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Lao is generally a subject–verb–object language, but emphasis can move the object to the beginning of a sentence. The language lacks both agreement and case marking, but word order is very free, with predicate-argument relations determined largely through context. Lao is a right-branching language, much like other Southeast Asian languages and, to a lesser extent, Romance languages.

Politeness

Since Lao culture is stratified based on the age, occupation, wealth or clout of the speaker, one must afford differing amounts of respect based on the discrepancy between one person and another. That affects language as well; to make language more polite, more formal language, including of pronouns (which can otherwise be dropped) and more formal versions of them, and sentence-ending particles can be used. Also, ending particles also serve to soften and make one's speech more polite.

• ແດ່ (dé )

In addition to ending most general statements and the softening of imperatives and requests, it is also used to intensify the meaning (especially of adjectives and adverbs) more politely, to make the use of demonstrative pronouns more polite, or to indicate a certain amount or some extent of something.

• ເດີ (deu ) or ເດີ້ (deu ) or ເດ (dè )

They are used as a more intensive version of ແດ່, thus giving requests and demands more urgency and are used for statements that tend to be more emphatic. They are, therefore, not as polite. ເດ also has the sense of and what about or to indicate an equivalent to this as a demonstrative pronoun.

Nouns

Nouns are not marked for plurality, gender, or declension but may be single or plural. Unlike in English, nouns are not marked with articles. Measure words or classifiers (ລັກສະໜະນາມ, laksana naam ) are often used to express plurals, as classifiers must be used to count objects, but the noun itself remains unchanged.

Verbs of physical action are easily converted into nouns by adding ການ (kan ) before the verb. Abstract actions and adjectives use ຄວາມ (khwam ) instead.

ເດີນທາງ

deunthang

to travel (v.)

nominalised into

ການເດີນທາງ

kan deunthang

travel (n.)

ເດີນທາງ {} ການເດີນທາງ

deunthang {} {kan deunthang}

{}

{to travel (v.)} {nominalised into} {travel (n.)}

ຄຶດ

khuet

to think (v.)

nominalised into

ຄວາມຄຶດ

khoam khuet

thought (n.)

ຄຶດ {} ຄວາມຄຶດ

khuet {} {khoam khuet}

{}

{to think (v.)} {nominalised into} {thought (n.)}

ດີ

di

/diː/

good (adj.)

nominalised into

ຄວາມດີ

khoam di

goodness (n.)

ດີ {} ຄວາມດີ

di {} {khoam di}

/diː/ {}

{good (adj.)} {nominalised into} {goodness (n.)}

Pronouns

Pronouns (ສັບພະນາມ, sap pha nam ) are often dropped in informal contexts and replaced with nicknames or kinship terms, depending on the relation of the speaker spoken to (sometimes even spoken about). Pronouns can change based on register of speech, including the obsolete royal and the formal, informal and vulgar. In more formal language, pronouns are more often retained and more formal ones used. Pronouns can be pluralized by adding ພວກ (phuak ) in front: ພວກເຈົ້າ () for "you plural". Age and status determine usage. Younger children's names are often prefixed with ບັກ (bak ) and ອີ (i ), respectively. Slightly older children are addressed to or have their names prefixed with ອ້າຍ (ai ) and ເອື້ອຍ (èw-ai ), respectively, but ພີ່ (phi ) is also common. Much older people may be politely dressed as aunt, uncle, mother, father, or even grandmother or grandfather, depending on their age. In a company setting, one's title is often used.

Demonstrative pronouns

Verbs

Lao verbs (ກະລິຍາ, karigna ) are not conjugated for tense, mood, or person. Tense is indicated by using time reference words, such as yesterday, next year, just now or by certain particles. Nouns that begin with ການ (kan ) or ຄວາມ (khwam ), often nominalised verbs, become verbs again when those particles are dropped.

Copula

Lao has two forms of the verb to be, ເປັນ (pèn ) and ແມ່ນ (maen ) which are somewhat interchangeable. As a general rule, the latter is not used to describe people.

ນົກ

Nok

Nok

ເປັນ

pen

be

ໝໍ

mo

doctor

ນົກ ເປັນ ໝໍ

Nok pen mo

Nok be doctor

Nok is a doctor.

ນັ້ນ

Nan

That

ບໍ່

bo

not

ແມ່ນ

mèn

be

ເຮືອ

heua

boat.

ນັ້ນ ບໍ່ ແມ່ນ ເຮືອ

Nan bo mèn heua

That not be boat.

That is not a boat.

Tense

In a general, in a short Lao sentence, the verb is often not marked for tense and can be taken from context, with words such as yesterday, tomorrow, later, etc. If the subject of when the events occurred is already known, they can also be left out and inferred from dialogue. However, there are several ways to mark tense in Lao:

Past

The most common way to indicate a completed action is to end a statement with ແລ້ວ (lèw ). That can also be used to indicate events that occurred in the recent past. One can also use the particle ໄດ້ (dai ) preceding the verb, alone or in conjunction with ແລ້ວ, although this is less common and often used in negative statements and never for a continuous action.

ແບ້

bae

ແບ້ ລົງ ມາ ຈາກ ພູ ແລ້ວ

bae long ma chak phou laew

'The goat (just) came down from the mountain.'

ແບ້

bae

ແບ້ ບໍ່ ໄດ້ ລົງ ມາ ຈາກ ພູ ແລ້ວ

bae bo dai long ma chak phou laew

'The goat did not come down from the mountain.'

Future

There are two markers used to indicate actions to be completed in the future, ຊິ (si ) and ຈະ (cha ). Both of these always precede the verb. To indicate that something is just about to happen, one can say ກຳລັງຈະ (kamlang cha ).

ຄົນ

khon

ຄົນ ນາ ຈະ ກິນ ເຂົ້າ ໜຽວ

khon na cha kin khao nio

'The farmer will eat sticky rice.'

ຄົນ

khon

ຄົນ ນາ ຊິ ກິນ ເຂົ້າ ໜຽວ

khon na si kin khao nio

'The farmer will eat sticky rice.'

ຄົນ

khon

ຄົນ ນາ ກຳລັງຈະ ກິນ ເຂົ້າ ໜຽວ

khon na {kamlang cha} kin khao nio

'The farmer is just about to eat sticky rice.'

Progressive

Although no particle is generally needed to mark a present progressive statement, Lao uses three, ພວມ (phuam ) and ກຳລັງ (kamlang ) before the verb, ຢູ່ (yu ) after it.

ເດັກ

dèk

ເດັກ ພວມ ນອນ

dèk phouam non

'The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.'

ເດັກ

dèk

ເດັກ ກຳລັງ ນອນ

dèk kamlang non

'The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.'

ເດັກ

dèk

ເດັກ ນອນຢູ່

dèk non-you

'The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.'

Modal verbs

Modal or auxiliary verbs (ວິກະຕິກະລິຍາ, vikatikaligna) are verbs that serve auxiliary function, such as want, obligation or need like English ought to, should, must, can, etc.

Obligation

ຄວນ (khouan ) Should, ought to

ຂະເຈົ້າ

khachao

they.FORMAL

ຄວນ

khouan

should

ເວົ້າ

vao

speak

ກັບ

gap

with

ເຈົ້າແຂວງ

chao khwaeng

governor.

ຂະເຈົ້າ ຄວນ ເວົ້າ ກັບ ເຈົ້າແຂວງ

khachao khouan vao gap {chao khwaeng}

they.FORMAL should speak with governor.

They should speak with the governor.

ເຈົ້າ

Chao

you

ຄວນ

khouan

should

ນົບ

nop

bow

ເມື່ອ

meu

when

ທ່ານ

than

mister

ສະມິຖ

samit

Smith

ເຂົ້າ

khao

enter

ມາ

ma

come.

ເຈົ້າ ຄວນ ນົບ ເມື່ອ ທ່ານ ສະມິຖ ເຂົ້າ ມາ

Chao khouan nop meu than samit khao ma

you should bow when mister Smith enter come.

You ought to nop (bow) when Mr. Smith comes inside.

Need

ຕ້ອງ (tong ) to need, must.
When the need is a noun, ຕ້ອງການ (tong kan ) is used instead.

ມື້

meu

field

ມື້ ນີ້ ຕ້ອງ ໄປ ເຮັດ ນາ

meu ni tong bai het na

day this must {go (v)} {do (v)} field

'Today, I must till the fields.'

ຊ່າງຄຳ

Sangkham

gold

ຊ່າງຄຳ ຕ້ອງການ ຄຳ

Sangkham {tong kan} kham

jeweller {must+ການ (v)} gold

'The jeweller needs gold.'

Want

ຢາກ, yak , to want, to desire
Used to express a want or desire. When this is a noun, then the form ຢາກໄດ້ (yak dai ) or the common verb ເອົາ (ao ) is used instead, but the latter is not as polite.

ເອື້ອຍ

Euy

Vientiane

ເອື້ອຍ ຢາກ ໄປ ວຽງຈັນ

Euy yak pai Vientiane

{older sister} want go Vientiane

'Older sister wants to go to Vientiane.'

ເອື້ອຍ

Euy

Vientiane

ເອື້ອຍ ຢາກ ໄດ້ ຜົວ ວຽງຈັນ

Euy yak dai phoua Vientiane

{older sister} want ໄດ້ husband Vientiane

'Older sister wants a husband from Vientiane.'

ເອົາ

ao

Lao fish sauce

ເອົາ ຕຳຫມາກຫຸ່ງ ທີ່ ນຶ່ງ ບໍ່ ໃສ່ ປາແດກ

ao tammakhoung thi neung bo sai padèk

{want (v)} {papaya salad} CL one no {add (v)} {Lao fish sauce}

I want one dish of papaya salad without padaek.

Can, be able to

ໄດ້ (dai ) to get, to have, to be able to
That is used to indicate the ability to do something. It is the closest Lao word for the English verb can and in requests when English speakers would use may. When used in that sense, it follows the verb; before the verb, the meaning changes to to get or to have.

ຜູ້ເຖົ້າ

phou thao

can (v)

ຜູ້ເຖົ້າ ຍ່າງ ສິບຫ້າ ກິໂລເມ້ດ ໄດ້

{phou thao} gnang {sip ha} kilomet dai

{old man} {walk (v)} fifteen kilometer {can (v)}

'The old man can walk fifteen kilometres.

ຂ້ານ້ອຍ

khanoy

INTERR

ຂ້ານ້ອຍ ຊ່ວຍ ທ່ານ ໄດ້ ບໍ່

khanoy soi than dai bo

I {help (v)} {you (formal)} can INTERR

'May I help you?'

ເປັນ (pèn ) to be, to be able to
In addition to being a verb for the copula, it can also be used to indicate that one can do something because of knowing how to do it.

ຄົນ

Khon

can

ຄົນ ຝະຫຼັ່ງ ເສດ ປາກ ພາສາ ລາວ ເປັນ

Khon farang {} pak phasa lao pen

person French {speak (v)} language Lao language can

'The Frenchman (can/knows how to) speak the Lao language.'

ຄັນທັບ

Khanthap

also

ຄັນທັບ ປະໂຄມ ພິນ ເປັນ ດ້ວຍ

Khanthap pakhom phin pen duay

{court dancer} {play (v)} lute can also

The court dancer (can/knows how to) play the lute.

ສາມາດ...ໄດ້ (samat...dai ) to be able to, to be possible
It functions much like can but with the sense of being physically possible to do.

ເດັກ

dek

ໄດ້.

ເດັກ ຜູ້ຊາຍ ບໍ່ ສາມາດ ຍົກ ໂຕ ຄວາຍ ຂຶ້ນ ໄດ້

dek phousai bo samat gnok to khwai kun dai

child boy not can {lift (v)} CL {water buffalo} upward ໄດ້.

'The boy cannot lift a water buffalo.'

Enter, join

ເຂົ້າ, khao , to enter, to join, to participate
Used to indicate movement from one place to another inside, such as a house or building.

ເຮົາ

hao

house

ເຮົາ ເຂົ້າ ໄປ ເຮືອນ

hao khao bai heuan

We enter go house

'We go into the house.'

Recipiency

ໃຫ້, hai to give, to permit, to let
Used to indicate that the verb is intended for someone or something else or to express a desire, a wish, or a command.

ຂໍ

Kho

good

ຂໍ ໃຫ້ ມີ ໂຊກ ດີ

Kho hai mi sok di

request give have luck good

'I wish (to/for) you good luck.'

ດອກ

Dok

have

ດອກ ກຸຫຼາບ ນີ້ ຢາກ ໃຫ້ {} ເຈົ້າ ມີ

Dok kulap ni yak hai {} jao mi

flower rose this want give {} you have

'This flower I want (to/for) you to have it.'

Affirmation and negation

To say no is as simple as saying ບໍ່ (bo ), and negation simply involves placing that word in front of the verb, adjective, adverb, or noun to be negated. To say yes, especially to indicate that one is listening, one uses ໂດຍ (doi ), especially in formal situations, or ເຈົ້າ (chao ). To answer a question, one often repeats the verb of action that was used in the question to indicate that that action was or will be completed. One can also use ແມ່ນ (mén ), especially if the question had ແມ່ນ, as an element of the interrogative particle.

Adverbs and adjectives

Little distinction can be made between adjectives and adverbs, as any adjective that could logically be used to modify a verb can also be used as an adverb. They are often duplicated to indicate a superlative and can even be modified like verbs, mainly by the lack of a copula to link the object and adjective/adverb. Adjectives come after the noun.

ຊ້າງ

Sang

slow

ຊ້າງ ຊ້າ

Sang sa

elephant slow

'A slow elephant.'

ໄປ

Bai

ໄປ ບ້ານ ຊ້າ ໆ

Bai ban sa saa

'Go to the village slowly.'

ສາວ

Sao

ສາວ ງາມ ທີ່ ໄວ

Sao ngam thi wai

'A lady who becomes pretty quickly.'

ບ່າວ

Bao

ບ່າວ ທີ່ ຊິ ໂກ້

Bao thi si ko

'A boy who will be handsome.'

Equivalence, comparatives, and superlatives

To indicate that something is the same, one uses ຄືກັນ (khu kan ). To indicate that one is similar to something else, one uses ຄືກັບ (khu kap ).

ພາສາ

Phasa

ພາສາ ລາວ ແລະ ພາສາ ອີສານ {} ຄື ກັນ

Phasa lao lae phasa isan phasa khu kan

'The Lao language and the Isan language are the same.'

ອາຫານ

Ahan

ອາຫານ ຈີນ ບໍ່ ຄື ກັບ ອາຫານ ລາວ

Ahan chin bo khu kap ahan lao

'Chinese cuisine is not the same as Lao cuisine.'

Comparatives take the form "A ກວ່າ (kwa ) B", or A is more than B. The superlative is expressed by "A ທີ່ສຸດ (thisut )", or A is the best. All adjectives can be altered in this way:

ຜອງ

pong

tall

+

+

+

+

ກວ່າ

kwa

/kuāː/

COMP

=

=

=

=

ຜອງກວ່າ

pong kwa

taller

ຜອງ + ກວ່າ = ຜອງກວ່າ

pong + kwa = {pong kwa}

+ /kuāː/ = {}

tall + COMP = taller

ນ້ອຍ

noy

/nɔ̂ːj/

small

+

+

+

+

ກວ່າ

kwa

/kuāː/

COMP

=

=

=

=

ນ້ອຍກວ່າ

noy kwa

smaller

ນ້ອຍ + ກວ່າ = ນ້ອຍກວ່າ

noy + kwa = {noy kwa}

/nɔ̂ːj/ + /kuāː/ = {}

small + COMP = smaller

ຄູ

Khou

ຄູ ປ່ອ ງກວ່າ ນັກຮຽນ

Khou pong kwa {nak hian}

'The teacher is smarter than the student.'

ສາວ

Sao

ສາວ ນັ້ນ ງາມ ທີ່ສຸດ

Sao nan ngam thisut

'That lady is the prettiest.'

Questions

Lao uses special tag words at the beginning or the end of the sentence to indicate a question, so the modern use of the question mark (?) is redundant.

Yes–no questions end in ບໍ່ (bo ), but Lao also has other sentence interrogative finals that indicate whether or not the speaker expects an answer, knows the answer to be expected, will be surprised, or is rhetorically asking a question, but they are generally used only in conversational settings.

ສະບາຽ

sabai

ສະບາຽ ດີ ບໍ່

sabai di bo

'Are you well?'

Other common interrogatives
Who? ຜູ້ໃດ (phoudai ) and its common short form ໃຜ (phai )

ຜູ້ໃດ

phoudai

chicken

ຜູ້ໃດ ຂາຽ ໄຂ່ ໄກ່

phoudai khai khai kai

who.INTERR {sell (v)} egg chicken

'Who sells chicken eggs?'

ໃຜ

phai

Champassak

ໃຜ ກັບໄປ ຈຳປາສັກ

phai {kap pai} Champassak

who.INTERR {leave for (v)} Champassak

'Who left for Champassak?'

What? ຈັ່ງໃດ (changdai ) and its common short form ຫຽັງ (gnang )

ອາວ

Ao

what.INTERR

ອາວ ຢາກ ເບິ່ງ ຫຽັງ

Ao yak beung gnang

uncle {want (v)} {watch (v)} what.INTERR

'What does Uncle want to watch?'

ເຮັດ

het

what.INTERR

ເຮັດ ຈັ່ງໃດ

het changdai

{do (v)} what.INTERR

'What are you doing?'

Where? ໃສ (sai )

ຫຼວງພຣະບາງ

louang Phabang

where.INTERR

ຫຼວງພຣະບາງ ຢູ່ ໃສ

{louang Phabang} you sai

{Luang Phrabang} {to be at (v)} where.INTERR

'Where is Luang Phrabang?'

When? ເມື່ອໃດ (mua dai ), and many others.
There are numerous ways to ask when something will occur, many of which are formed by adding ໃດ (dai /dàj/) which after a noun marking time, e.g., ເວລາໃດ (vela dai ), ຍາມໃດ (gnam dai ), and ປານໃດ (pan dai ).

ເມື່ອໃດ

mua dai

Pakxe

ເມື່ອໃດ ຊິ ໄປ ປາກເຊ

{mua dai} si pai Pakxe

When.INTERR FUT {go (v)} Pakxe

'When will you go to Pakxe?'

Why? ເປັນຈັ່ງໃດ (pen changdai )
The phrase by itself can also mean What's wrong?, but can also ask why or for what reason a condition is occurring.

ເປັນຈັ່ງໃດ

pen changdai

sad really

ເປັນຈັ່ງໃດ ຄົນຫາປາ {} ຊົບເຊົາອີ່ຫຼີ່

{pen changdai} {khon ha pa} pen {sop sao ili}

{}

why.INTERR fisherman {} {sad really}

'Why is the fisherman really sad?'

How?
ແນວໃດ (nèw dai )
There are numerous ways to ask how?, some interchangeable with Lao equivalents for what? and why? but in the sense of how something is accomplished or done, one can also use ເຊັ່ນໃດ (sen dai ), ຢ່າງໃດ (yang dai ) or ດັ່ງໃດ (dang dai ).

ເຮັດ

het

how.INTERR

ເຮັດ ແນວໃດ

het {nèw dai}

{do (v)} how.INTERR

How does one do it?'

How Much/Many? (General Things) ຈັກ (chak )

ບາດ

bat

/bȁːt

Now

ນີ້

ni

nīː

here

ຈັກ

chak

tʃák

how many

ຄົນ

khon

khón

people

ໄປ

pai

paj

go (v)

ສູ່ຂວັນ

sukhwan

sūːkʰwǎːn/

baisi ceremony

ບາດ ນີ້ ຈັກ ຄົນ ໄປ ສູ່ຂວັນ

bat ni chak khon pai sukhwan

/bȁːt nīː tʃák khón paj sūːkʰwǎːn/

Now {here } {how many} people {go (v)} {baisi ceremony}

'How many people attend the baisi ceremony?'

How Much? (Price) ເທົ່າໃດ (thao dai ) or its variant ທໍ່ໃດ (tho dai )

ສິ້ນ

sin

how much.INTERR

ສິ້ນ ສີ ແດງ ນີ້ ເທົ່າໃດ

sin si dèng ni {thao dai}

}

skirt colour red this {how much.INTERR}

'How much is this red skirt?'

Right? Correct? ແມ່ນບໍ່ (mèn bo )

ພຣະຍານາກ

Phagna Nak

correct.INTERR

ພຣະຍານາກ ພັກ ອາໄສ ນ້ຳຂອງ ແມ່ນບໍ່

{Phagna Nak} {} you {nam khong} {mèn bo}

{}

Dragon {} inhabit {river Mekong} correct.INTERR

'The Dragon is in the Mekong, right?'

Already? Yet? ແລ້ວບໍ່ (lèw bo /lɛ̂ːw bɔ̄ː/)

ທານ

than

yet INTERR

ທານ ເຂົ້າ ແລ້ວບໍ່

than khao {lèw bo}

}

eat rice {yet INTERR}

'Have you eaten yet?'

Or not? ຫຼືບໍ່ (lu bo /lɯ̀ bɔ̄ː/)

ອ້າຽ

ai

or not.INTERR

ອ້າຽ ຢາກ ໄດ້ ເມັຽ ດີ ຫຼືບໍ່

ai yak dai mia di {lu bo}

}

{older brother} want ໄດ້ wife good {or not.INTERR}

'Does older brother want a good wife or not?'

Eh? ຫຼື (lu /lɯ̀/)
This is a rather informal interrogative particle equivalent to English eh? or hmm? or huh?.

ສະບາຍດີ

sabai di

huh.INTERR

ສະບາຍດີ ຫຼື

{sabai di} lu

{

{be well (v)} huh.INTERR

'You okay, huh?

Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.

• Question: ສະບາຍດີບໍ່ (sabai di bo ) Are you well?
• Response: ສະບາຍດີ (sabai di ) I am well or ບໍ່ສະບາຍ (bo sabai ) I am not well.

Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even without the negation, will still be negated by the nature of the question.

• ບໍ່ສະບາຍບໍ່ (bo sabai di bo /bɔː sa.baj diː bɔː/) Are you not well?
• Response: ບໍ່ສະບາຍ (bo sabai di /bɔː sa.baj diː/) I am well.

Classifiers

Classifiers (ລັກສະນະນາມ, laksananam /lāk sā.nāʔ.náːm/) are used for when referring to a number of things, either a group or a finite amount. Classifiers can be used in place of the counted noun when context makes it sufficient. There are many classifiers, which is daunting, and it is better to double the noun or the more common ones such as ທີ່ (thi /tʰīː/) or ໂຕ (to /toː/). For single items, the classifier comes before the number; for more, the classifier comes after it.

ເບັຽ

bia

/biaː

beer

ຂວດ

khuat

kʰùaːt

CL

ໜຶ່ງ

nueng

nɯ̄ŋ/

one

ເບັຽ ຂວດ ໜຶ່ງ

bia khuat nueng

/biaː kʰùaːt nɯ̄ŋ/

beer CL one

'One bottle of beer.'

ເບັຽ

bia

/biaː

beer

ສອງ

song

sɔ̌ːŋ

two

ຂວດ

khuat

kʰuàːt/

CL

ເບັຽ ສອງ ຂວດ

bia song khuat

/biaː sɔ̌ːŋ kʰuàːt/

beer two CL

'Two bottles of beer.'

The classifiers can sometimes be used in place of the nouns they group in context.

ມີຫ

mi

/míː

have

ໝາ

ma

mǎː

dog

ສອງ

song

sɔ̌ːŋ

two

ໂຕ

to

ɗoː

CL

ໃນ

nai

nái

in

ບ້ານ

ban

bâːn

village.

ໂຕ

to

ɗoː

CL

ກັດ

kat

kát

bite

ອ້າຍ

ai

ʔâːj/

older brother

ມີຫ ໝາ ສອງ ໂຕ ໃນ ບ້ານ ໂຕ ກັດ ອ້າຍ

mi ma song to nai ban to kat ai

/míː mǎː sɔ̌ːŋ ɗoː nái bâːn ɗoː kát ʔâːj/

have dog two CL in village. CL bite {older brother}

'There were two dogs in the village. The dogs bit older brother.'

Possession

To indicate that object X belongs to object Y, Lao uses the construction X ຂອງ Y. ຂອງ (khong /kʰɔ̌ːŋ/) can also be omitted without changing the meaning.

ແຜງ

Mane

ຂອງ

POSS

ມ້າ

horse

or

or

ແຜງ

mane

ມ້າ

horse

ແຜງ ຂອງ ມ້າ {} or {} ແຜງ ມ້າ

Mane POSS horse {} or {} mane horse

A horse's mane.'

References

1. Classifiers in Lao: A Cognitive Linguistic Approach

• Enfield, N. J. (2007). A grammar of Lao. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Cummings, J. (2002). Lao phrasebook. Footscray, Australia: Lonely Planet Publishers.
• (in Thai) ภาษาและวรรณกรรมท้องถิ่นล้านนา : ฉบับสำนวนภาษากำเมือง . Bangkok: Faculty of Humanities, MCU. 2009. ISBN 978-974-11-1078-0. http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4697444.
• Mollerup, A. (2001). Thai- isan- lao phrasebook. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus.
• SEAlang Library Lao Lexicography. (2010, 13 February). Retrieved from .

• Lao language
• Kra–Dai grammars