan
Main articles: Sino–Japanese relations and History of Sino-Japanese relations

Having fought two wars against Japan (1894–95 and 1937–45), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the atrocities of World War II in its textbooks is a perennial issue. The relationship between China and Japan has been strained at times by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its wartime past to the satisfaction of China. Revisionist comments made by prominent Japanese officials and some Japanese history textbooks regarding the 1937 Nanjing Massacre have been a focus of particular controversy. Sino-Japanese relations warmed considerably after Shinzō Abe became the Prime Minister of Japan in September 2006, and a joint historical study conducted by China and Japan released a report in 2010 which pointed toward a new consensus on the issue of Japanese war crimes. However, in the early 2010s, relations cooled once more, with Japan accusing China of withholding its reserves of valuable rare earth elements.

North Korea
Main articles: China–North Korea relations and History of Sino-Korean relations

North KoreaChina

The close China-DPRK relationship is celebrated at the Mass Games in Pyongyang, 2010

China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "six-party talks" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the U.S., and China) to resolve tensions on the Korean Peninsula. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN countries and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as China's peaceful rise. On 15 November 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development. Hu's critics say that his government was overly aggressive in asserting its new power, overestimated its reach, and raised the ire of the United States and its allies who are close in proximity to China, such as India, and Japan.

South Korea
Main article: China–South Korea relations

Diplomatic relations between the People's Republic of China and South Korea were formally established on 24 August 1992. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s the PRC recognized only North Korea while South Korea in turn recognized only the Republic of China in Taiwan. South Korea was the last Asian country to establish relations with the People's Republic of China. In recent years, China and South Korea have endeavored to boost their strategic and cooperative partnership in numerous sectors, as well as promoting high level relationship. Trade, tourism and multiculturalism, in specific, have been the most important factors of strengthening two neighbouring countries cooperative partnership.

While the dispute of THAAD had initiated conflicts between the two countries in various sectors, at the end of October 2017, the two countries ended the 1-year-long diplomatic dispute and have been working swiftly to get their relationship back on track since, strengthening exchanges and cooperation between each other, creating harmony of interests, and agreed to resume exchanges and cooperation in all areas. All economic and cultural bans from China towards South Korea were also lifted as a result, with political and security cooperation, businesses and cultural exchanges between the two countries getting back to healthy state.

Upon resumption of relationship, China and South Korea have been organizing presidential and governmental visits, working together on the Korean Peninsula, assisting with the development of other countries, and cooperating in numerous areas.

South Asia

China's current trade volume with all South Asian nations reaches close to $187.554 billion a year.

Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, Chinese Authorities have helped Pakistan establish nuclear power plants of its own to meet its nuclear needs, which officially consist primarily of energy requirements, although, as per certain perspectives, this could be used for Pakistani and Chinese military, quite possibly defence, purposes. China also lends to and invests in South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal

Bangladesh
Main article: Bangladesh–China relations

BangladeshChina

Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.

India
Main articles: Foreign relations of India § China, and China–India relations

IndiaChina

A Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the Jawaharlal Nehru Port in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries surpassed US$60 billion by 2010 making China the single largest trading partner of India.

Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War, 1967 Nathu La and Cho La clashes and continuing boundary disputes over Ladakh, Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, General Secretary Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from China. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between China and India were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact.

Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$36 billion in 2007, making China the single largest trading partner of India. The increasing economic reliance between China and India has also brought the two nations closer politically, with both China and India eager to resolve their boundary dispute. They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008 to regional free trade agreement. Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, China and India have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy. However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India. Both the countries are the largest investors in Africa and have competed for control over its large natural resources. China and India agreed to take bilateral trade up to US$100 billion on a recent visit by Wen Jiabao to India.

Bilateral relations between the two became strained due to the 2017 Doklam standoff and then later by the 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes. Relations were further strained by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Pakistan
Main articles: Foreign relations of Pakistan and China–Pakistan relations See also: China–Pakistan Economic Corridor

PakistanChina

Pakistan and China have enjoyed strong relations, which encompass military, economic and diplomatic ties, since the 1960s. UK scholar Nasser Amin considers the Sino-Pak entente to be a special kind of relationship in the post-war global system, since there are no natural ties or affinities of culture, religion or ideology that have existed between Islamabad and Beijing; rather, the close relationship appears to substantiate a fundamental premise of the Neo-Realist school of IR thought: namely, that states join in alliance with other states on the basis of power considerations, in this case a shared hostility to India.

The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a collection of infrastructure projects that are currently under construction throughout Pakistan. CPEC is intended to rapidly modernize Pakistani infrastructure and strengthen its economy by the construction of modern transportation networks, numerous energy projects, and special economic zones. The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connecting Kashgar to Khunjerab and Gwadar. More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty-free export zone (Sust Dry Port) in Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of Gwadar Port – the country's 3rd most major port, timber transhipments from Mozambique, as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions. Trade and goodwill between Pakistan and China are relatively strong due to the bordered Muslims area of Xinjiang, who used Pakistan as a transit to Mecca/Makkah for pilgrimage. Pakistani students often go to China to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of Kashmir in the 1960s. They also share the Karakoram Highway, one of the highest paved roads in the world. Pakistani and Chinese authorities collaborated on everything from nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology.

Sri Lanka
Main article: China–Sri Lanka relations

Sri LankaChina

Southeast Asia

See also: Bamboo network

China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent sphere of influence. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China – politically, economically, and militarily. China's transformation into a major economic power in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.

Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the Vietnam War, the Malayan Communist Party during the first and second communist insurgencies in Malaysia, as well as the Communist Party of Indonesia and 30 September Movement in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the Sukarno government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974 and in 2015 Malaysia reached a status of comprehensive strategic partnership with China. China's invasion of Vietnam resulted in the Sino-Vietnamese War and other border conflicts; this war caused long-lasting animosity within Vietnam against China. Relations between the two states were only normalized in 1991 as Vietnam's closest ally, the Soviet Union, collapsed. Today, Vietnam and China have a healthy trade relationship, though tensions persist over the countries' boundaries in the South China Sea, among other disputes. Despite China's support of the Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, which lasted long after its deposition, China enjoys a harmonious relationship with Cambodia. This relationship includes strong military and economic ties, with Cambodia defending China on the global stage; Cambodia's government has weak popular support, opening it to coercion by the Chinese government. China's relationship with Singapore is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country, starting 17 April 2011.

China is the largest trading partner of nearly all the Southeast Asian countries and one of the region's main sources of foreign direct investment. Over the course of 2008 to 2009, China became the largest trading partner of ASEAN.

Cambodia

Main article: Cambodia–China relations

CambodiaChina

Indonesia

Main article: China–Indonesia relations

IndonesiaChina

Malaysia

Main article: China–Malaysia relations

MalaysiaChina

Myanmar

Main article: China–Myanmar relations

MyanmarChina

Philippines

Main article: China–Philippines relations

PhilippinesChina

Singapore

Main article: China–Singapore relations

SingaporeChina

Thailand

Main article: China–Thailand relations

ThailandChina

Vietnam

Main article: China–Vietnam relations

VietnamChina

Europe

See also: China–European Union relations

Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, were generally friendly in the early 21st century, with close political and trade relations with the European Union nations being a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s.

China's relationship with the Central and Eastern European Countries was generally limited during the Cold War period due to the Sino-Soviet Split and the Warsaw Pact membership of these countries. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, these countries distanced themselves from their communist pasts and oriented towards the European Union. China's interest in Central and Eastern Europe has grown since most of those countries joined the European Union in 2004 because of the Chinese view that partnering with those countries would help Chinese economic integration with Europe more broadly. After the 2007–2008 financial crisis caused capital investment by traditional European economic powers, China established a significant presence in Central European and Eastern European markets. Cooperation further increased following the institution of the 16+1 mechanism in 2012. Generally, China's foreign relations are weaker in Central and Eastern Europe than other developing regions.

In the late 2010s, Europe took a more cautioned approach towards China, referring to the country as a "systemic rival" beginning in 2019. The Comprehensive Agreement on Investment, an investment agreement first proposed in 2013 and completed in 2020, was halted before its ratification after the European Commission announced plans in 2021 to reduce dependence on China in strategic areas of the economy.

The European Union has been China's most reliable partner with regard to clean energy and addressing climate change.

France

Main article: China–France relations

FranceChina

Italy

Main article: China–Italy relations

ItalyChina

In March 2019, during Chinese President Xi Jinping's visit to Italy, China signed a memorandum of understanding on China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) with Italy. Additionally, with this memorandum, Italy became the only G7 country to join the BRI.

Russia

Main article: Sino-Russian relations since 1991

RussiaChina

The end of the long-held animosity between Moscow and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the Soviet Union, China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of military technology for China, as well as for raw materials and trade. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the U.S.

Ukraine

Main article: China–Ukraine relations

As part of the Soviet Union, Ukraine recognized the PRC in October 1949. After Ukraine gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the two countries built formal diplomatic relations in 1992, and declared a strategic partnership in 2011.

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, China abstained in the related UN Security Council votes condemning Russia. The Ukrainian embassy issued a statement in Chinese condemning Russia on Weibo, which drew over 300 million views in a day. Chinese company NetEase has published anti-war videos from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China. However, Beijing's failure to criticise Russia increased local hostility towards stranded Chinese in Ukraine.

In September 2022, Li Zhanshu, the third highest-ranking member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, told a group of Russian legislators that the Chinese government "understands and supports Russia...on the situation in Ukraine".

United Kingdom

Main article: China–United Kingdom relations

China established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 17 June 1954. The United Kingdom was the first major Western country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.

The UK governed the territories of Hong Kong, from 1841 to 1941 and 1945 to 1997, as well as Weihaiwei from 1898 to 1930.

Both countries share common membership of the G20, the UNSC P5, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have the Sino-British Joint Declaration.

Oceania

Main article: Sino-Pacific relations

China maintains diplomatic relations with ten countries in Oceania: Australia, Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu whilst Taiwan has diplomatic relations with the other four. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (Nauru, Kiribati, Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. the PRC also wants to establish a preeminent sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands.

Policy

In 2003, China announced it intended to enhance its diplomatic ties with the Pacific Islands Forum, and increase the economic aid package it provided to that organisation. At the same time, Chinese delegate Zhou Whenzhong added: "he PIF should refrain from any exchanges of an official nature or dialogue partnership of any form with Taiwan".

In 2006, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao announced that China would increase its economic cooperation with Pacific Island States. The PRC would provide more economic aid, abolish tariffs for exports from the Pacific's least developed countries, annul the debt of those countries, distribute free anti-malaria medicines, and provide training for two thousand Pacific Islander government officials and technical staff.

Also in 2006, Wen became the first Chinese premier to visit the Pacific islands, which the Taipei Times described as "a longtime diplomatic battleground for China and Taiwan". Similarly, according to Ron Crocombe, Professor of Pacific Studies at the University of the South Pacific, "There have been more Pacific Islands minister visits to China than to any other country".

In 2007, Xinhua, the Chinese official press agency, stated that Pacific Islands Forum member countries had "spoke highly of the generous assistance China has provided to the region over the past many years and expressed the hope for a further enhanced cooperation with China".

In December 2007, Dr John Lee—Visiting Fellow at the Sydney-based Centre for Independent Studies—opined in a column for Islands Business:

"Why is China so interested in the Pacific? After all, despite the differences in size, population, wealth, and influence between China and islands in the region, the Chinese have literally rolled out the red carpet for Pacific leaders. Meetings between Chinese and Pacific leaders are not perfunctory 'meet and greets' in the bland boardrooms of hotels. They are often elaborate state functions with all the bells and whistles that state meetings can offer. In a word, the Chinese want 'influence'. China sends more diplomats around the world than any other country. In terms of the Pacific, there is a more disturbing game being played out, namely the 'chequebook diplomacy', that is taking place between China and Taiwan in their competition for diplomatic recognition at the expense of the other. Taiwan matters profoundly to China—and it is largely why China is interested in the Pacific."

That same month, John Henderson of the University of Canterbury stated that, in his view, many Pacific Islanders are worried "that their livelihood is being taken away by Chinese traders coming in, often getting in buying political privileges, playing a role in rigging elections". Henderson suggested that the 2006 anti-Chinese riots in Tonga and Solomon Islands could be repeated in countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu. He added that this might lead the PRC to increase its role in the region further, in order to protect ethnic Chinese Pacific Islanders. A spokesman for the Chinese embassy in Fiji, Hu Lihua, responded by stating: "China does not pose a military threat to any other country. China opposes all forms of hegemonism and power politics and will never seek hegemony or engage in expansion." A representative of Fiji's Chinese community similarly rejected the idea that there might be anti-Chinese riots in Fiji, and added: "The Chinese in Fiji have an excellent relationship with locals and we contribute toward the economy. We have been successful in understanding local customs. Many of us have learnt the language and have assimilated."

The final report of the April 2008 Australia 2020 Summit addressed China's influence in the Pacific in the following terms:

"It was noted that so far China did not seem interested in exporting its political values. Its interaction with the region was economically focused or motivated by rivalry winth Taiwan.
Noting China's growing military power and its emerging role as a major aid donor in the region, participants agreed that while China's visibility had increased rapidly there remained uncertainty over what it was seeking to achieve, especially in the long term. Securing energy supplies was one obvious goal. One strand of thought that had emerged was that the Chinese themselves were not entirely clear about their aims in the region."

In June 2008, a report from the Lowy Institute stated that China's aid policy towards the Pacific was almost certainly aimed solely at encouraging Pacific countries not to grant diplomatic recognition to Taiwan, and that there was no sign of the PRC attempting to increase its military influence or its access to the region's natural resources. Reuters reports that, according to the institute's findings, "China's chequebook diplomacy in the South Pacific and secrecy over its aid programme to small island nations is having a destabilising impact on the region", due to "concerns that dollar diplomacy was influencing local politics." A spokesman of the Chinese Foreign Ministry responded: "This assistance is on the basis of mutual benefit. It must help the local economy to develop and promote people's livelihoods. China would never interfere in these countries' internal affairs."

In June 2009, parliamentary delegations from four Pacific Island countries were jointly received by Wu Bangguo, Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. The delegation comprised Isaac Figir, Speaker of the Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia, Tu'ilakepa, Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Tonga, Manu Korovulavula, head of the Public Accounting Commission of Fiji, and Billy Talagi, head of the Legislative Committee of Niue (a dependent territory of New Zealand). The delegation also met Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, who spoke of increased "economic and trade cooperation"; Xinhua reported that the Pacific Island legislators "expressed appreciation for China's assistance" and "reiterated their countries' adherence to the one-China policy".

In August and September 2010, the People's Liberation Army Navy began an unprecedented "goodwill visit" to its Pacific allies, touring Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Tonga, New Zealand and Australia. Its aim, as reported by the People's Daily during the ships' four-day stop in Tonga, was "enhancing friendship and strengthening military cooperation".

In April 2011, the Lowy Institute issued a new report noting that China, in its approach to the Pacific, had been "shifting from grant aid to soft loans", which were "leading to increasing problems of indebtedness" and "making Pacific governments vulnerable to political pressure from Beijing". The report suggested that countries may struggle to repay the loans within the set timeframe, and that "outstanding loans may well tie Pacific countries to Beijing", in a context of diplomatic competition with Taipei. The report also noted, however, that some loans "are destined for projects that will create economic growth; growth that will create jobs, reduce poverty and help make repayments".

In May 2011, addressing the University of the South Pacific in Suva, PRC Ambassador to Fiji Han Zhiqiang stated that Sino-Pacific cooperation had resulted in "plenty of substantial outcomes and benefits for the people in this region". He indicated that the volume of trade between the PRC and Pacific Island countries had increased by about 50% between 2009 and 2010, reaching € 2.46 billion. The value of PRC exports to the region that year was €1.74 billion (up by 42% from 2009), whilst the value of its imports from the Pacific Islands was €730 million, up almost 100%. PRC investments in the Pacific Islands in 2010 -primarily to Samoa, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Fiji- had reached almost €72 million.

In April 2012 China continued to widen its diplomatic influence with loans and aid with the region.

In late May 2022, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi announced that China was pursuing a regional Pacific–wide agreement known as the China-Pacific Island Countries Common Development Vision with ten Pacific Islands states. This multilateral agreement would cover various issues including law enforcement cooperation and training, communications infrastructure, cybersecurity, climate change, healthcare, and a proposed China-Pacific Islands Free Trade Area. In response, the President of the Federated States of Micronesia David Panuelo opposed the proposed agreement, claiming it would create a new "Cold War" between China and the West. The Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and Foreign Minister Penny Wong also vowed to increase Australian investment and developmental assistance to the Pacific Islands. Though China and the Pacific Islands states did not reach a consensus on the proposed multilateral agreement, Beijing succeeded in signing several bilateral agreements with Pacific states including separate security and civil aviation agreements with the Solomon Islands, ten bilateral agreements with the Solomon Islands, and an agreement to build a police fingerprint laboratory in Fiji.

Australia
Main article: Australia–China relations

As an emerging and developing economy, China is a very important trading partner and destination for Australian raw material export for the growth of Australian economy. The two countries are currently strengthening their economic relations. The 2007 election of Kevin Rudd as Prime Minister of Australia has been seen as favourable to Sino-Australian relations, notably in view of the fact that he is the first Australian Prime Minister to speak fluent Mandarin, and that closer engagement with Asia is one of the "Three Pillars" of his foreign policy.

In 2004, Rudd, who at the time was Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, had delivered a speech in Beijing entitled "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century".

In February 2008, Australia reportedly "chastised Taiwan for its renewed push for independence" and "reiterated its support for a one-China policy". In April, however, Rudd addressed Chinese students at Peking University, and, speaking in Mandarin, referred to "significant human rights problems in Tibet". Rudd also raised the issue in talks with Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, in a context of "simmering diplomatic tension" according to TV3. In August 2008, Rudd met Wen once more, and expressed his concerns on "questions of human rights, of religious freedom, of Tibet, of internet freedom".

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated issues and tensions between the countries, especially after Australia called for an international, independent inquiry into the origins of the disease. The subsequent changes that China made to its trade policies have been interpreted as political retaliation and economic coercion against Australia.

Fiji
Main article: China–Fiji relations

Fiji was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975. Among the Pacific Islands countries, Fiji was, in 2010, the second largest importer of PRC exports, after Papua New Guinea, and had a trade deficit of A$127m in its trade relations with China.

Fiji's foreign policy under Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase was to "look north" – i.e., strengthen the country's relations with Asia in general and China in particular. Following the 2006 military coup in Fiji, China contrasted itself from Western countries which largely condemned the overthrow of Qarase's government. Post-coup prime minister Frank Bainimarama continued Qarase's "look north" policy. In July 2007, Finance Minister Mahendra Chaudhry responded to the contrast between Western criticism and Chinese support for Bainimarama's government:

"Fiji has friends in China, it has friends in Korea, it has friends in other Asian countries. We're no longer relying on Australia and New Zealand. And in any event, the United States was not doing much for Fiji anyway."

In 2007, a China/Fiji Trade and Economic Commission was set up to enhance economic relations between the two countries. A May 2008 article in The Sydney Morning Herald stated that "China's aid to Fiji has skyrocketed since the coup in December 2006", from €650,000 to over €100,000,000. The author of the article commented: "Just as Australia and other Western donors are trying to squeeze rebel Government, China has dramatically stepped up its aid, effectively dissipating any pressure Western donors might have been generating."

Federated States of Micronesia

The Federated States of Micronesia opened an embassy in Beijing.

New Zealand
Main article: China–New Zealand relations

Diplomatic relations with New Zealand were first established in 1972. the PRC diplomatic representative to New Zealand, Zhang Limin, is also accredited to New Zealand's associated territories, the Cook Islands and, since 2008, Niue. The People's Republic of China in December 2007 became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue, and provides economic aid to the Cook Islands.

In September 2007, New Zealand reaffirmed its adherence to the "One China" policy.

In April 2008, New Zealand became the first developed country to sign a free trade agreement with the PRC.

On 29 September 2008, New Zealand's delegate in United Nations openly praised the improving relations between the two governments of Beijing and Taipei.

In July 2009, Niuean Premier Toke Talagi stated that, if development aid were not forthcoming from New Zealand, he would request aid from China instead.

Papua New Guinea

Diplomatic relations with Papua New Guinea were established in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent.

Papua New Guinea is one of China's biggest trade partners in Oceania. Papua New Guinea exports far more to China than does any other Pacific Islands country, and imports three times more from China than does any other such country. It is also one of the few countries in the region to maintain a trade surplus in its relations with China; its surplus reached a record high of A$427m in 2010.

In 1999, the government of Prime Minister Bill Skate recognised Taiwan. Skate lost power less than a week later, and Papua New Guinea's diplomatic recognition reverted to China.

In 2003, Chinese embassy in Port Moresby published a statement of concern in reaction to comments in the Papua New Guinea press questioning the justification for PNG's relations with the People's Republic. The embassy statement insisted that relations between the two countries were mutually beneficial, reasserted Chinese claims to Taiwan, and concluded: "It is our sincere hope that the local media will report on China and its relations with PNG in a just and objective way, so as to further enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of our two countries."

In July 2003, PNG Governor General Sir Silas Atopare visited China, re-affirmed his country's adherence to the One China policy, and, according to a statement published by Chinese embassy, "thank the government and the people of China for their commitment in providing aid to PNG's development".

In 2005, relations cooled somewhat when Papua New Guinea, along with Fiji, supported Taiwan's wish to join the World Health Organization.

It was announced that members of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force would receive training provided by China. Traditionally, military training aid in Papua New Guinea had been provided by Western countries, namely, Australia, New Zealand and the U.S.

Samoa

The diplomatic relations between China and Samoa were established in 1975.

In the late 1980s, China began sending doctors to the Samoan National Hospital, and sent over a hundred over the following two decades. Samoa significantly increased its volume of imports from China in the late 2000s, while also increasing its exports to that country. In 2010, Samoa reached a record trade deficit in its relations with China, at A$70m. In 2007, China provided Samoa with an x-ray machine and several volunteer doctors. In 2008, China donated over €1,360,000 to Samoa to fund its education policies.

In March 2008, following unrest in Tibet, the speaker of the Samoan Fono (legislative assembly), Tolofuaivalelei Falemoe Leiataua, stated that foreign leaders should not interfere with China as it deals with "internal affairs", and that they should not meet the Dalai Lama.

In June 2008, Samoa announced it would be opening diplomatic missions in China and Japan – the country's first diplomatic offices in Asia. In September, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement indicating that China and Samoa have always "conducted fruitful cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, agriculture, sports, culture, education and health, as well as international affairs", and that China intended to "make more tangible efforts to support Samoa's economic and social development".

In 2010, the Chinese government-funded China-Samoa Agricultural Demonstration Farm was established in Nu'u with an aim "to train the Samoan farmers on voluntary basis through Chinese agricultural planting techniques". About 500 Samoan farmers received training from Chinese agricultural experts.

In 2011, 57 Samoan students were studying in China on a Chinese government sponsorship.

Tonga
Main article: China–Tonga relations

Relations with Tonga were first established in 1998. In 2000, noble Tuʻivakano of Nukunuku (later to become Prime Minister) banned all Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District. This followed alleged complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese. In 2001, Tonga and China decided to strengthen their "military relations". In 2008, China provided Tonga with military supplies worth over €340,000.

In 2006, rioters caused severe damage to shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.

In April 2008, Tongan King George Tupou V visited China, reaffirmed his country's adherence to the "One China" policy, and, according to the Chinese State news agency Xinhua, "supported the measures adopted to handle the incident in Lhasa". King Tupou V also met Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie to "enhance exchange and cooperation between the two militaries". Xinhua stated that China and Tonga have "fruitful cooperation in politics, economy, trade, agriculture and education, and kept a sound coordination in regional and international affairs".

In early 2010, Chinese aid to Tonga included assistance in the reconstruction of Nuku'alofa's central business district; "an agricultural project in Vaini"; health clinics set up in Vavaʻu and Vaini; the provision of seven Chinese doctors for a two-year period; and an allocation of €2.2 million "for social and economic development", including "soft loans and interest free loans to the Tonga Government".

In April 2011, the Lowy Institute reported that, of all Pacific countries, Tonga was carrying the highest burden of debt from Chinese loans, amounting to 32% of Tonga's GDP. Simultaneously, the International Monetary Fund warned Tonga was "facing debt distress", a "very high possibility that Tonga be unable to service its debts in the future".

Vanuatu
Main article: China–Vanuatu relations

In 2006, Vanuatu signed an economic cooperation agreement with China, whereby the latter was to assist Vanuatu's economic development, and remove tariffs on imports from Vanuatu. China also added Vanuatu to its list of approved tourism destinations for Chinese tourists. Ni-Vanuatu trade minister James Bule said his country had also requested China's assistance "in supplying machines so we can establish a plant in Vanuatu to produce bio fuel". By contrast, Opposition leader Serge Vohor has said China is exerting too much influence on the ni-Vanuatu government's policy.

In May 2009, Vanuatu appointed its first ever ambassador to China, former Minister of Finance Willie Jimmy. Jimmy "call for China to have a foot firmly planted in the Pacific through Port Vila", which -the Vanuatu Daily Post remarked- "no doubt caused ruffled feathers among other foreign diplomatic partners".

In July 2010, Chinese Ambassador Cheng Shuping announced that China would fund a number of projects in Vanuatu, "including the National Convention Centre and the expansion of Prime Minister's Offices", as well as "the design and reconstruction of the Francophone Wing of the University of the South Pacific Emalus Campus".

Countries without diplomatic relations with the PRC

China recognizes all 193 UN member states, the Holy See and Palestine as sovereign states. However, it does not have diplomatic relations with 11 UN member states, nor with the Holy See. These sovereign entities recognize the Republic of China as the sole legitimate Chinese state.

The following countries do not recognize the People's Republic of China. Instead, these countries recognize the Republic of China.

Name Previous relations with the PRC Duration of previous relations with the PRC References
 Belize Yes 1987–1989 Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 2 February 1987 and severed on 23 October 1989. Belize terminated the recognition of the PRC and then recognized the ROC on 11 October 1989.
 Eswatini No N/A
 Guatemala No N/A
 Haiti No N/A In 1996, the Bureau of Commercial Development of the PRC in the Republic of Haiti and Bureau of Commercial Development of the Republic of Haiti in the PRC were established in Port-au-Prince and Beijing as the assignment between two countries.
 Marshall Islands Yes 1990–1998 Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 16 November 1990 and severed on 11 December 1998. Marshall Islands recognized the ROC on 20 November 1998.
 Palau No N/A
 Paraguay No N/A
 Saint Kitts and Nevis No N/A
 Saint Lucia Yes 1997–2007 The relations with the ROC were first established in 1984 and severed in 1997. Diplomatic relations with the PRC were established on 1 September 1997 and severed on 5 May 2007. Saint Lucia resumed diplomatic ties with the ROC on 30 April 2007.
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines No N/A
 Tuvalu No N/A
 Vatican City No N/A Since the establishment of the PRC, Catholicism has been permitted to operate only under the supervision of the SARA. All worship must legally be conducted through state-approved churches belonging to the CPA, which does not accept the Primacy of the Bishop of Rome. The Holy See was banished from China following the incident around the death of Antonio Riva in 1951.

In 2016, negotiation of diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the PRC started. See China-Holy See relations.

See also

References

  1. "Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank". Lowy Institute. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
  2. "Independent Foreign Policy of Peace". fmprc.gov.cn. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  3. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China". Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  4. Williams, David (8 January 2008). "China-Taiwan tussle in Bim politics". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2010. Beijing and Taipei often trade insults over which is using "dollar diplomacy" in the form of offers of aid or cheap loans to curry influence around the world. The 'One-China' policy ensures that nations cannot have official relations with both China and Taiwan.
  5. Ninvalle, Pete (27 April 2007). "China halts St. Lucia work". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
  6. Erikson, Daniel (8 January 2010). "China in the Caribbean: The New Big Brother". Star Publishing Company. Retrieved 13 July 2010. China's overall strategy for the Caribbean has been driven by a desire to ensure the security of Chinese offshore financial holdings, woo countries with infrastructure projects and investment deals to ensure support for China in multilateral organizations, and promote the crucial "One China" policy to isolate Taiwan on the world stage.
  7. Lee, Kristine (15 April 2020). "It's Not Just the WHO: How China Is Moving on the Whole U.N." Politico. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  8. Ong, Andrew (2023). Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-7071-5. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b.
  9. Kang, David C. (2005). "Why China's Rise Will Be Peaceful: Hierarchy and Stability in the East Asian Region". Perspectives on Politics. 3 (3): 551–554. doi:10.1017/S1537592705270342. ISSN 1537-5927. JSTOR 3689029. S2CID 145193988.
  10. Mark Beeson; Richard Stubbs, eds. (2012). Routledge handbook of Asian regionalism. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58054-0. OCLC 666242764.
  11. "Chairman's Statement of the First East Asia Summit, Kuala Lumpur, 14 December 2005". 16 December 2005. Archived from the original on 16 December 2005. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  12. Ross, Robert S. (4 July 2021). "China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict". Journal of Contemporary China. 30 (130): 613–629. doi:10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737. ISSN 1067-0564. S2CID 230609101.
  13. "Poll: Mutual Distrust Grows Between China, US". Voice of America. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  14. "China's new map outrages its neighbors". NBC News. 1 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  15. "China's new national map has set off a wave of protests. Why?". Associated Press News. 1 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  16. "Japan courts India to counter China: Analysts". The Economic Times. 23 August 2007. Archived from the original on 26 January 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
  17. "Wargame with India not to put China in a closet: US admiral". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 24 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012.
  18. "Three Things to Know About China-India Tensions". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
  19. "China, Russia sign border agreement". Business Standard, Press Trust of India. 21 July 2008. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  20. "The Sino-Russian border: The cockerel's cropped crest". The Economist. 24 July 2008. Archived from the original on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  21. ^ China, The World Factbook
  22. China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless negotiations are ongoing as of 2008.
  23. "The South China Sea conflict in a nutshell". 10 June 2015.
  24. Forsythe, Michael and Sakamaki, Sachiko China's Asian Charm Offensive in `Shambles' Over Disputes With Neighbors Archived 3 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Bloomberg, 26 September 2010
  25. "China Raising 2012 Defense Spending to Cope With Unfriendly 'Neighborhood'." Archived 5 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Bloomberg Businessweek. 4 March 2012.
  26. "China's Defense Spending Dilemma." Archived 7 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Wall Street Journal. 5 March 2012.
  27. Zachary Keck; The Diplomat. "Made in China: A US-Japan-Philippines Axis?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  28. "Japan, EU to discuss cooperation on tech materials to cut reliance on China, Nikkei says". Reuters. 30 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  29. "Beijing likens Cheney criticism to nosy neighbor". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  30. Ho, Stephanie. "Chinese Foreign Relations to Focus on More Active Diplomacy." Archived 9 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine Voice of America, 7 March 2011.
  31. Lai, Christina (26 October 2016). "In China's sixth plenum, Xi strives to polish image abroad". Asia Times. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  32. STUART LAU (13 June 2021). "US and Europe converge on historic rebuke of China". Politico Europe.
  33. Areddy, James T. (14 June 2021). "Back-to-Back Rebukes of China Mark a Turning Point". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
  34. Sabine Siebold, Steve Holland and Robin Emmott, "NATO adopts tough line on China at Biden's debut summit with alliance" Reuters June 14, 2021
  35. Karla Adam et al.. "G-7 takes stronger stand against China, at U.S. urging" Washington Post June 13, 2021.
  36. ^ Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  37. ^ Mitter, Rana (2020). China's good war: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-674-98426-4. OCLC 1141442704.
  38. ^ Cheng, Wenting (2023). China in Global Governance of Intellectual Property: Implications for Global Distributive Justice. Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies series. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-031-24369-1.
  39. Marlow, Iain (17 April 2018). "China's $1 Billion White Elephant". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  40. "China's Era of Debt-Trap Diplomacy May Pave the Way for Something Sinister". The National Interest. 3 February 2019. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
  41. ^ Umesh Moramudali and Thilina Panduwawal (29 November 2022). "Evolution of Chinese Lending to Sri Lanka Since the mid-2000s: Separating Myth from Reality" (PDF). China Africa Research Initiative. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  42. Brautigam, Deborah (2 January 2020). "A critical look at Chinese 'debt-trap diplomacy': the rise of a meme". Area Development and Policy. 5 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/23792949.2019.1689828. ISSN 2379-2949. S2CID 214547742.
  43. Jevans Nyabiage (6 June 2022). "Chinese debt traps in Africa? The big worry is bondholders: study". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  44. Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  45. Deborah Brautigam; Meg Rithmire (6 February 2021). "The Chinese 'Debt Trap' Is a Myth". The Atlantic. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  46. "One Belt One Road: A role for UK companies in developing China's new initiative" (PDF). China–Britain Business Council. 13 July 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
  47. Rym Momtaz, "Macron steals Trump's thunder with Chinese Airbus order: France lands €30B aviation deal with Beijing," POLITICO 25 March 2019 Archived 26 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
  48. Legorano, Giovanni (23 March 2019). "Italy Signs Up to China's Global Infrastructure Plan Despite U.S. Ire". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  49. ^ "MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLIC AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA" (PDF). governo.it. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
  50. "Why Is Italy Withdrawing From China's Belt and Road Initiative?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  51. ^ "Italy Wants to Exit the Belt and Road – But Without Curbing Ties With China". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  52. Swanson, Ana (5 July 2018). "Trump's Trade War With China Is Officially Underway". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  53. Lawrence J. Lau, "The China–US Trade War and Future Economic Relations." China and the World (Lau Chor Tak Institute of Global Economics and Finance, 2019): 1–32. quote p. 3 online
  54. "Asia forms world's biggest trade bloc, a China-backed group excluding U.S." Reuters. 15 November 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  55. Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024). The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300266900.
  56. "View the ratification status by country or by treaty". tbinternet.ohchr.org. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  57. "China and International Environmental Law". fmprc.gov.cn. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  58. "General Assembly, 26th session: 1976th plenary meeting, Monday, 25 October 1971, New York (A/PV.1976)". United Nations Digital Library. 1974. p. 41.
  59. Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  60. Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  61. Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  62. Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
  63. ^ Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024). The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/jj.11589102. ISBN 9780300266900. JSTOR jj.11589102.
  64. ^ Shinn, David H.; Eisenman, Joshua (2023). China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-21001-0.
  65. "CIP Signs Historic Agreement with China". International Potato Center. 8 November 2017. Archived from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  66. Soviet Foreign Policy: 1945–1980. Progress Publishers. 1981. pp. 642–681.
  67. "МВнР :: Китайска народна република". mfa.bg (in Bulgarian). Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  68. Petruf, Pavol. Československá zahraničná politika 1945 – 1992 (in Slovak). pp. 99–119.
  69. "Diplomatic Relations of Romania". Ministerul Afacerilor Externe. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  70. "Political and diplomatic relations". Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  71. "DPRK Diplomatic Relations" (PDF). NCNK. 2016. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
  72. "Chiny" (in Polish). Retrieved 23 July 2023.
  73. "List of Countries Maintaining Diplomatic Relations with Mongolia" (PDF). p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  74. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  75. "When Switzerland recognised the new China". SWI swissinfo.ch. 17 January 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  76. "Asia". Government of Vietnam. April 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  77. ^ "Countries and Regions". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
  78. "Bilateral Cooperation". 6 January 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
  79. "60th anniversary of China-Sweden diplomatic relations celebrated". China Daily. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  80. "China-Sweden relations continue to strengthen". China Daily. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  81. "Deepening China-Denmark ties". China Daily. 11 May 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  82. "Diplomatic relations". Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
  83. China's Foreign Affairs. World Affairs Press. 2014. p. 534.
  84. "Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Entering Finland and travelling abroad: China". Formin.finland.fi. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  85. Fazal-ur-Rahman. "Pakistan's Evolving Relations with China, Russia, and Central Asia" (PDF). Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  86. ^ "Overview on China-UK Relations". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 10 April 2010. Archived from the original on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  87. "Norway – China 55-year friendship". Norway.cn. 30 October 2009. Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  88. "Bilateral cooperation". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  89. "Sino-Afghan Relations' 65th Anniversary Celebrated in Kabul". Tolo News. 19 January 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
  90. "Bilateral Relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nepal. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  91. "China-Egypt Relations". china.org.cn. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  92. "67 years passed and the Syrian Chinese ties towards greater hardness and strength". SANA (Syrian Arab News Agency). 22 September 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
  93. "China-Yemen relations". china.org.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2023.
  94. "LIST OF MEMBER STATES OF THE UNITED NATIONS (193) HAVING DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CAMBODIA". mfaic.gov.kh. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  95. "Bilateral Relations between China and Iraq". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Iraq. 11 April 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  96. "Interview: China-Morocco relations start new journey after 60 years of diplomatic ties". Xinhua News Agency. 20 October 2018. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
  97. "China-Algeria Relations". china.org.cn. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  98. "60-Year Fruitful Partnership Paves the Way to a Brighter Future". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Sudan. 4 February 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  99. "Guinea – china.org.cn". Archived from the original on 26 October 2010.
  100. "Introduction of China-Ghana Relations". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Ghana. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  101. "Memoria anual 2015" (PDF) (in Spanish). 2015. pp. 19–25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  102. "Mali". china.org.cn. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
  103. "Our Diplomatic Relations". Government of Somalia. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  104. "Diplomatic Relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Laos. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  105. "Tanzania". china.org.cn. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  106. "Uganda". china.org.cn. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  107. "Kenya". china.org.cn. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  108. "Burundi". china.org.cn. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  109. "Tunisia". china.org.cn. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  110. "France and China". Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  111. "Congo (B) – china.org.cn". china.org.cn. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  112. "Central Africa". china.org.cn. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  113. "China and Zambia celebrated the 55th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Zambia. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  114. "Mauritania". China Internet Information Center. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  115. "Joint Communiqué of the Government of China and the Government of Canada on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between China and Canada (1970)" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  116. "Equatorial Guinea". china.org.cn. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  117. "Major events in China-Italy relations". Xinhua News Agency. 7 May 2004. Archived from the original on 2 July 2004. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  118. "Ethiopia". china.org.cn. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  119. "RELACIONES DIPLOMATICAS DE CHILE CON LOS PAISES DE LA CUENCA DEL PACIFICO" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
  120. "Five Decades of Shared Journey—On the 50th anniversary of China-Nigeria diplomatic relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Federal Republic of Nigeria)". Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  121. "China and Kuwait". 24 August 2009. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  122. "General picture of bilateral relations between China and Cameroon".
  123. Schaufelbuehl, Janick Marina; Wyss, Marco; Zanier, Valeria (1 January 2019). Europe and China in the Cold War: Exchanges Beyond the Bloc Logic and the Sino-Soviet Split. BRILL. p. 33. doi:10.1163/9789004388123_003. ISBN 978-90-04-38812-3. S2CID 158272088.
  124. "Sierra Leone -- china.org.cn". china.org.cn. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
  125. "中土关系概况". mfa.gov.cn (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
  126. "Side by side and hand in hand, Usher in a New Era for China-Iran Friendship". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Islamic Republic of Iran. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  127. "Ambassador Cao Zhongming published an article on China Daily titled "Unity, openness and assistance"". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Kingdom of Belgium. 13 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  128. "Acuerdo entre el Peru y China para el establecimiento de relaciones diplomaticas". Archivo Nacional de Tratados (in Spanish). Retrieved 27 June 2023.
  129. "Xi Jinping Exchanges Messages of Congratulations with Lebanese President Michel Aoun on the 50th Anniversary of the Establishment of China-Lebanon Diplomatic Relations". eu.china-mission.gov.cn. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  130. "Rwanda". China Internet Information Center. 10 October 2006. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  131. "Bilateral relations between China and Senegal". China Daily. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
  132. "The Embassy". Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  133. "Iceland – Establishment of Diplomatic Relations". Government of Iceland. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
  134. "China – Joint communique of the government of China and the government of Malta on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Malta". foreign.gov.mt. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
  135. "Mexico, China celebrate 50 years of friendship". China Daily – Global Edition. 14 February 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  136. "Biblioteca Digital de Tratados" (in Spanish). Retrieved 27 June 2023.
  137. "Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the People's Republic of China and Mauritius". Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 23 July 2023.
  138. "50th Anniversary of Sino-Dutch Diplomatic Relations". Diplomat Magazine. 21 May 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  139. "China". mfa.gr. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  140. "Diplomatic relations". Archived from the original on 16 February 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  141. "Togo". china.org.cn. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  142. "Countries & Regions". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
  143. "Kooperation im Wandel: 30 Jahre diplomatische Beziehungen Bundesrepublik Deutschland – Volksrepublik China". Archived from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  144. "Countries with which the Republic of Maldives has established Diplomatic Relations" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Maldives. 11 May 2023. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  145. "Madagascar – china.org.cn". China.org.cn. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  146. "Bulletin de documentation (1972/9)" (PDF). sip.gouvernement.lu (in French). November–December 1972. p. 9. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  147. "Countries with which Jamaica has Established Diplomatic Relations". 16 April 2021. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
  148. "Congo (DRC)". china.org.cn. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
  149. "Les dates de l'établissement des relations diplomatiques entre la Chine et les autres pays". french.china.org.cn (in French). Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  150. "Celebrating 45 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Australia and China". 21 December 2017. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  151. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and New Zealand". The Embassy of the People's Republic of China in New Zealand. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
  152. "Spain Announces Establishment of Diplomatic Ties With Peking". The New York Times. 10 March 1973. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  153. Current Background, Issues 1004–1008. American Consulate General. 1974.
  154. "Political relations People's Republic of China and Guinea-Bissau".
  155. "Gabon – china.org.cn". china.org.cn. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  156. "Senarai tarikh penubuhan hubungan diplomatik Malaysia dan negara – negara luar" (in Malay). Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  157. "Trinidad and Tobago and China committed to continue strengthening and deepening their bilateral relationship – 13th July, 2016". Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs. 14 July 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
  158. Libro amarillo correspondiente al año ...: presentado al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de ... por el titular despacho (in Spanish). Venezuela. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 2003. pp. 528–529.
  159. "Political Relations People's Republic of China and Republic of Niger".
  160. "Brasil e China estabeleceram relações diplomáticas em 15 de agosto de 1974". gov.br Embaixada Pequim (in Portuguese). Retrieved 4 June 2023.
  161. "China and Gambia". Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  162. "Joint Communique Regarding the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Botswana". 25 April 2002. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  163. Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2007). Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 53-55. ISBN 978-971-23-4929-4. Archived from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 23 March 2023.
  164. Southern African Political History A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997. Greenwood Press. 1999. p. 215.
  165. "ความสัมพันธ์ทวิภาคี" (in Thai). Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  166. "Formal diplomatic relations list" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
  167. "Countries with Established Diplomatic Relations with Samoa". Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade – Samoa. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
  168. "Comoros". china.org.cn. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
  169. "Cape Verde". 10 October 2006. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  170. "Lijst van Diplomatieke Betrekkingen en Visum-afschaffingsovereenkomsten" (PDF). gov.sr (in Dutch). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  171. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Seychelles". 25 April 2002. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  172. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and Papua New Guinea". 15 November 2000. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  173. "Bilateral Relations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Liberia)".
  174. "Chinese embassy celebrates 45 years of Sino-Jordanian relations". The Jordan Times. 12 April 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  175. "LIST OF COUNTRIES WITH WHICH BARBADOS HAS DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BY REGIONS". Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (Barbados). Archived from the original on 13 August 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  176. Joseph A. Kechichian. "Countries with which Oman has diplomatic relations" (PDF). Oman and the World The emergence of an independent foreign policy. pp. 319–322. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  177. Directory of Officials of the People's Republic of China A Reference Aid · Volumes 7–13. National Foreign Assessment Center. 1978. p. 75. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
  178. "All Countries". Office of the Historian. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  179. "Diplomatic Ties Between China and African Countries". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  180. Wan, Po-San; Zheng, Victor (2013). Gambling Dynamism: The Macao Miracle. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 50.
  181. "Bilateral Relations between China and Ireland". Embassy of China in Ireland. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  182. ^ "Diplomatic relations between China and ..." United Nations Digital Library. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
  183. "ASIA PACÍFICO" (in Spanish). Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  184. "China and Zimbabwe". 16 August 2004. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
  185. "China Kiribati Notes Establishing Diplomatic Relations". Wikisource. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
  186. "35 years of diplomatic relations". 17 March 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  187. Government of Antigua and Barbuda. "Chronology of Antigua and Barbudas Bilateral relations". Archived from the original on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  188. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the People's Republic of Angola (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China)".
  189. "Joint Communique Regarding The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of the Ivory Coast". fmprc.gov.cn. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  190. "Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Lesotho". fmprc.gov.cn. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
  191. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republics of China and the United Arab Emirates". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Arab Emirates. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
  192. "Grenada". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 12 July 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
  193. Chai, Yu; Chai, Yunxia, eds. (2019). Sino-Latin American Economic and Trade Relations. Springer. p. 6.
  194. "Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Republic of China and the State of Qatar". fmprc.gov.cn. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  195. China's Foreign Affairs. World Affairs Press. 2005. p. 557.
  196. "Bilateral relations". Archived from the original on 5 May 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  197. "FSM Diplomatic Relations List". Government of the Federated States of Micronesia. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  198. Mushelenga, Samuel Abraham Peyavali (2008). "Foreign policy-making in Namibia : the dynamics of the smallness of a state" (PDF). pp. 254–259.
  199. "Communique Concerning the Estabushment of Diplomatic Relations Between the People's Repulbic of China and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
  200. "Rapporti bilaterali della Repubblica di San Marino" (in Italian). Retrieved 15 December 2021.
  201. "Diplomaatiliste suhete (taas)kehtestamise kronoloogia" (in Estonian). 30 January 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  202. "Dates of establishment and renewal of diplomatic relations". mfa.gov.lv. 1 July 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
  203. "List of countries with which Lithuania has established diplomatic relations". Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  204. "STATES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS". Retrieved 15 June 2023.
  205. "Страны, установившие дипломатические отношения с Республикой Казахстан" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
  206. "LIST OF STATES WITH WHICH THE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS" (PDF). Retrieved 13 November 2023.
  207. "Political Relations between Ukraine and China". Посольство України в Китаї. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  208. "Список стран, с которыми КР установил дипломатические отношения" (in Russian). Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  209. "STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS". Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  210. "Cui Qiming: China and Belarus are close friends and sincere partners". Belarus.by. 19 January 2017. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  211. al-Alkim, Hassan Hamdan (2012). Dynami of Arab Foreign Policy-Making in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Constraints and External Challenges. Saqi. On 25 January 1992 China and Israel raised their diplomatic relations to ambassadorial level.
  212. "Bilateral relations". MFA Moldova. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  213. "The People's Republic of China". Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  214. "China – Bilateral Relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  215. Đogić, Mojca Pristavec (September 2016). "Priznanja samostojne Slovenije" (PDF) (in Slovenian). Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  216. "Bilateral relations – Date of Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic Relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Croatia. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  217. "Relations between Georgia and the People's Republic of China". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Georgia). Archived from the original on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
  218. "Štáty a teritóriá" (in Slovak). Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  219. Eritrea Update. Provisional Government of Eritrea (EPLF), Mission to the USA and Canada. 1992.
  220. "Bilateral relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of North Macedonia. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  221. "Diplomatic relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Andorra. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  222. "Rapport de Politique Extérieure 2007" (in French). p. 44. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  223. "Datumi priznanja i uspostave diplomatskih odnosa". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina (in Bosnian). 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
  224. "Joint Communique Between the People's Republic of China and the Cook Islands on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations". 28 October 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  225. "中国同圣卢西亚的关系". mfa.gov.cn (in Chinese). Retrieved 28 December 2023.
  226. "Joint Communique Between the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of South Africa on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations". 1 January 1998. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
  227. "Ambassador Wang Baodong Published Signed Article on the 20th Anniversary of China-Tonga Diplomatic Relations". 2 November 2018.
  228. "China, East Timor Establish Diplomatic Relations". Archived from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  229. "Nauru". Fmprc.gov.cn. 6 August 2003. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
  230. "China, Commonwealth of Dominica establish diplomatic ties". 30 March 2004. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  231. "Tabela priznanja i uspostavljanja diplomatskih odnosa". Montenegro Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
  232. "Costa Rica y Palestina acordaron hoy el establecimiento de relaciones diplomáticas" (in Spanish). 5 February 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  233. "China, Niue establish diplomatic ties". Xinhua News Agency. 12 December 2007. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  234. "Full text of joint communique on the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Niue". Xinhua News Agency. 12 December 2007. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  235. "Chinese Ambassador H.E. Long Zhou: "Strive for New Glory of China-Malawi Relations"". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Malawi. 29 December 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
  236. "China establishes diplomatic relations with South Sudan". Sify. 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 26 August 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  237. "RELACIONES DIPLOMÁTICAS DE LA REPÚBLICA DE PANAMÁ" (PDF). p. 195. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
  238. "The People's Republic of China and the Dominican Republic Establish Diplomatic Relations". Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  239. "REGISTRO DE FECHAS DE ESTABLECIMIENTO DE RD" (in Spanish). Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  240. "Solomon Islands Diplomatic and Consular List". Ministry of Foreign Affairs and External Trade of Solomon Islands. 1 June 2020. pp. 36–38. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  241. "Comunicado Conjunto entre la República Popular China y la República de Honduras sobre el Establecimiento de Relaciones Diplomáticas". Ministry of foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China (in Spanish). 26 March 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2023.
  242. ^ Brown, Kerry (2023). China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-26724-4.
  243. The Heritage Foundation China's Influence in Africa: Implications for the United States Archived 8 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  244. Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  245. ^ Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  246. Savage, Joel. "The Confused Moments of Nkrumah in China After The Coup". modernghana.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
  247. Muekalia 2004, p.6
  248. Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War (2005) p 107.
  249. Taylor 2000, p. 93
  250. "From "brothers" to "partners": China, Africa building strategic ties". Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  251. "China woos Taiwan's African friends". afrol.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  252. "Africa and the UN Security Council Permanent Seats". Pambazuka News. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  253. "chinaembassy.org.zw Sino-African Relations". Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  254. "China boosts African economies, offering a 'second opportunity'". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  255. ^ "Mozambique-China Trade Continues to Grow". allafrica.com. 9 December 2012. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
  256. ^ "Africa, China Trade" (PDF). Financial Times. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  257. ^ "China's trade safari in Africa". Le Monde diplomatique. May 2005. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  258. Susan Puska. "Military backs China's Africa adventure". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  259. "Chinese Government TV Showcases Foreign Cadets Training in Chinese Military Academies". Middle East Media Research Institute. 12 October 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  260. "Out of Africa". China Daily. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  261. "Confucius Institute Bridges Friendship between China and Africa". cri.com.cn. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  262. Osnos, Evan (9 February 2009). "The Promised Land". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  263. Tom Mackenzie, Mitch Moxley. "China's 'Little Africa' is under pressure". GlobalPost. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  264. ^ "China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration". Migration Policy Institute. 6 August 2008. Archived from the original on 29 January 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  265. "Russian, Chinese weapons compete in Africa". United Press International. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  266. "China 'is fuelling war in Darfur'". BBC News. 13 July 2008. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  267. Beresford, David (18 April 2008). "Chinese ship carries arms cargo to Mugabe regime". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  268. Spencer, Richard (31 August 2007). "China is to withdraw backing for Mugabe". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  269. Evans, Ian (26 July 2008). "Robert Mugabe forced into talks with opposition after China told him 'to behave'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  270. Blair, David (31 August 2007). "Why China is trying to colonise Africa". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  271. "China as Africa's 'angel in white'". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  272. Goldstein, Joseph (15 October 2018). "Kenyans Say Chinese Investment Brings Racism and Discrimination". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  273. Barry Sautman, Yan Hairong (Spring 2008). "The Forest for the Trees: Trade, Investment and the China-in-Africa Discourse" (PDF). Hong Kong Polytechnic University Institutional Research Archive. Hong Kong. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2020.
  274. "China in Africa – Is China Gaining Control of Africa's Resources?" (PDF). gpc.edu. CQ Press. January 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
  275. The Heritage Foundation China's Influence in the Western Hemisphere Archived 22 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  276. Columbia Daily Tribune Caribbean sees China acquire more influence Archived 14 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  277. United Transportation Union Cuba turns to China for transport needs Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  278. Best, Tony (24 October 2008). "US calls off Barbados ban". Nation Newspaper. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
  279. Dells, Alicia (27 September 2009). "Stronger link". Barbados Advocate. Bridgetown, Barbados. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2009. The acting Prime Minister added that Barbados looks forward to welcoming the Guangdong Art Troupe to the island next month and noted that Barbados was keen on having a Confucius Institute for the teaching of Mandarin and Chinese history at the UWI Cave Hill Campus in the near future.
  280. Chinese And Caribbean Relations – By David Jessop, CaribbeanWorldNews.com (Friday 20 March 2009)
  281. Confucius Institute opens at UWI in Jamaica Archived 18 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, CaribbeanNetNews.com, (Saturday, 14 February 2009)
  282. "Trinidad and Tobago recognizes China's full market economy status". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 7 October 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2005.
  283. "Trinidad News, Trinidad Newspaper, Trinidad Sports, Trinidad politics, Trinidad and Tobago, Tobago News, Trinidad classifieds, Trinidad TV, Sports, Business". Archived from the original on 20 January 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  284. "BNamericas – Spotlight: China's footprint in Caribbean in".
  285. "China Regional Snapshot: The Caribbean". House Foreign Affairs Committee – Republicans. 16 March 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  286. "Antigua and Barbuda". Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  287. ^ Ambassador (30 May 2008). "Summary of China-Barbados Bilateral Relations". Bridgetown, Barbados: Embassy of the People's Republic of China: Barbados. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  288. N., A. (28 September 2012). "China marks 63 years". Barbados Advocate. Archived from the original on 27 October 2013. Retrieved 29 September 2012. "Since I assumed my post as the Chinese Ambassador April this year, I have been much impressed by the sound friendship between our two countries and two peoples, as well as the great potential for future development," Ambassador Xu Hong stated.
  289. "Chinese embassy to Barbados". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 30 December 2011. Archived from the original on 31 December 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  290. "Chinese president accepts credentials from five new ambassadors". Xinhua News Agency. 3 March 2010. Archived from the original on 7 March 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  291. "List of Chinese countries with ADS status". China Travel Trends. 6 August 2009. Archived from the original on 3 January 2011. (list)
  292. "What China Means for Caribbean Tourism". Caribbean Journal. 17 December 2011. Archived from the original on 12 August 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
  293. N., A. (1 June 2012). "Chinese tourism remains a goal". Barbados Advocate. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
  294. "Member States". United Nations. Retrieved 25 June 2022. Barbados
  295. "Blue Book "Permanent Missions to the United Nations No. 306"" (PDF). United Nations. June 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
  296. "Borrowing Members". Caribbean Development Bank. Retrieved 25 June 2022. BORROWING MEMBERS Barbados
  297. Prime Minister David Thompson signed condolence book Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 21 May 2008
  298. "Wildey Gym Spruce-up". Nation Newspaper. Ministry of Commerce of P.R. China. 15 September 2005. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2009. The lighting will be improved, and the air-conditioning should be better now," Walrond said. He noted that the experienced technical team from the People's Republic of China would be working with China State Construction who built the gym, as well as with about 30 Barbadians.
  299. "Barbados to open embassy in China". Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2009.
  300. "Wen Jiaobao Holds Talks with Prime Minister of Barbados Arthur at the Great Hall of the People". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
  301. "Product Exports by China to Barbados 1999". World Integrated Trade Solution. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  302. "Product Imports by China from Barbados 1999". World Integrated Trade Solution. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
  303. "Caribbean Development Bank (CDB): Non-Regional Members". Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
  304. "Closer cooperation likely between China and Barbados". CaribbeanNetNews.com. 17 February 2009. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 10 September 2009.
  305. Marc Frank, "Trade With China Primes Cuba's Engine for Change", Financial Times, 29 March 2006
  306. "Trade with China helps Cuba to move up a gear," Financial Times, 8 March 2006
  307. ^ Bolstad, Erika; Hall, Kevin G. (11 June 2008). "GOP claim about Chinese oil drilling off Cuba is untrue". Mcclatchydc.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2009.
  308. "Firman Cuba y China contrato para producción compartida de petróleo". Granma Internacional (in Spanish). 31 January 2005.
  309. "PetroChina Great Wall Drilling Co. wins contracts in Cuba". China Chemical Reporter. 26 November 2005. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  310. "CNPC: Inked Pact with Cuba State Oil Firm for greater cooperation". Dow Jones Institutional News. New York, N.Y. 7 June 2011.
  311. Stout, David (15 May 2014). "The Last Time China Got into a Fight With Vietnam, It Was a Disaster". Time. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  312. "Timeline: U.S.-China Relations".
  313. "Obama says China must stop manipulating currency". Reuters. 29 October 2008.
  314. "China keen to beef up laws against bond, securities fraud". 26 May 2020.
  315. Fingar, Thomas (2016). "China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  316. Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's Rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4.
  317. Gans, Jared (11 March 2023). "Five things to know about the Iran-Saudi deal brokered by China". The Hill. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  318. Ulrich Theobald. "Chinese History – Dashi 大食 (http://www.chinaknowledge.de)". Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2015. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  319. Yingsheng, Liu (July 2001). "A century of Chinese research on Islamic Central Asian history in retrospect". Cahiers d'Asie Centrale (9): 115–129. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  320. "English translation of 阿拉伯半岛 ( Alabo Bandao / Ālābó Bàndăo ) – Arabia in Chinese". dictionary.hantrainerpro.com. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  321. Twitchett, Denis (2000), "Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.), Warfare in Chinese History, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 106–179 , ISBN 978-90-04-11774-7
  322. Schafer, Edward H. (1985) , The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics (1st paperback ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, p. 26, ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2
  323. E. Bretschneider (1871). On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books. London: Trübner & co. p. 6. Retrieved 28 June 2010. realm caliphs call ta shi kuo.(Original from Harvard University)
  324. E. Bretschneider (1871). On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books. LONDON: Trübner & co. p. 8. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 713 envoy appeared from ta shi.(Original from Harvard University)
  325. E. Bretschneider (1871). On the knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian colonies: and other western countries, mentioned in Chinese books. LONDON: Trübner & co. p. 10. Retrieved 28 June 2010. hui ho ambassadors 798 three ta shi ambassadors came.(Original from Harvard University)
  326. Samy S. Swayd (2006). Historical dictionary of the Druzes. Vol. 3 of Historical dictionaries of people and cultures (illustrated ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. xli. ISBN 978-0-8108-5332-4. Retrieved 4 April 2012. The fifth caliph, al-'Aziz bi-Allah (r.975-996). . . In his time, the Fatimi "Call" or "Mission" (Da'wa) reached as far east as India and northern China.
  327. E. J. van Donzel (1994). E. J. van Donzel (ed.). Islamic desk reference (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 67. ISBN 978-90-04-09738-4. Retrieved 26 December 2011. China (A. al-Sin):. . .After the coming of Islam, the existing trade was continued by the peoples of the South Arabian coast and the Persian Gulf, but the merchants remained on the coast.
  328. Ralph Kauz (2010). Ralph Kauz (ed.). Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Vol. 10 of East Asian Economic and Socio-cultural Studies – East Asian Maritime History. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
  329. ^ Masumi, Matsumoto. "The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam". Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  330. Stéphane A. Dudoignon; Hisao Komatsu; Yasushi Kosugi (2006). Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission, transformation, communication. Taylor & Francis. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-415-36835-3. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  331. Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Taylor & Francis. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3.
  332. "中华人民共和国中阿合作论坛". Cascf.org. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  333. ^ Atatüre, Süha (2023). "The US and China as Main Powers in Multipolar World Order 2.0". China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Mher Sahakyan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-35258-7. OCLC 1353290533.
  334. ^ Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  335. ^ Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  336. Murphy, Dawn C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: the Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-1-5036-3060-4. OCLC 1249712936.
  337. "1st Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum Ministerial Meeting Held". china.org.cn. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  338. "China Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF)".
  339. "Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich". Arab League – Sportwetten – Beste Singlebörsen im Vergleich. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
  340. Peyrouse, Sebastien (2016). "China and Central Asia". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  341. ^ Peyrouse, Sebastien (2016). "China and Central Asia". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  342. ^ Alfred, Gerstl (2023). "China in its Immediate Neighborhood". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
  343. ^ Proń, Elżbieta (2023). "China in Central Asia: New Developments in 2013-2021". China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Mher Sahakyan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-35258-7. OCLC 1353290533.
  344. Chen, Yo-Jung (15 January 2014). "China's Westward Strategy". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 17 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  345. YaleGlobal Online Central Asia: China's Mounting Influence Archived 10 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  346. Zhao, Huasheng (2016). "Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 173–174. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  347. ^ Garlick, Jeremy (2024). Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-25231-8.
  348. Zhao, Huasheng (2016). "Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
  349. Hashimova, Umida (20 July 2020). "China Launches 5+1 Format Meetings With Central Asia". The Diplomat. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
  350. "China and Central Asia: Bilateral Trade Relationships and Future Outlook". China Briefing News. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
  351. Stefan Wolff (24 May 2023). "How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west". The Conversation.
  352. ^ Ma, Xinru; Kang, David C. (2024). Beyond Power Transitions: The Lessons of East Asian History and the Future of U.S.-China Relations. Columbia Studies in International Order and Politics. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-55597-5.
  353. Nanjing by the Numbers Archived 24 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Foreign Policy. 9 February 2010.
  354. "Backlash over the alleged China curb on metal exports" Archived 15 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Daily Telegraph, London, 29 August 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
  355. "America in the Asia-Pacific: We're back". The Economist. 19 November 2011. Archived from the original on 1 January 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  356. Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-5036-3415-2. OCLC 1332788951.
  357. Jung, H. Pak (July 2020). "Trying to loosen the linchpin: China's approach to South Korea" (PDF). Global China. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2020 – via Brookings.edu.
  358. Zhou, Ling; Mao, Yanghai; Fu, Qinyi; Xu, Danlu; Zhou, Jiaqi; Zeng, Shaolong (2023). "A study on the belt and road initiative's trade and its influencing factors: Evidence of China-South Asia's panel data". PLOS ONE. 18 (4): e0282167. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1882167Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282167. PMC 10104349. PMID 37058500.
  359. UCLA Asia Institute China's March on South Asia Archived 16 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  360. "Bangladesh, Pakistan Team Up With China on Space Cooperation". Phys.org. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  361. "Indo-China trade to surpass $60 bn before 2010". Business Standard. 6 June 2008. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  362. Bukhari, Zeba Siddiqui (31 October 2019). "India, China clash over Kashmir as it loses special status and is divided". Reuters.
  363. John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (2001), post 1950
  364. Saibal Dasgupta (17 January 2008). "China is India's largest trade ally – International Business – Biz". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  365. "news.outlookindia.com". Outlookindia.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  366. "US blames India, China for blocking Doha talks". Business Standard. 29 July 2008. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  367. "India, China to work on FTA recommendations- Foreign Trade-Economy-News". The Economic Times. 20 February 2008. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  368. "Front Page: India, China to promote cooperation in civil nuclear energy". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 15 January 2008. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  369. "Article: India, China top Asian FDI list in Africa. | AccessMyLibrary – Promoting library advocacy". AccessMyLibrary. 28 March 2007. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  370. Africa: China's Africa Overture Needs Common Touch AllAfrica Archived 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 16 November 2007
  371. Shukla, Saurabh (15 December 2010). "Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao arrives in India, trade tops agenda". India Today. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  372. ^ Nasser Amin (2019). "The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present" (PDF). London Churchill College: Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies, p51. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  373. China Pakistan Economic Corridor. Archived 3 June 2018 at the Wayback MachineHussain, Tom (19 April 2015). "China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales". McClatchy News. Islamabad: mcclatchydc.
  374. ^ Kiani, Khaleeq (30 September 2016). "With a new Chinese loan, CPEC is now worth $62bn". Dawn. Pakistan. Archived from the original on 30 September 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
  375. "CPEC: The devil is not in the details". 23 November 2016. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
  376. "Economic corridor: Chinese official sets record straight". The Express Tribune. 2 March 2015. Archived from the original on 3 March 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
  377. Hussain, Tom (19 April 2015). "China's Xi in Pakistan to cement huge infrastructure projects, submarine sales". McClatchy News. Islamabad: mcclatchydc.
  378. "Boosting trade: Pak-China economic corridor plan gets premier's go-ahead". 16 August 2013. Archived from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
  379. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929133910/http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=8801&geo=2&theme=6&size=A Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine PAKISTAN – CHINA Chinese-funded port in Baluchistan, Pakistan to give Beijing direct access to the Middle East
  380. "South Asia news: China-Pakistan rail link on horizon". Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
  381. China's Strategic Reach Into Southeast Asia US-China Commission, Archived 23 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  382. Quinlan, Joe (13 November 2007). "Insight: China's capital targets Asia's bamboo network". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
  383. Murray L Weidenbaum (1 January 1996). The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. Martin Kessler Books, Free Press. pp. 4–8. ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  384. Path, Kosal (3 July 2018). "The Duality of Vietnam's Deference and Resistance to China". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 29 (3). Brooklyn College: 499–521. doi:10.1080/09592296.2018.1491449. ISSN 0959-2296. S2CID 158561213.
  385. Ross, Robert S. (4 July 2021). "China-Vietnamese Relations in the Era of Rising China: Power, Resistance, and Maritime Conflict". Journal of Contemporary China. 30 (130): 613–629. doi:10.1080/10670564.2020.1852737. ISSN 1067-0564. S2CID 230609101.
  386. Kim, Sung Chull (1 December 2019). "China and Its Neighbors: Asymmetrical Economies and Vulnerability to Coercion". Issues & Studies. 55 (4): 1950007. doi:10.1142/S1013251119500073. ISSN 1013-2511. S2CID 214499088.
  387. "China-Singapore visa-free agreement to take effect in April" Archived 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine People's Daily, 7 April 2011.
  388. ^ Han, Enze (2024). The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-769659-0.
  389. ^ Arezina, Sanja (2023). "China's Relations with Central and Eastern European Countries in a Multipolar World Order 2.0". China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Mher Sahakyan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-35258-7. OCLC 1353290533.
  390. von der Burchard, Hans (12 March 2019). "EU slams China as 'systemic rival' as trade tension rises". Politico Europe. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  391. "Brussels officially labels China a 'systemic rival'". New Europe. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  392. "EU and China reach agreement in principle on investment". European Commission. 30 December 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021. The EU and China have today concluded in principle the negotiations for a Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI). This deal follows a call between Chinese President Xi Jinping and European Commission President von der Leyen, European Council President Charles Michel and German Chancellor Angela Merkel on behalf of the Presidency of the EU Council, as well as French President Emmanuel Macron.
  393. Siebold, Sabine; Blenkinsop, Philip (5 May 2021). "EU puts up guard to Chinese firms, cools on trade deal". Reuters. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
  394. Lewis, Joanna I. (2023). Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54482-5.
  395. "Italy's decision on China's Belt and Road Initiative and beyond". 18 July 2023.
  396. ^ China, Ukraine agree to enhance cooperation Archived 30 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Ukrainian Independent Information Agency (28 October 2009)
  397. "The China-Ukraine Partnership: Surviving a Deteriorating Strategic Environment". Institut Montaigne. 9 February 2022. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  398. 牛弹琴 (4 March 2022). "联大谴责俄罗斯 为什么这35个国家投了弃权票？" [The UN General Assembly condemns Russia. Why did these 35 countries abstain from voting?]. Phoenix Television. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022.
  399. Nichols, Michelle; Pamuk, Humeyra (26 February 2022). "Russia vetoes U.N. Security action on Ukraine as China abstains". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  400. Vincent Ni (22 February 2022). "Ukraine crisis poses dilemma for China but also opportunity". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  401. "乌克兰华人接到噩耗痛哭：好朋友为国牺牲，同学弟弟奔赴战场" [Ukrainian Chinese cried bitterly after receiving the bad news: good friends sacrificed for the country, classmates and younger brothers rushed to the battlefield]. NetEase. 27 February 2022.
  402. "西安生活7年的乌克兰留学生发声引热议：俄没资格为乌做决定" [A Ukrainian student who has lived in Xi'an for 7 years speaks out: Russia is not qualified to make decisions for Ukraine]. NetEase. 27 February 2022.
  403. Hille, Kathrin (2 March 2022). "Chinese people stranded in Kyiv become target of Ukrainian anger". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  404. "中国网友不当言论引起乌克兰"排华浪潮"？我驻乌大使馆"跑路"？警惕流言，擦亮双眼！_政务_澎湃新闻". The Paper. 27 February 2022.
  405. Ramzy, Austin (11 September 2022). "Russia says that a senior Chinese official expressed support for the invasion of Ukraine". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  406. "British Embassy Beijing". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
  407. "China announces initiatives to expand ties with PIF member countries" Archived 19 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 24 November 2003
  408. "China offers aid package to Pacific Islands" Archived 6 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, China Daily, 5 April 2006
  409. "Chinese Premier Wen to visit the Pacific Islands" Archived 12 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Taipei Times, 3 April 2006
  410. "China, Pacific islands countries ties important" Archived 13 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 19 October 2007
  411. "What do the Chinese really want?" Archived 22 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Dr John Lee, Islands Business, December 2007
  412. "Pacific politics expert warns more riots possible" Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, TV3 (New Zealand), 13 December 2007
  413. "China says it is for peace and not power politics" Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Fiji Times, 18 December 2007
  414. "Chinese say they are at home" Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Fiji Times, 22 December 2007
  415. Australia 2020 final report Archived 20 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, p.363, Australian government website
  416. "Report questions China aid to Pacific" Archived 5 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine, ABC Radio Australia, 11 June 2008
  417. "China's aid diplomacy destabilises Pacific – report" Archived 3 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, 11 June 2008
  418. "China rejects charge of aid diplomacy in Pacific", Reuters, 12 June 2008
  419. "No political pre-conditions attached in China's aid to Pacific island countries" Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 12 June 2008
  420. "China vows to enhance parliamentary exchanges with Pacific island nations" Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 17 June 2009
  421. "Prochaine visite en Chine de délégations parlementaires du Pacifique" Archived 20 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Radio Chine Internationale, 12 June 2009
  422. "Chinese premier urges more economic cooperation with Pacific island countries" Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 16 June 2009
  423. "Chinese Navy ships makes first visit to Tonga" Archived 12 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, 3 September 2010
  424. ^ "FEATURE: China in the Pacific" Archived 17 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, ABC Radio Australia, 4 April 2011
  425. "China-Pacific island countries' ties of cooperation boom in many areas: Chinese ambassador" Archived 7 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 5 May 2011
  426. China Seeks to Star in South Pacific; Beijing Widens Diplomatic Reach With Loans, Aid, in Challenge to U.S.; Subtle Reminders in Tonga Archived 7 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine 27 April 2012
  427. "China is pursuing a Pacific-wide pact with 10 island nations on security, policing and data – report". The Guardian. 25 May 2022. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  428. "China, Pacific islands fail to reach consensus on security pact". Al Jazeera. 30 May 2022. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  429. Torress-Bennett, Aileen; Perry, Nick (30 May 2022). "China falls short on big Pacific deal but finds smaller wins". Associated Press News. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  430. David S. G. Goodman, "Australia and the China threat: Managing ambiguity." Pacific Review 30.5 (2017): 769–782 https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1339118 .
  431. "Australia and China: A Strong and Stable Partnership for the 21st Century", Kevin Rudd, 6 July 2004
  432. O'Malley, Sandra (5 February 2008). "China, Australia hold strategic meeting". The Age. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  433. "Rudd in tough Tibet talks". News.com.au. 10 April 2008. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  434. "Australian PM Kevin Rudd warns China over human rights abuses in Tibet" Archived 9 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Jane Macartney, The Times, 9 April 2008
  435. "Aussie Rules" Archived 13 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, The Independent, 10 April 2008
  436. "Kevin Rudd raises concerns over Tibet", TV3, 10 April 2008
  437. Ede, Charisse (8 August 2008). "Rudd expresses concerns to China". The Age. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  438. Duran, Paulina; Needham, Kirsty (18 May 2020). "Australia and China spat over coronavirus inquiry deepens". Reuters. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  439. Packham, Colin (25 September 2020). "Australia says world needs to know origins of COVID-19". Reuters. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  440. "Coronavirus: China's new army of tough-talking diplomats". BBC News. 12 May 2020.
  441. "China relations sour over tariff threat to Australian barley". 10 May 2020.
  442. Nagy, Stephen R. (21 May 2020). "Mitigating China's economic coercion". The Japan Times. Retrieved 23 December 2020. economic coercion
  443. Kassam, Natasha (20 July 2020). "Great expectations: The unraveling of the Australia-China relationship". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 23 December 2020. economic coercion
  444. "Chinese vice president meets Fiji leaders on cooperative partnership" Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 9 February 2009
  445. ^ "Pacific trade with China" Archived 31 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Solomon Star, 17 February 2011
  446. "Chaudhry breaks silence to slag New Zealand" Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, NiuFM, 9 July 2007
  447. "China/Fiji meeting, a success" Archived 27 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, FijiLive, 3 September 2007
  448. Hanson, Fergus (9 May 2008). "Don't ignore the big new player in Fiji". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  449. "FSM Government opens embassy in China" Archived 25 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine, FSM government website, 10 May 2007
  450. "China's first ambassador to Niue presents credential to Niue PM" Archived 16 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 18 October 2008
  451. "Cook Islands to receive more aid from China". Radio New Zealand International. 10 September 2008. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  452. "China, New Zealand vow to advance bilateral ties" Archived 13 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 25 September 2007
  453. "China and New Zealand sign free trade deal" Archived 12 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, International Herald Tribune, 7 April 2008
  454. "UN General Assembly – 63rd Session General Debate – New Zealand". Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  455. Trevett, Claire (10 July 2009). "PM faces blunt threat from Niue". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  456. Huang, Xiaoming; Patman, Robert G. (20 March 2013). China and the International System: Becoming a World Power. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-75639-9.
  457. "Spending money where it matters" Archived 19 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Bruce Jacobs, Taipei Times, 14 May 2008
  458. "Press Release of the Embassy" Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 7 August 2003
  459. "PNG Governor General Visits China" Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, PRC embassy in Papua New Guinea, 28 July 2003
  460. "Melanesia in Review: Issues and Events 2005" Archived 16 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Alumita L Durutalo, The Contemporary Pacific, vol. 18, n°2, autumn 2006, pp.396–399
  461. "Concern in PNG at defence training links with China". Radio New Zealand International. 19 May 2008. Archived from the original on 23 February 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  462. ^ "Chinese Ambassador Describes China-Samoa Ties as Friendly Partnership" Archived 20 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 4 April 2011
  463. "Samoa national hospital to get Chinese funded x-ray machine". Radio New Zealand International. 8 October 2007. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  464. "China to give Samoa more money for education". Radio New Zealand International. 20 January 2008. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  465. "World leaders voice support for China's handling of riots" Archived 9 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 27 March 2008
  466. "Samoa backs China's handling of Tibet" Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Samoa Observer, 27 March 2008
  467. "Samoa to establish diplomatic offices in China, Japan" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 23 June 2006
  468. "President Hu Jintao Meets with Samoan Prime Minister" Archived 14 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 17 September 2008
  469. "No More Chinese!" Archived 30 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Tongatapu.net
  470. "China, Tonga Vow to Further Military Ties" Archived 9 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, 15 May 2001
  471. "Chinese Government Donates Military Supplies to TDS", Tonga Now, 9 January 2008
  472. "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan" Archived 4 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, 7 February 2007
  473. "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots" Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, 17 November 2006
  474. "Tonga supports China's stance on Taiwan, Tibet" Archived 14 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 10 April 2008
  475. "Chinese Defense Minister meets Tongan King" Archived 16 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Xinhua, 15 April 2008
  476. "China to send doctors to Tonga". Radio New Zealand International. 8 March 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  477. "Vanuatu looks to China for markets", Vanuatu Daily, 11 April 2006
  478. "Chinese influence corrupting government: opposition leader", Vanuatu Daily, 12 March 2006
  479. "Minister confirms appointment" Archived 23 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Vanuatu Daily Post, 22 May 2009
  480. "Chinese Club donate Vt1.4m supplies to landslide victims" Archived 23 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Vanuatu Daily Post, 23 June 2009
  481. "China commits to fund Vanuatu projects", Vanuatu Daily Post, 23 July 2010
  482. Pasha L. Hsieh, "Rethinking non-recognition: Taiwan's new pivot to ASEAN and the one-China policy." Cambridge Review of International Affairs 33.2 (2020): 204–228 online.
  483. Holy See has no diplomatic relations with the PRC. In 1950, the ambassador of Holy See moved to Taipei.

Further reading

Library resources about
Foreign relations of China
  • Alden, Christopher. China Returns to Africa: A Superpower and a Continent Embrace (2008)
  • Amin, Nasser. "The dynamics of the Sino-Pakistani strategic partnership from its formation in the 1960s to the present" Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies 7 (2019): 51–66 online Archived 16 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations (Routledge, 2020). excerpt
  • Cohen, Warren I. America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations (2010) excerpt and text search
  • Doshi, Rush. The Long Game: China's Grand Strategy to Displace American Order (Oxford UP, 2021) online review
  • Fenby, Jonathan. The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present (3rd ed. 2019) popular history.
  • Ferdinand, Peter. "Westward ho—the China dream and 'one belt, one road': Chinese foreign policy under Xi Jinping." International Affairs 92.4 (2016): 941–957. online
  • Fogel, Joshua. Articulating the Sino-sphere: Sino-Japanese relations in space and time (2009)
  • Fravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton University Press, 2019) online reviews
  • Garver, John W. China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. excerpt
  • Garver, John W. Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century' (2001), post 1950
  • Hu, Weixing (2019). "Xi Jinping's 'Major Country Diplomacy': The Role of Leadership in Foreign Policy Transformation". Journal of Contemporary China. 28 (115): 1–14. doi:10.1080/10670564.2018.1497904. S2CID 158345991.
  • Lampton, David M. Following the Leader: Ruling China, from Deng Xiaoping to Xi Jinping (U of California Press, 2014).
  • Lanuzo, Steve L. "The Impact of Political Liberalization on Sino Myanmar Cooperation" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Liu, Guoli, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition. (Transaction, 2004). ISBN 0-202-30752-2
  • Lu, Ning. The dynamics of foreign-policy decisionmaking in China (Routledge, 2018).
  • Meijer, Hugo. Awakening to China’s Rise: European Foreign and Security Policies toward the People’s Republic of China (Oxford University Press, 2022) online review of this book
  • Quested, Rosemary K.I. Sino-Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014) online
  • Ryan, Keegan D. "The Extent of Chinese Influence in Latin America" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) online Archived 14 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Sutter, Robert G. Historical Dictionary of Chinese Foreign Policy (2011) excerpt and text search
  • Sutter, Robert G. Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China's International Politics Since 1949 (Rowman & Littlefield; 2013) 355 pages excerpt and text search
  • Swaine, Michael D. "Chinese views of foreign policy in the 19th party congress." China Leadership Monitor 55 (2018). online re 2017 Congress
  • Westad, Odd Arne. Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (Basic Books; 2012) 515 pages; comprehensive scholarly history
  • Woo, Hunje. "Increased Chinese Economic Influence and its Impact on the Changing Security Environment on the Korean Peninsula" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) online Archived 28 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • Yahuda, Michael. End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016)
China Foreign relations of China
Bilateral relations
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Former states
Multilateral relations
Diplomacy
China articles
History
Overviews
Prehistoric
Ancient
Imperial
Modern
Geography
Regions
Terrain
Water
Environment
Subdivisions
Politics
Law
Government
Military
Economy
Infrastructure
Transport
Society
Culture
Fours of China
Demographics
Religion
Symbols
Foreign relations of Asia
Sovereign states
States with
limited recognition
States with limited recognition
Details concerning international recognition and foreign relations provided by the articles linked in parentheses
UN member states
Partially unrecognised
UN specialized agency members
or GA observer state
Partially unrecognised
Non-UN member
states
Recognised by at least
one UN member
Recognised only by
non-UN members
Category: