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This article contains many translations of and references to Japanese grammatical forms and Japanese grammar-related vocabulary.

The Hachijō language shares much of its grammar with its sister language of Japanese—having both descended from varieties of Old Japanese—as well as with its more distant relatives in the Ryukyuan language family. However, Hachijō grammar includes a substantial number of distinguishing features from modern Standard Japanese, both innovative and archaic.

Hachijō is head-final, left-branching, topic-prominent, often omits nouns that can be understood from context, and has default subject–object–verb word order. Nouns do not exhibit grammatical gender, nor do they usually indicate grammatical number.

Pronouns and demonstratives

Like Japanese, Hachijō distinguishes first and second person pronouns, and has proximal, mesial, distal, and interrogative demonstratives. Hachijō uses demonstrative pronouns in place of third-person pronouns.

Pronouns

The pronominal system of Hachijō has been partly inherited from Old Japanese and partly borrowed from Modern Japanese:

1. In the Uphill and Sueyoshi dialects, a different plural marker -Nsjee ~ -ĭsjee is preferred over the -ra listed here. Due to dialectal differences, it appears in Kashitate as [iɕaː], Nakanogō as [nɕaː], and Sueyoshi as [nɕeː].
2. Both ware and are are used as first-person pronouns across Hachijō, varying depending on dialect and speaker.
3. ^ The pronominal endings -re and -rera are sometimes contracted to -ĭ and -ĭra.

The pronouns ware, are, unu, and dare often use irregular nominative/genitive forms with ga: waga, aga, uNga, and daga. The form uNga [uŋ.ɡa] can also be pronounced NNga [ŋ̍ː.ɡa].

Hachijō has a variety of nuances among many of its personal pronouns:

First-person pronouns

Unlike Japanese, both ware and are (and their variants) are considered ordinary and show no particular variations with regard to politeness, honorifics, or humility. Instead, they vary in usage based on the speaker, dialect, and context. For example, it is possible for both to appear in the same utterance:

are=(w)a

me=TOP

wa=ga

me=GEN

e=sjaN

house=ORNT

topi-te

dash-PTCP

ik-a(r)-o

go-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ)

=da(r)-o=zjaN

=COP-ATTR=DECL

are=(w)a wa=ga e=sjaN topi-te ik-a(r)-o =da(r)-o=zjaN

me=TOP me=GEN house=ORNT dash-PTCP go-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ) =COP-ATTR=DECL

"I really dashed off towards my house, huh?"
私が我が家へ駆けて行ったんだよね。

Other variations include the contraction of -re to -ĭ, and the contraction of -re-wa to -ra or -rja when combined with the topic marker wa. For example, uncontracted ware and warewa would be considered more feminine than contracted waĭ and wara in the Mitsune dialect, whereas in the Uphill dialects, ware and warewa would be the norm (with the contracted forms generally unused).

Second-person pronouns

Like in Japanese, it is most common to refer to an addressee by name rather than by using a pronoun. Nevertheless, several second-person pronouns do exist:

• The pronoun omee is honorific, used for individuals of superior status. As the subject of a clause, omee is generally used with other honorific vocabulary such as the verbs ozjarowa ("to go, to come") and tamourowa ("to give").
• The pronoun omi is polite, used for individuals whom the speaker wants to respect, but for whom the honorific omee would be excessively formal. Aside from a handful of polite verbs like wasowa ("to go, to come") and gouzirowa ("to see"), sentences with omi generally use ordinary vocabulary. The form omi is never seen without a particle.
• The pronoun omaĭ is between omi and unu, used of those of equal or lower status. It is mildly informal or neutral, and it is often used in place of unu when people outside of the speaker's in-group are present. It is a comparatively new pronoun.
• The pronoun unu is very informal or familiar, and it is used for family members, and close friends. However it can be somewhat rude or vulgar, depending on the dialect.
• The pronoun nare is offensive and shows contempt, being used when fighting, arguing, scolding, etc.

The second-person pronouns omee, omi and omaĭ originate in borrowings of Japanese お前 omae "you." In modern Japanese, omae is familiar or derogatory, but it formerly had a respectful meaning, and it is in this respectful usage that it was borrowed into Hachijō.

The pronoun unu has cognates in Old and Middle Japanese 己 ono₂ ~ unu "yourself, myself, oneself." Similarly, 汝 na ~ nare "you" is found in Old Japanese (including Eastern Old Japanese) and Early Middle Japanese.

Third-person pronouns

Hachijō has no dedicated third-person pronouns. When necessary, demonstratives—most often distal ones—are employed to indicate the equivalent of the third person. For example, when referring to people:

• ure~uĭ and uĭcu are informal, used for people within one's in-group, as well as for people whom the speaker does not care about showing respect to.
• The form uno hito (plural uno hitora) is polite, used for people outside of one's in-group. It comes from a compound of uno "that" and hito "person."
• The form uno kata (plural uno katara) is honorific, used for referring to superiors. It comes from a compound of uno "that" and kata "person (honorific)."

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative personal pronouns are dare "who" for human referents and ani "what" for non-human referents (cognate to Japanese 誰 dare "who" and 何 nani "what"). The pronoun ani is often contracted to aN- when consonant-initial particles are adjoined to it.

Hachijō dare is related to the Old Japanese pronoun ta ~ tare "who," but it is unclear whether the change of initial t to d was borrowed from Japanese or was an independent parallel innovation.

Hachijō ani derives directly from Eastern Old Japanese *ani "what," which is attested indirectly in Eastern Old Japanese compounds like aze "why" and ado₂ "whatever" (contrast the Western Old Japanese forms naze and nado₂, whence Modern Japanese なぜ naze "why" and など nado "et cetera"). There are also a handful of other Hachijō interrogatives historically derived from compounds with ani, such as ada "how," aNde "why," and aNsei "why."

To form indeterminate pronouns from interrogatives, the suffix -ka is added. In contrast to Japanese, this -ka is added after any case suffix, not before, e.g., Hachijō anjoka (ani=o=ka) vs. Japanese 何かを nani-ka o, both "something (accusative case)."

Demonstratives

A series of demonstratives similar to modern Japanese's ko-so-a-do series (proximal-mesial-distal-interrogative) also exists in Hachijō:

1. In the Kashitate dialect, distal demonstratives are formed with o- rather than u-.
2. ^ Just as with personal pronouns, these -re and -rera can contract to -ĭ and -ĭra. The form -rera can also become -rara.
3. ^ Plurality is only distinguished for humans; all nonhuman antecedents use singular pronouns regardless of their number.
4. ^ This -go͡oN is shortened from -gooni "in a ~ way, in a ~ manner," a bound morpheme which is perhaps a contraction from a form related to Early Middle Japanese ～が様に ga yaũ ni, akin to Modern Japanese ～のように no yō ni.
5. ^ The form adaN is a compound of ada "how, in what way" and the dative -N.
6. This -doo is the attributive form of the copular verb dara "to be."

Particles

Like Japanese, Hachijō makes extensive use of grammatical particles, which indicate a variety of meanings and grammatical functions. Most parts of speech can use some particles, but the majority of particles are used with nominals (nouns and pronouns). Hachijō's noun-marking particles are classified similarly to their Japanese counterparts into the following categories:

• Enumerating particles (並べ助詞, narabe-joshi), which mark items in lists.
• Case particles (格助詞, kaku-joshi), which mark the grammatical cases of nominials. These are further divided into:
  • Standalone cases (連用格, ren'yō-kaku), which indicate self-contained phrases such as the subject or object of a sentence.
  • Adjoining cases (連体格, rentai-kaku), which indicate phrases that are semantically linked to another part of the sentence, e.g., to express possession.
• Prominence particles (取り立て助詞, toritate-joshi), a broad category that is further divided into:
  • Topic-focus particles (係り助詞, kakari-joshi), which emphasize, restrict, or otherwise indicate a kind of topic or focus related to the words they mark.
  • Adverbial particles (副助詞, fuku-joshi), which turn words into adverbs of degree, extent, etc.

When multiple particles are used on the same noun, they are generally found in the order Adverbial → Case → Topic-Focus.

Enumerating particles

Enumerating particles (並べ助詞, narabe-joshi, enum) are few in number, and they are used as conjunctions to join nominals into lists. The main particles of this type are to, ni, toka, da, and ja.

Both to and ni are used for making exhaustive lists, and are used more or less the same as in Japanese. The more usual way to form an exhaustive list is by using to, which is generally placed after every element of a list except the last (where it is optional):

imoto

imo=to

taro=ENUM

kaNmou

kaNmo=o

sweet.potato=ACC

nitoke.

ni-t(e)-ok-e

boil-PTCP-put-IMP

imoto kaNmou nitoke.

imo=to kaNmo=o ni-t(e)-ok-e

taro=ENUM sweet.potato=ACC boil-PTCP-put-IMP

"Boil a taro and a sweet potato."

inumeto

inume=to

dog=ENUM

sarumeto

sarume=to

monkey=ENUM

kizimeN

kizime=ni

pheasant=DAT

hikeete

hik-a(s)e-te

pull-CAUS-PTCP

keete

keer-te

go.home-PTCP

kite

ki-te

come-PTCP

inumeto sarumeto kizimeN hikeete keete kite

inume=to sarume=to kizime=ni hik-a(s)e-te keer-te ki-te

dog=ENUM monkey=ENUM pheasant=DAT pull-CAUS-PTCP go.home-PTCP come-PTCP

"Having the dog, and the monkey, and the pheasant pull it, and then coming back home..."

The enumerating particle ni, on the other hand, is used in two main ways; the first use of ni emphasizes that the speaker is recalling the elements of the list, in which emphasized elements of the list are marked by ni and other elements left unmarked:

bene,

bene,

rouge,

osiroini,

osiroĭ=ni,

face.powder=ENUM,

kusi,

kusi,

comb,

kaNzasi,

kaNzasi,

hair.ornament,

kasaneno

kasane=no

layer=GEN

madarani,

madara=ni,

fine.clothes=ENUM,

seQtano

seQta=no

leather.soled.sandal=GEN

zjouri,

zjouri,

sandal,

hakoseko,

hakoseko,

decorative.pouch,

kagamini,

kagami=ni,

mirror=ENUM,

ougini,

ougi=ni,

hand.fan=ENUM,

sigoki...

sigoki

waistband

bene, osiroini, kusi, kaNzasi, kasaneno madarani, seQtano zjouri, hakoseko, kagamini, ougini, sigoki...

bene, osiroĭ=ni, kusi, kaNzasi, kasane=no madara=ni, seQta=no zjouri, hakoseko, kagami=ni, ougi=ni, sigoki

rouge, face.powder=ENUM, comb, hair.ornament, layer=GEN fine.clothes=ENUM, leather.soled.sandal=GEN sandal, decorative.pouch, mirror=ENUM, hand.fan=ENUM, waistband

"rouge, and face powder, a comb, a hair ornament, and a fine layered dress, leather-soled sandals, a decorative pouch, and a mirror, and a hand fan, a waistband..."

The second use of ni is found in binomial expressions such as mesini okazu 飯におかず "rice and a side dish". Unlike the case particle N~ni, the enumerating particle ni is not reduced to N after light syllables.

The particles toka, da, and ja, on the other hand, are used for making inexhaustive lists:

hijootoritoka

hijootori=toka

day.laboring=ENUM

aNtokano

an(i)=toka=no

what=ENUM=GEN

hito

hito

person

hijootoritoka aNtokano hito

hijootori=toka an(i)=toka=no hito

day.laboring=ENUM what=ENUM=GEN person

"A person who (does) day labor and whatever else"

magamadaa,

magama=da,

sickle=ENUM,

tegagadaa,

tegaga=da,

hoe=ENUM,

kusakakidaateQte

kusakaki=da=tew-te

grass.cutter=ENUM=QUOT.say-PTCP

soreizunjadoozja

sorei-zu=nja=da(r)-o=zja

gather-NEG.INF=DAT.TOP=COP-ATTR=DECL

jou.

jou

DM

magamadaa, tegagadaa, kusakakidaateQte soreizunjadoozja jou.

magama=da, tegaga=da, kusakaki=da=tew-te sorei-zu=nja=da(r)-o=zja jou

sickle=ENUM, hoe=ENUM, grass.cutter=ENUM=QUOT.say-PTCP gather-NEG.INF=DAT.TOP=COP-ATTR=DECL DM

"When it comes to sickles, and hoes, and grass-cutters, and such, you've got to have them all."

hasija

hasi=ja

chopstick=ENUM

aniQka

ani=ka

what=INDET

otereba

ote-reba

fall-PROV

hasija aniQka otereba

hasi=ja ani=ka ote-reba

chopstick=ENUM what=INDET fall-PROV

"If a chopstick or something falls..."

Case Particles

The majority of case particles (格助詞, kaku-joshi) in Hachijō indicate standalone cases (連用格, ren'yō-kaku). The most common standalone case particles are:

The smaller class of adjoining case (連体格, rentai-kaku) particles is largely based around the genitive case (marked by ga or no) and compounds thereof:

Prominence Particles

The first type of prominence particles (取り立て助詞, toritate-joshi) are known as topic-focus particles (係り助詞, kakari-joshi), which introduce either a topic or focus component of a sentence. The particles wa, mo, sika, made, and see do not affect the conjugation of a sentence's verb, while the focus particles ka & koo and the interrogative particle ka do affect it.

Finally, the following three particles affect the inflection of the subsequent verb:

Adverbial particles (副助詞, fuku-joshi) express adverbs of degree, extent, etc.

Particle Fusion

Some particles, particularly o~jo, i~jii, and N~ni, regularly undergo fusion with their host word:

1. In the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects, the sequence ...i + -o yields ...ii rather than ...jo.
2. ^ In the Aogashima dialect, these cases of jii [iː] instead become rii [ɾiː].
3. In rare and fossilized situations, a long vowel followed by the N~ni particle can instead become a shortened long vowel followed by N. For example, the ending -gooni "in ~ way, in ~ manner" found after demonstratives can be shortened to -go͡oN.

In summary, words ending in light syllables undergo fusion with underlying *o, *i, and *N; whereas words ending in non-light syllables use the static longer forms jo, jii (Aogashima dialect rii), and ni.

In some older texts, the topic-marking particle wa (corresponding to Japanese は wa) can also be seen contracting with host nominals it follows (for example, ...ci + wa → ...cja), but most such contractions with wa have fallen out of use in the present day. Surviving exceptions generally involve the pronominal ending -re (see below) contracting with wa to make -ra or -rja, or the combination of wa with other particles like -ni-wa → -nja.

Verbals

Verbal chains

All Hachijō verbals (verbs and verbal adjectives) make use of a variety of suffixes to indicate the verb's grammatical and semantic function. Suffixes attach to a phonological base form called the stem, occasionally triggering minor allophony; this combination of a stem and various suffixes creates a verb chain, which is one polymorphemic word. Verbal suffixes can be broadly classified into derivations, endings, auxiliaries, extensions, and postfixes:

Verb derivations attach to the stem and create a longer verb stem to which further suffixes can attach. They can combine with each other, in the order (Stem →) Causative → Passive or Potential → Stative → Retrospective or Past Subjunctive.

Verbal endings are always mandatory, with each verb using one. Endings generally end verb chains, but there are certain suffixes (auxiliaries and extensions) that can restart the verb chain. Depending on the exact function of the ending, the resulting verb can be finite or non-finite.

Verbal auxiliaries are verbs or verblike forms that attach to the infinitive, forming serial verb constructions. Being verbals, they themselves take endings of their own, restarting the verb chain. Verbal extensions are similar to auxiliaries, but attaching to the final form (or a Japanese-style tense) instead.

Verbal postfixes are like auxiliaries and verbal extensions in that they attach verb endings to extend the verb chain, but are also like verbal endings in that they conclude a verb chain.

1. Attach to infinitives.
2. Attach to final forms.
3. Only attaches to negative infinitive -zu, making -ziimadow-.

While most suffixes follow the above categories and combination rules, there are exceptions, such as nomiziisi "won't not drink," which contains two endings in a row: the negative infinitive -izu and the dubitative -isi.

Lastly, there are several particles that can attach to certain verb forms, usually the attributive, infinitive, or participle. These are considered to be clitics that attach themselves to verb chains, not part of the chain themselves:

• declarative particles -wa, -zja
• question particles -ka, -kaN, -ĭ, etc.
• conjunctional particles -Nte, -karanja, -ni, -de, -ga, -to, etc.
• case particles -i, -ni, -kara, -o, etc.

Conjugation classes

Due to sound changes and other historical developments, the conjugation patterns found in Eastern Old Japanese have separated into several more distinct patterns in Hachijō. The following list of conjugation classes is derived from Kaneda (2001):

Class 1.1A Verbs — Strong Consonant-Stem, Participle Qte

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a light syllable followed by k, t, r, or a strong w. It also includes the verb jowa "to say," whose stem is nominally *iw- but becomes j- when followed by a vowel. Class 1.1A verbs with stems in w all have only a single short syllable before the w; other w-stem verbs are of Class 1.1A'.
Examples: kakowa "write," katowa "win," torowa "take," kawowa "buy," macikowa "curse," jowowa "get drunk," butowa "hit," jowa "say."

Class 1.1A-uw Verbs — Strong uw-Stem, Participle Qte

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in u followed by a mostly-strong w. They differ from Class 1.1A w-stem verbs only in the attributive and final forms (and derived forms), where uw-o and uw-u contract to uu. Like w-stem Class 1.1A verbs, this class consists of verbs that have only a single syllable before the w. Kaneda classifies these verbs as a special subclass of 1.1A' verbs (subclass 1.1A'a), but they are separated here for clarity.
Examples: nuuwa "sew," kuuwa "eat," suuwa "suck," juuwa "tie up."

Class 1.1A' Verbs — Weak w-Stem, Participle Qte

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a light syllable followed by a weak w. They can be subclassified into 1.1A'b (stem-final uw-), 1.1A'c (stem-final ow-), and 1.1A'd (stem-final aw-). For some speakers, particularly in Downhill dialects, verbs that once followed this conjugation have been partly or completely converted to Class 1.1B by treating the stative stem (with -ar-) as a new base stem.
Examples: (b) huruuwa "shake," sukuuwa "scoop"; (c) omouwa "think," irouwa "bully"; (d) cukouwa "use," warouwa "laugh," juwouwa "celebrate," -nouwa "(conjectural suffix)."

Class 1.1B Verbs — Strong Consonant-Stem, Participle te

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a heavy syllable followed by k, t, or r.
Examples: kourowa "freeze," keerowa "go home," koorowa "change," kookowa "dry," cjoorowa "touch."

Class 1.1C Verbs — Semi-Strong r-Stem, Participle Qte

Consonant-stem verbs created from the stative suffix -ar- or another combination with the existence verb ar-, like the copula dara (from de + arowa). Non-verbal adjectives such as heta "unskilled, crude" also can be said to follow this conjugation, as they use the copula dara in order to describe nouns, e.g., hetadoo sito "an unskilled person." Kaneda classifies these verbs as a special class of 1.1A verbs, but they are separated here for clarity.
Examples: dara "be (copula)," oora "be, exist," -(t)ara "(stative suffix)," -Nzjara "(Old-Type negative)."

Class 1.2A Verbs — Strong Consonant-Stem, Participle Nde

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a light syllable followed by m, b, g, or n.
Examples: kamowa "eat," nomowa "drink," jemowa "smile," asubowa "play," marubowa "die," ojogowa "swim," kasjagowa "slant," cinowa "die."

Class 1.2B Verbs — Strong Consonant-Stem, Participle de

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a heavy syllable followed by m, b, or g.
Examples: houmowa "contain," eemowa "walk," soogowa "clamor."

Class 1.3A Verbs — Weak s-Stem, Short-Euphonic

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a light syllable followed by a weak s; this s becomes a coalescing i in certain inflections. For some speakers, particularly in Uphill dialects, verbs that once followed this conjugation are now conjugated as class 1.3B partly or completely instead.
Examples: dasowa "take out," watasowa "send across," modosowa "put back," nabusowa "hide."

Class 1.3A' Verbs — Weak s-Stem, Long-Euphonic

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a heavy syllable followed by a weak s; this s becomes (non-coalescing) ii in certain inflections. For some speakers, particularly in Uphill dialects, verbs that once followed this conjugation are now conjugated as class 1.3B partly or completely instead.
Examples: tousowa "put through," keesowa "give back," mousowa "say," moosowa "spin."

Class 1.3B Verbs — Strong s-Stem (Non-Euphonic)

Consonant-stem verbs whose stem ends in a light syllable followed by a strong s. It is unclear whether these verbs derive from regularization of Class 1.3A and 1.3A' verbs by eliminating their euphony, or if they never had euphony to begin with.
Examples: hesowa "push," kesowa "erase," kasowa "lend," josowa "quit."

Class 2 Verbs — Vowel-Stem

Vowel-stem verbs. They can be subclassified into Class 2a (ending in i-), Class 2b (ending in e-), Class 2c (ending in ee-), and Class 2d (ending in ei-).
Examples: kirowa "wear," jerowa "insert," keerowa "mix," jamerowa "suffer," meirowa "burn," oseirowa "teach," irowa "sit."

Class 3 Verbs — Irregular

Irregular verbs, which share a mix of features from Classes 1 and 2, as well as other irregularities.
Examples: sjowa "do," (de)kurowa "come."

Verbal Adjectives (VA)

One of the two types of adjectives in Hachijō. Verbal adjectives follow an idiosyncratic conjugation pattern that is supplemented with forms in -kar- (conjugated as Class 1.1C).
Examples: boukja "big," sjokja "known," hajakja "fast," toukja "far," takakja "high," nagakja "long."

New-Type Negative

A hybrid between the Class 1.1C and verbal adjective classes that is used to conjugate the New-Type Negative auxiliary verb. It has a highly variable stem form of -Nnak- ~ -Nnar- ~ -Nnakar-; how it inflects will be noted in the following subsections. It is used in the Downhill Dialects instead of the Old-Type Negative, which instead consists of the regular Class 1.1C auxiliary -Nzjara.
Sole example: -Nnaka "(New-Type negative)."

A table summarizing some of the basic forms of each conjugation class is shown below:

1. The final form (旧終止形, kyū-shūshikei) given here should not be confused with the Japanese-style present tense, which occasionally takes different forms.
2. ^ The w in Class 1.1A and 1.1A-uw w-stem verbs is sometimes dropped in pronunciation before i, and always before u, but it the i and u remain distinctly in their own syllable, not combining with the preceding syllable.
3. This form is a situational contraction of the quotative particle -te followed by the Class 1.A verb iw- "to say," but it is highly defective and conjugates irregularly.
4. Only usable when followed by the copular participle de or the particle -(N)te "because."
5. This form is -teiwa in the Aogashima dialect.
6. ^ In some dialects, especially the Downhill dialects of Mitsune and Ōkagō, Class 1.1A' verbs have been partly or fully converted into Class 1.1A r-stem verbs by treating the stative stem as a new root stem. In such cases, the stative thus requires another addition of -ar- to the (new) stem.
7. The Class 1.1C copula dara sometimes uses the infinitive ni, but the regular dari ~ daĭ is also used in certain situations.
8. The copula dara does not use the regular negative paradigms, instead using the phrase zja nakja (←*dewa nakja) with the verbal adjective nakja "not." In addition, due to the order in which suffixes attach to verbs, the stative -(t)ar- never precedes the negative -Nnaka, instead combining as -Nn(ak)ar-ar-.
9. The Class 1.1C copula dara usually uses the participle de in place of daQte.
10. In the Class 1.1C exclamatory form, -re can contract to -ĭ only when followed by the concessive gerund-forming suffix -dou.
11. ^ The final forms of 1.1C verbs and the New-Type Negative generally reduce the syllable *ru to Q, N, or coalescing u depending on the attached suffix or particle. For example, the particle -to "if" usually uses u, the focalizing and conjectural suffixes -naw- use N, and the reportative -teija uses Q.
12. ^ In these forms with an elided s, the te of the participle is optional. Dropping it is a characteristic of the Downhill dialects.
13. ^ In this verb, which is the only Class 1.3A verb ending in -es-, *tame(s)i- irregularly becomes tamee-, not the expected **tamei-.
14. ^ Class 2 verbs and kurowa "to come" can sometimes include -ru in their final forms. Where it is optional, the forms lacking -ru are typical of older speech, and the forms with them, of newer speech.
15. ^ The older forms so (attributive) and sowa (declarative) are also attested.
16. A small number of monomoraic-stem verbal adjectives like jokja "good" and nakja "not" tend to geminate the initial k on many adjectival forms: joQkja, joQke, etc. The forms without gemination are older.
17. Negative verbal adjectives are formed phrasally with the infinitive -ku followed by the verbal adjective nakja (stem na-) "nonexistent."
18. The form -kaba reflects Eastern Old Japanese -kaba (EOJ *-ke-aba → -kaba), whereas -ka(r)aba uses the Class 1.1C stem -kar- (*-kar-aba → -ka(r)aba).
19. The form -ke is used in isolation (in exclamatory kakari-musubi), whereas -kere is used for forming the provisional and concessive gerunds. As neither reflects the Eastern Old Japanese form -ka, these may be borrowed from Japanese.
20. This form is only used before the conditional -to.
21. The form -Nnako is old-fashioned.

Verbal Affixes

Attributive -o

The attributive form (連体形, rentaikei, attr) is made by adding the suffix -o to the stems of Class 1 verbs, -ro to those of Class 2, and -ke to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes sjo, and kurowa becomes kuro. This form descends from the Eastern Old Japanese attributive form -o₁ ~ *-uro₁.

On its own, the attributive serves a similar function to an English relative clause, for defining or classifying nominals:

kei

kei

today

kitoo

ki-ta(r)-o

come-STAT-ATTR

tegami

tegami

letter

kei kitoo tegami

kei ki-ta(r)-o tegami

today come-STAT-ATTR letter

"the letter which came today"

meejo

mee=jo

cocoon=ACC

niro

ni-ro

boil-ATTR

toki

toki

time

meejo niro toki

mee=jo ni-ro toki

cocoon=ACC boil-ATTR time

"(at) the time when I was boiling cocoons"

Unlike in Modern Japanese, clauses in Hachijō also can be nominalized directly using the attributive form of a verb (glossed as attr(nmlz)). When nominalized in this way, the clause becomes a noun meaning "the act of ~ing", "the fact of ~ happening", "one who ~s", "that which is ~ed," etc., depending on context. Compare these near-identical constructions in Hachijō and Japanese, where Japanese requires the nominalization particle の no, but Hachijō does not:

袋の

hukuro=no

fukuro=no

bag=GEN

底が

soko=ga

soko=ga

bottom=NOM

無い

na-ke

na-i

not-ADJ.ATTR

の

no

(NMLZ)

で

=de

=de

=COP.PTCP

袋の 底が 無い の で

hukuro=no soko=ga na-ke {} =de

fukuro=no soko=ga na-i no =de

bag=GEN bottom=NOM not-ADJ.ATTR (NMLZ) =COP.PTCP

"Because the bag has no bottom..."

歌や

uta=ja

uta=ya

song=ENUM

太鼓が

teeko=o

taiko=ga

drum=ACC/NOM

好き

suki

suki

liking

な

=da(r)-o

na

=COP-ATTR

の

no

(NMLZ)

で

=de

=de

=COP.PTCP

歌や 太鼓が 好き な の で

uta=ja teeko=o suki =da(r)-o {} =de

uta=ya taiko=ga suki na no =de

song=ENUM drum=ACC/NOM liking =COP-ATTR (NMLZ) =COP.PTCP

"I like songs and drums, so..."

This function of the attributive was also a feature of Japanese up until the early modern period, during which の no became used as a nominalization particle.

See also the section on mermaid constructions, which make ample use of the attributive form.

Declarative Particles -wa and -zja

The default form of the declarative (断定, dantei, decl) in Hachijō is formed by adding the declarative particle -wa to the attributive form (連体形, rentaikei) of verbs. For a slightly assertive or emphatic statement, the particle -zja can replace -wa. The particles wa and zja come from Old Japanese は pa and にては nite pa → dewa, respectively. The wa-declarative form serves as the dictionary form of verbals.

Originally, these particles followed the Old Japanese attributive in its nominalized form, creating a topicalized nominal; in Hachijō, they have become markers of independent clauses, almost completely supplanting the original final form in this particular use:

garimewa

garime=wa

crab=TOP

jokosjaN

joko=sjaN

side=ORNT

eemowa.

eem-o=wa

walk-ATTR=DECL

garimewa jokosjaN eemowa.

garime=wa joko=sjaN eem-o=wa

crab=TOP side=ORNT walk-ATTR=DECL

"Crabs walk sideways."

toricubosaga

toricubosa=ga

bird=NOM

teNneijo

teNnei=jo

sky=ACC

makimiQte

mak-i-mik-te

fly-INF-walk-PTCP

arowa.

ar-o=wa

be-ATTR=DECL

toricubosaga teNneijo makimiQte arowa.

toricubosa=ga teNnei=jo mak-i-mik-te ar-o=wa

bird=NOM sky=ACC fly-INF-walk-PTCP be-ATTR=DECL

"Birds are flying around through the sky."

uiga

uĭ=ga

that.person=NOM

nomunou

nom-u-naw-u

drink-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS

aimo

aĭ=mo

me=also

hosiku

hosi-ku

wanting-INF

narodoozja.

nar-o=da(r)-o=zja

become-ATTR(NMLZ)=COP-ATTR=DECL

uiga nomunou aimo hosiku narodoozja.

uĭ=ga nom-u-naw-u aĭ=mo hosi-ku nar-o=da(r)-o=zja

that.person=NOM drink-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS me=also wanting-INF become-ATTR(NMLZ)=COP-ATTR=DECL

"That person will drink, so I will want some, too."

With verbal adjectives, the attributive -ke merges with -wa to become -kja:

omeega

omee=ga

you(HON)=GEN

hou

hou

part

kuwasikja,

kuwasi-ke=(w)a

well.informed-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

waijori.

waĭ=jori

me=CMPR

omeega hou kuwasikja, waijori.

omee=ga hou kuwasi-ke=(w)a waĭ=jori

you(HON)=GEN part well.informed-ADJ.ATTR=DECL me=CMPR

"You're better informed—more than me."

Verbs of Class 1.1C also merge their attributive with -wa, contracting -owa irregularly to -a. For instance, the copula dara has the attributive form *dar-o → doo, but this is blocked by the addition of -wa, as -owa contracts to -a instead, viz., *dar-o-wa → dara.

miga

mi=ga

fruit=NOM

narara.

nar-ar-(o=w)a

grow-STAT-ATTR=DECL

miga narara.

mi=ga nar-ar-(o=w)a

fruit=NOM grow-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"Fruit has grown."

ara

ar(e=w)a

me=TOP

hooni

hoo=ni

mother=DAT

waikjuuretara.

waĭkjuw-are-tar-(o=w)a

scold-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

ara hooni waikjuuretara.

ar(e=w)a hoo=ni waĭkjuw-are-tar-(o=w)a

me=TOP mother=DAT scold-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"I was scolded by my mother."

A similar variation can be seen in the New Negative, which has the attributive form *-Nnako → -Nnoo but a declarative form *-Nnakowa → -Nnaka.

meNkjoga

meNkjo=ga

license=NOM

naQkeNte

na-ke=Nte

not-ADJ.ATTR=because

uNteN

uNteN

driving

sareNnaka.

s-are-Nnak-(o=w)a

do-PASS.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

meNkjoga naQkeNte uNteN sareNnaka.

meNkjo=ga na-ke=Nte uNteN s-are-Nnak-(o=w)a

license=NOM not-ADJ.ATTR=because driving do-PASS.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

"Since you don't have a license, you can't drive." (possible state)

karasumeN

karasume=N

crow=DAT

torarete

tor-are-te

take-PASS-PTCP

tedoreNnaka.

tedor-e-Nnak-(o=w)a

obtain-POT.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

karasumeN torarete tedoreNnaka.

karasume=N tor-are-te tedor-e-Nnak-(o=w)a

crow=DAT take-PASS-PTCP obtain-POT.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

"It was taken by crows, so you're not going to be able to get it."

The declarative particle zja has no special contracted forms, always attaching directly to the attributive, e.g., nomozja "drinks," doozja "is." It has also been noted to take the form -zjaN in the Sueyoshi dialect.

Other particles used with the attributive

Because of its nominalization function, the attributive form can be followed by any particle that can follow a noun, such as case particles. However, in addition, there are several other particles can also attach particularly to the attributive forms of verbals:

The clitic -Nte is a shortened form of -joNte, itself an extreme contraction and metathesis of -ni joQte, related to Japanese ～によって ni yotte "due to, by means of." This clitic has significant variance between dialects when it occurs after long vowels, shown here on ikowa "to go" as an example:

1. Whether this is a case of a superheavy triphthong [i.koɐi.te] or separate syllables [i.koɐ.i.te] is not clear.
2. ^ Whether this is a case of a superheavy syllable [i.koɐn.te ~ i.kaːn.te] or a syllabic N [i.koɐ.n̩.te ~ i.kaː.n̩.te] is not clear.

Some speakers of the Nakanogō and Kashitate dialects were also noted to have used the older form -joNte [jonte] after both long and short vowels as late as 1950.

Infinitive -i

The infinitive (連用形, ren'yōkei, lit. "connective-use form," inf) is made by adding the suffix -i to the stems of Class 1 verbs, nothing to those of Class 2, and -ku to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes si, and kurowa becomes ki. This form descends from the Old Japanese infinitive -i₁. Negative verbs also have a suppletive infinitive form where the whole negative auxiliary -Nnaka or -Nzjara is replaced by -zu, from Old Japanese -zu ← -ni su (possibly reborrowed through Japanese).

This is a non-finite form used similarly to Japanese's infinitive: to link several verbs in a clause, for serial verb constructions, attaching auxiliary verbs, as a method of nominalizing verbs, etc.

Infinitive as an Independent Predicate

Certain independent predicates can make use of the infinitive form instead of an ordinary finite predicate.

Simple infinitive predicates can be used to refer to actions in the immediate past, or to indicate that the speaker is speaking to themself, or both:

soide

soĭ=de

that=LOC

zeNbu

zeNbu

everything

heeri!

heer-i

enter-INF

soide zeNbu heeri!

soĭ=de zeNbu heer-i

that=LOC everything enter-INF

"And with that, all (of the balls) have entered (in the gate)." (immediate past)

aa

aa

ah

owari!

owar-i

end-INF

aa owari!

aa owar-i

ah end-INF

"Ah, it's over!" (immediate past)

ara

ar(e=w)a

me=TOP

kanasike

kanasi-ke

sad-ADJ.ATTR

terebjo

terebi=o

television=ACC

miruto,

mi-ru=to

see-JPRS=if

sugu

sugu

soon

benarare.

benar-are

cry-PASS.INF

ara kanasike terebjo miruto, sugu benarare.

ar(e=w)a kanasi-ke terebi=o mi-ru=to sugu benar-are

me=TOP sad-ADJ.ATTR television=ACC see-JPRS=if soon cry-PASS.INF

"Whenever I watch a sad television show, I quickly start crying." (speaking to self)

ura

ur(e=w)a

that.person=TOP

icumo

icu=mo

when=also

heNdoo

heN=da(r)-o

strange=COP-ATTR

kotou

koto=o

thing=ACC

ii.

iw-i

say-INF

ura icumo heNdoo kotou ii.

ur(e=w)a icu=mo heN=da(r)-o koto=o iw-i

that.person=TOP when=also strange=COP-ATTR thing=ACC say-INF

"That person always says strange things." (speaking to self)

aasike

aasike

INTERJ

obakirekeebjouno

oba-kire-keebjou=no

tail-cut-lizard=GEN

goN

go͡oN

way

sugu

sugu

soon

hiNmodori.

hiQ-modor-i

INTS-return-INF

aasike obakirekeebjouno goN sugu hiNmodori.

aasike oba-kire-keebjou=no go͡oN sugu hiQ-modor-i

INTERJ tail-cut-lizard=GEN way soon INTS-return-INF

"Honestly, it came back just like a lizard's tail does when cut off." (immediate past & speaking to self)

In a reduplicated form with -mo "also, even," specifically of the form nomimo nomi (for nomowa "to drink"), infinitive predicates are used to assert of the truth of the speaker's statement. This kind of statement is used without regard to time:

dekimo

dek-i=mo

come-INF=also

deki.

dek-i

come-INF

dekimo deki.

dek-i=mo dek-i

come-INF=also come-INF

"(I) will certainly come." (future reference)

arimo

ar-i=mo

be-INF=also

ari.

ar-i

be-INF

siQkari

siQkari

greatly

arozja.

ar-o=zja

be-ATTR=DECL

(Nakanogō dialect)

arimo ari. siQkari arozja.

ar-i=mo ar-i siQkari ar-o=zja

be-INF=also be-INF greatly be-ATTR=DECL

"Of course there are (some). There are a lot!" (present reference)

igoroo

igoro=o

snoring=ACC

sikimo

sik-i=mo

spread-INF=also

siki.

sik-i

spread-INF

(Nakanogō dialect)

igoroo sikimo siki.

igoro=o sik-i=mo sik-i

snoring=ACC spread-INF=also spread-INF

"It's true; I used to snore." (past reference)

maNmo

ma=N=mo

now=DAT=even

noNde

nom-te

drink-PTCP

aroka?

ar-o=ka

be-ATTR=Q

/

/

/

noNde

nom-te

drink-PTCP

arimo

ar-i=mo

be-INF=also

ari.

ar-i

be-INF

maNmo noNde aroka? / noNde arimo ari.

ma=N=mo nom-te ar-o=ka / nom-te ar-i=mo ar-i

now=DAT=even drink-PTCP be-ATTR=Q / drink-PTCP be-INF=also be-INF

"Do you still drink? / Of course I drink." (general reference)

Another use of an infinitive predicate can be found in certain types of questions, as discussed in a section below.

Infinitive-Derived Expressions

A number of auxiliary verbs can be used with the infinitive, all of which are derived from grammaticalized verbs:

1. Either fossilized from earlier Hachijō or borrowed from Middle Japanese なり nar-.

The negative verbal auxiliaries -Nnaka and -Nzjara, discussed in a later subsection, are also attached to the infinitive.

Similarly, there are a number of derived adjectives or adjective-like expressions built on the infinitive form:

1. Or calqued from Japanese ～たい -tai, from 痛い ita-i "painful," the cognate to itakja.
2. Borrowed from Japanese.

And several conjunctional forms as well:

• reduplicated (e.g., nominomi) — Indicates that an action is iterative. Used by itself, it serves as an adverbial phrase indicating that the iterative action was performed simultaneously with another, whereas when used with sjowa "to do" (e.g., nominomi sjowa), it simply indicates repeated action. Reduplicated verbs do not undergo vowel coalescence, e.g., okoriokori "happening again and again," not **okorjokori.
• -nagara ~ -nagaa — Indicates that an action is performed simultaneously with another, e.g. nominagara "while drinking." This formation is synonymous with the simultaneous gerund in -outei. Cognate with Japanese ～ながら -nagara.
• -gacu ~ -gacura — Indicates that an action is performed simultaneously with another, often coincidentally or through the exact same action, e.g. nomigacu "while one happens to be drinking." This form is limited to verbs that involve agency on the subject's part, and is also not usually used with motion verbs without an implicit endpoint (e.g., eemowa "walk," hasirowa "run"), intransitive bodily activities or functions (e.g. tatowa "stand"), or transitive verbs where an action is performed only once to one object (e.g., sasagowa "put on one's head"). Related to Japanese ～がてら -gatera.
• -i (allative) or -ni (dative) — Indicates the purpose for which another action was performed, e.g. nomii or nomini "in order to drink." Using the allative -i is the more common than the dative -ni for this purpose, but both can be found.

Negative Infinitive -zu

The negative infinitive (neg.inf) can be made in two different ways. The first way is by simply appending -zu to the regular infinitive form, e.g., nomizu "not drinking" (but is treated here as its own suffix). The second way is by adding -azu to the stems of Class 1 verbs, and -zu to those of Class 2. In this latter way, for irregular verbs, sjowa becomes sazu, sjazu, or sezu; and kurowa becomes kozu.

The negative infinitive is used in many of the same situations that the regular infinitive is used word-finally (that is, without any suffixes). However, there are some specialized constructions used with -zu:

• -zuN ~ -zuni (-zu-ni, neg.inf-dat), which acts as an adverbial phrase meaning "without ~ing," e.g., nomazuN "without drinking." It can also be used with a similar meaning to a negative participle.
• -zunja (-zu-nja, neg.inf-dat.top), which acts as an adjectival noun and expresses necessity, e.g., nomazunjadara "must drink, have to drink." This form likely originally meant "if one does not ~," to be followed by a phrase such as damedara "it would not be good," but only the copula dara has remained. Compare Japanese ～なきゃ -nakya, ～なくちゃ -nakucha, and ～ないと -nai to, which literally mean "if one does not," but can express a necessitative meaning even without a following clause.

In addition, there are a handful of derived forms from -zu:

• Negative Participle -zuto (neg.ptcp), used for conjunctive constructions with the particle -mo "even," e.g., nomazutomo "even not drinking, even if he doesn't drink." In general, this competes as the negative participle with -Nsjade and the dative-marked -zuN ~ -zuni.
• Negative Dubitative -ziisi (-zu-isi, neg.inf-dub), used as a kind of double negative to show what is not doubted, etc. (e.g., nomiziisi "won't not drink"). This competes with the regularly-formed -Nnakaroosi and Nzjaroosi, formed from the negative auxiliaries -Nnaka and -Nzjara.
• Non-Intentional -ziimadouwa (-zu-imadow-, neg.inf-try), a derived Class 1.1A'c verb that expresses a lack of trying to do something, or seeming not to do something, e.g., nomaziimadouwa "doesn't try to drink." This appears to be a compound involving the verb 惑う madouwa "to get lost, to be perplexed."

Participle -te

The participle (中止形, chūshikei, lit. "interrupting form," ptcp) is made by adding the suffix -te or -de to the stems of Class 1 (with some allomorphy), -te to those of Class 2, and -kute to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes site, and kurowa becomes kite. This grammatical form and its cognates across the Japonic languages are known by many names, including "participle," "gerund," "continuative," "subordinating," and simply "te-form"; the term "participle" will be used here. This form descends from the Old Japanese subordinating suffix -te, which was historically added to the infinitive but has gained a great degree of allomorphy due to historical sound changes, so it is treated as its own suffix here.

The participle is a non-finite form that serves a coordinating or subordinating role in sentences, indicating the realization (at the very least, the beginning) of the marked action. Therefore, the clause following a participle must necessarily refer to either the same time or a later time:

icuka

icu=ka

when=INDET

nacuga

nacu=ga

summer=NOM

kite

ki-te

come-PTCP

koode

koo=de

river=LOC

zjoNzjoumei

zjoNzjoume=o

loach=ACC

sukuuroosiga.

sukuw-ar-oosi=ga

scoop-STAT-DUB=but

icuka nacuga kite koode zjoNzjoumei sukuuroosiga.

icu=ka nacu=ga ki-te koo=de zjoNzjoume=o sukuw-ar-oosi=ga

when=INDET summer=NOM come-PTCP river=LOC loach=ACC scoop-STAT-DUB=but

"Sometime, when summer comes, I'd like to scoop up loaches at the river."

haNzume

haNzume

just.now

jamakaa

jama=kaa

field=ABL

keero

keer-o

return-ATTR

tokiN

toki=N

time=DAT

ameni

ame=ni

rain=DAT

hurarete

hur-are-te

fall-PASS-PTCP

taiheNdarara.

taĭheN=dar-ar-(o=w)a

awful=COP-STAT-ATTR=DECL

haNzume jamakaa keero tokiN ameni hurarete taiheNdarara.

haNzume jama=kaa keer-o toki=N ame=ni hur-are-te taĭheN=dar-ar-(o=w)a

just.now field=ABL return-ATTR time=DAT rain=DAT fall-PASS-PTCP awful=COP-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"Just now, when I was returning from the fields, I got rained on, and it was awful."

uciwano

uciwa=no

uchiwa=GEN

kazeN

kaze=N

wind=DAT

aworarete

awor-are-te

fan-PASS-PTCP

deNpjouga

deNpjou=ga

payment.slip=NOM

hiNmakara.

hiQ-mak-ar-(o=w)a

INTS-fly-STAT-ATTR=DECL

uciwano kazeN aworarete deNpjouga hiNmakara.

uciwa=no kaze=N awor-are-te deNpjou=ga hiQ-mak-ar-(o=w)a

uchiwa=GEN wind=DAT fan-PASS-PTCP payment.slip=NOM INTS-fly-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"When fanned by the wind of the uchiwa, the payment slips flew away."

Due to the temporal ordering implied by the participle, it can be used to imply a causal relationship:

hjaQkokute

hjaQko-kute

cold-ADJ.PTCP

adaN

adaN

however

koide

koĭ=de

this.thing=LOC

abiroosi.

abi-roosi

bathe-DUB

hjaQkokute adaN koide abiroosi.

hjaQko-kute adaN koĭ=de abi-roosi

cold-ADJ.PTCP however this.thing=LOC bathe-DUB

"(This water) is cold, so there's no way I'd bathe in it."

karasumeN

karasume=N

crow=DAT

torarete

tor-are-te

take-PASS-PTCP

tedoreNnaka.

tedor-e-Nnak-(o=w)a

obtain-POT.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

karasumeN torarete tedoreNnaka.

karasume=N tor-are-te tedor-e-Nnak-(o=w)a

crow=DAT take-PASS-PTCP obtain-POT.INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

"It was taken by crows, so you're not going to be able to get it."

hukurono

hukuro=no

bag=GEN

sokoga

soko=ga

bottom=NOM

naQkede

na-ke=de

not-ADJ.ATTR(NMLZ)=COP.PTCP

hukurono sokoga naQkede

hukuro=no soko=ga na-ke=de

bag=GEN bottom=NOM not-ADJ.ATTR(NMLZ)=COP.PTCP

"Because the bag has no bottom..."

Lastly, the participle can also be used to mark mirativity or emphasis in verbs of sensation or emotion:

oĩ

oĩ

wow

siNzouga

siNzou=ga

heart=NOM

dokidokisite!

dokidoki=si-te

thumping=do-PTCP

oĩ siNzouga dokidokisite!

oĩ siNzou=ga dokidoki=si-te

wow heart=NOM thumping=do-PTCP

"Oh my, my heart is pounding!"

oĩ

oĩ

wow

sjuuburiga

sjuuburi=ga

numbness=NOM

kirete!

kire-te

be.cut-PTCP

oĩ sjuuburiga kirete!

oĩ sjuuburi=ga kire-te

wow numbness=NOM be.cut-PTCP

"Ah, (it) has gone numb!"

oĩ

oĩ

wow

kimeiga

kimo-e=ga

liver-area=NOM

meite

mei-te

burn-PTCP

meite!

mei-te

burn-PTCP

oĩ kimeiga meite meite!

oĩ kimo-e=ga mei-te mei-te

wow liver-area=NOM burn-PTCP burn-PTCP

"Ugh, I'm so pissed off!"

Participle-Derived Expressions

The participle has a few specialized uses when combined with certain particles:

Several verbs are also used in common constructions with the participle:

1. Unlike Modern Japanese ～てある -te aru, which has a passive perfect meaning, Hachijō -te arowa expresses a progressive or stative meaning close to Japanese ～ている -te iru.

Anterior -toQtei

The anterior gerund (先行形, senkōkei, ant) can be made by replacing the -te or -de of the participle with -totei ~ -toQtei or -dotei ~ -doQtei, respectively. The form -toQtei ~ doQtei is older, and is now generally used after verbs without euphonic participles (mostly Class 2 and 3 verbs, as well as verbal adjectives), whereas -totei ~ -dotei is used with other verbs (like Class 1 verbs). The copula dara has the anterior gerund doQtei.

There are two likely candidates for this form's etymology:

• participle -te + participle oQte of or- "to be" + accusative -o (in mirative usage)
• participle -te + participle oQte of ok- "to put" + accusative -o (in mirative usage)

This form denotes an action that occurs strictly before another action that occurs in the following clause. It is similar but not exactly equivalent to the construction -tekara ~ -dekara, using the participle -te ~ -de and the ablative -kara.

sono

sono

that.ATTR

noogee

noo=gee

rope=LAT

itoo

ita=o

board=ACC

suQtotei,

suk-totei

lay-ANT

noQte

nor-te

ride-PTCP

jurerodara.

jur-e-ro=dar-(o=w)a

swing-POT-ATTR(NMLZ)=COP-ATTR=DECL

sono noogee itoo suQtotei, noQte jurerodara.

sono noo=gee ita=o suk-totei nor-te jur-e-ro=dar-(o=w)a

that.ATTR rope=LAT board=ACC lay-ANT ride-PTCP swing-POT-ATTR(NMLZ)=COP-ATTR=DECL

"After laying a board on that rope, you can ride it and swing."

Requisitional -tou

The requisitional form (依頼, irai, req) form can be made by replacing the -te or -de of the participle with -tou or -dou, respectively. This suffix is often thought to etymologically derive from the participle -te followed by the accusative -o, but as that would have been expected to yield **-tei rather than -tou, this form's ultimate origin is unclear; it likely derives from a more complex contraction.

The requisitional is used for asking favors and requests of others. Like the imperative, it can be softened by adding mii afterward:

kurumee

kuruma=i

car=ALL

cuNdou.

cum-tou

load-REQ

kurumee cuNdou.

kuruma=i cum-tou

car=ALL load-REQ

"(Please) load it into the car."

kumacjaN

kuma-cjaN

bear-DIM

ocjoo

ocja=o

tea=ACC

cuNdou

cug-tou

pour-REQ

mii.

mii

please

kumacjaN ocjoo cuNdou mii.

kuma-cjaN ocja=o cug-tou mii

bear-DIM tea=ACC pour-REQ please

"Little bear, please pour the tea."

Imperative -e ~ -ro

The imperative form (命令形, meireikei, imp) is made by adding the suffix -e to the stems of Class 1 verbs, and -ro to those of Class 2. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes se or sje, and kurowa becomes ko. These forms descend from the Eastern Old Japanese imperative forms -e₍₁₎ ~ ro₂.

The imperative is used for commands, and can be softened by adding mii afterward:

sorei

sore=o

that.thing=ACC

deeciku

deeci-ku

clean-ADJ.INF

hiQkakero.

hiQkake-ro

drink-IMP

sorei deeciku hiQkakero.

sore=o deeci-ku hiQkake-ro

that.thing=ACC clean-ADJ.INF drink-IMP

"Drink that cleanly (in one gulp)."

kokei

koko=i

here=ALL

ko

ko

come.IMP

mii.

mii

please

kokei ko mii.

koko=i ko mii

here=ALL come.IMP please

"(Please) come this way."

ozjarijare!

ozjar-i-jar-e

come(HON)-INF-HON-IMP

ozjarijare!

ozjar-i-jar-e

come(HON)-INF-HON-IMP

"Welcome!" or "Please come in!"

The imperative can also be used to warn others about imminent events that would have a negative effect on them:

maN

ma=N

now=DAT

nou

nou

DM

sorei

sore=o

that=ACC

nigase!

nigas-e

let.escape-IMP

maN nou sorei nigase!

ma=N nou sore=o nigas-e

now=DAT DM that=ACC let.escape-IMP

"Look, you're gonna let it get away!"

For negative imperatives, the prohibitive postfix -na (attaching to the final form) is used instead.

Final Form -u

The final form (旧終止形, kyū-shūshikei, lit. "old termination form," fin) is made by adding the suffix -u to the stems of Class 1 verbs, nothing or -ru to those of Class 2, and -ke or underlying *-karu to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes su, and kurowa becomes ku or kuru. However, for Class 1.1C verbs, the underlying *-aru typically contracts to aQ, aN, or oo depending on the following morpheme; the same can be said for verbal adjectives, whose underlying 1.1C *-karu contracts to -kaQ, -kaN, or -koo. This form descends from the Old Japanese final form -u, as well as in some constructions borrowed from Japanese using its attributive form -u ~ -ru.

Despite its name, this suffix's use in concluding declarative sentences has mostly been supplanted in Hachijō by the declarative -owa form. It mainly only exists as a predicative form in quotative and reportative speech:

baa-sama=wa

grandma-HON=TOP

koo=jii

river=ALL

seNtaku=N

laundry=DAT

ik-ar-ar-(u)

go-STAT-STAT-FIN

=tew-o=ga

=QUOT.say-ATTR=but

baa-sama=wa koo=jii seNtaku=N ik-ar-ar-(u) =tew-o=ga

grandma-HON=TOP river=ALL laundry=DAT go-STAT-STAT-FIN =QUOT.say-ATTR=but

"I hear that Grandma went to the river to do laundry, but..."
おばあさんは川へ洗濯に行ったそうだが

bjouki=de

illness=LOC

ci=no

blood=GEN

iro=ga

color=NOM

koor-ar-(u)

change-STAT-FIN

=tew-o=wa

=QUOT.say-ATTR=DECL

bjouki=de ci=no iro=ga koor-ar-(u) =tew-o=wa

illness=LOC blood=GEN color=NOM change-STAT-FIN =QUOT.say-ATTR=DECL

"I hear that his blood changed color when he was sick."
病気で血の色が変わったそうだ。

However, the final form still remains fossilized in the formation of several verbal extensions:

Prohibitive -na

The prohibitive form (禁止形, kinshikei, proh) is made by adding the suffix -na to the final form (with or without the extra -ru on Class 2 verbs and kurowa). This form is either inherited from the Old Japanese prohibitive -(u)na or reborrowed from Japanese. This form serves as the negative counterpart to the imperative, commanding the addressee not to do something:

sjaku=de

ladle=LOC

mizu=o

water=ACC

nom-u-na

drink-FIN-PROH

sjaku=de mizu=o nom-u-na

ladle=LOC water=ACC drink-FIN-PROH

"Don't drink water with a ladle."
柄杓で水を飲むな。

kokoro-na-ke

heart-not-ADJ.ATTR

hito=ni

person=DAT

cukaw-are-na

use-PASS.FIN-PROH

kokoro-na-ke hito=ni cukaw-are-na

heart-not-ADJ.ATTR person=DAT use-PASS.FIN-PROH

"Don't get used by heartless people."
心ない人に使われるな。

Conjectural Extension -naw-

The conjectural (推量, suiryō, cnjec) extension is made by adding -naw- (Class 1.1A') to the final forms of verbals. On Class 2 verbs and kurowa, the extra ru is optional; for verbal adjectives, the combined result is -kaNnaw-. This extension descends from the Old Japanese tentative-conjectural extension -nam- (contrast Western Old Japanese -uram-), with /m/ elided to /w/.

This extension denotes various conjectural meanings such as guessing, expectation, prediction, hypotheticality, and other such irrealis situations.

Focalizing Extension -naw-

The focalizing (強調, kyōchō, lit. "emphatic," foclz) extension is made by adding -naw- (Class 1.1A') to the final forms of verbals, identical in all forms to the conjectural.

This extension was borrowed from a Middle Japanese mermaid construction -(r)u nari, consisting of the Middle Japanese nominalized attributive form in -(r)u followed by the copula なり nari, an exact parallel to Hachijō's native -(r)odara mermaid construction. Because the Middle Japanese attributive is -(r)u rather than -(r)o, this construction was borrowed to use the Hachijō final form in -(r)u instead. In addition, the borrowed copula nar- has been reduced to -naw-, merging in form with the conjectural -naw-.

The Japanese-style present form -nou (← -naw-u) is used sentence-finally for emphasis (example 1) and sentence-medially express cause and effect (example 2):

ikura

how.many

a=ga

me=NOM

cukur-jaatei

make-FHYP

uĭ=ga

that.person=NOM

ki-te

come-PTCP

kore=o

this=ACC

kous-u-naw-u

destroy-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS

ikura a=ga cukur-jaatei uĭ=ga ki-te kore=o kous-u-naw-u

how.many me=NOM make-FHYP that.person=NOM come-PTCP this=ACC destroy-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS

"No matter how many I make, that person will come and destroy them."
いくら私が作っても、あいつが来てこれを壊すんだもの。

uĭ=ga

that.person=NOM

nom-u-naw-u

drink-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS

aĭ=mo

me=also

hosi-ku

wanting-INF

nar-o

become-ATTR(NMLZ)

=da(r)-o=zja

=COP-ATTR=DECL

uĭ=ga nom-u-naw-u aĭ=mo hosi-ku nar-o =da(r)-o=zja

that.person=NOM drink-FIN-FOCLZ-JPRS me=also wanting-INF become-ATTR(NMLZ) =COP-ATTR=DECL

"That person will drink, so I will want some, too."
あの人が飲むから、私も欲しくなるんだよ。

The exclamatory form -nee (← -naw-e) is used in kakari-musubi with the focus particle koo (see the section on focalized exclamatory kakari-musubi for details and examples).

The provisional form -neeja (← -naw-eba) is used to express two types of conditionals or cause-and-effect statements. When not following the stative extension, it is an imperfect conditional, indicating that the condition was met repeatedly or many times at once:

terebi=o

television=ACC

mi-naw-e(b)a

see.FIN-FOCLZ-PROV

ure=N

that.person=DAT

waĭkjuw-are-tar-(o=w)a

scold-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

terebi=o mi-naw-e(b)a ure=N waĭkjuw-are-tar-(o=w)a

television=ACC see.FIN-FOCLZ-PROV that.person=DAT scold-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"Whenever I watched television, I was scolded by that person." (repeated instances)
テレビを見ていると、あの人に怒られた。

konasama=ga

silkworm=NOM

marub-u-naw-e(b)a

die-FIN-FOCLZ-PROV

jakekuso=N

desperate=DAT

nar-te

become-PTCP

haa

already

kabee=jo=mo

mulberry.leaf=ACC=even

mog-i-Nnak-(o=w)a

pluck-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

konasama=ga marub-u-naw-e(b)a jakekuso=N nar-te haa kabee=jo=mo mog-i-Nnak-(o=w)a

silkworm=NOM die-FIN-FOCLZ-PROV desperate=DAT become-PTCP already mulberry.leaf=ACC=even pluck-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

"When the silkworms started dying (one after another), he became desperate and wouldn't pick any more mulberry leaves." (many instances at once)
蚕が（つぎつぎ）死んでいくと、（それが原因でこの人は）ヤケクソになって、もう桑の葉をも、捥がないよ。

When -neeja does follow the stative extension, the clauses expresses a completed action, and the following clause indicates a result that occurred upon its completion:

uku=i

there=ALL

nubur-ar-(u)-naw-e(b)a

climb-STAT-FIN-FOCLZ-PROV

mei-tar-(o=w)a

be.visible-STAT-ATTR=DECL

uku=i nubur-ar-(u)-naw-e(b)a mei-tar-(o=w)a

there=ALL climb-STAT-FIN-FOCLZ-PROV be.visible-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"When (I) climbed up there, (it) was visible."
あそこへ上ったら見えた。

Lastly, this extension appears to be somehow fossilized in the optative ending -osunou.

Jussive Adjective -beki

The jussive (当為・義務, tōi-gimu, lit. "responsibility & duty," juss) is made by adding the postfix -beki to the final forms of verbs, creating an adjectival noun. This form is borrowed from the Japanese form -beki, descended from Western Old Japanese -(u)be₂-ki₁.

This form acts as an adjectival noun that, when used with the copula dara, expresses a meaning like "ought to do," "should do," or "needs to do":

waĭ=mo

me=also

ik-u-beki

go-FIN-JUSS

=dar-a(r)-o

=COP-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ)

=ni

=COP.INF

waĭ=mo ik-u-beki =dar-a(r)-o =ni

me=also go-FIN-JUSS =COP-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ) =COP.INF

"Even though I should have gone too..."
私も行くべきだったのに

A verbal adjective form -bekja of this affix has also been attested.

Suppositional Adjective -rasikja

The suppositional (推定, suitei, supp) form is made by adding the extension -rasi- to the final forms of verbs, creating a verbal adjective. This form is either inherited from Eastern Old Japanese -(u)rasi or borrowed from its Japanese cognate form ～らしい -rashi-i.

This form is a verbal adjective with the meaning "seeming":

asu=mo

tomorrow=also

juki=ga

snow=NOM

hur-u-rasi-ke=(w)a

fall-FIN-SUPP-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

asu=mo juki=ga hur-u-rasi-ke=(w)a

tomorrow=also snow=NOM fall-FIN-SUPP-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

"It seems it will snow tomorrow, too."
明日も雪が降るらしい。

Conditional Gerund -aba

The conditional gerund (aba条件形, ABA jōkenkei, lit. "aba-conditional form," cond) is made by adding the suffix -aba to the stems of Class 1 verbs, -ba or -raba to those of Class 2, and -kaba or -kaaba ~ -karaba to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes saba, and kurowa becomes koba or kuraba. This form descends from the Old Japanese conditional gerund -aba.

This form introduces a condition or prerequisite that, if it is (or were) true, the following clause occurs (or would occur). For conditions without a stative, the consequence occurs before the condition (in anticipation of it):

koko=N

here=DAT

ne-ba

sleep-COND

hutoN=jo

futon=ACC

suk-o=wa

lay.out-ATTR=DECL

koko=N ne-ba hutoN=jo suk-o=wa

here=DAT sleep-COND futon=ACC lay.out-ATTR=DECL

"If (he) is going to sleep here, then (I) will lay out a futon (beforehand)," or
"If (he) were to sleep here, then (I) would lay out a futon (beforehand)."
ここに寝るなら、布団を敷くよ。

unu=mo

you=also

ik-aba

go-COND

kore=o

this=ACC

mot-te

hold-PTCP

ik-e

go-IMP

unu=mo ik-aba kore=o mot-te ik-e

you=also go-COND this=ACC hold-PTCP go-IMP

"If you're going too, take this with you (before you go)."
おまえも行くなら、これを持っていけ。

For past conditions (usually marked with a stative), the consequence occurs after the achievement of the condition:

hama=i

beach=ALL

ik-a(r)-aba

go-STAT-COND

keegou=jo

seashell=ACC

hirow-te

pick.up-PTCP

ko

come.IMP

jou

DM

hama=i ik-a(r)-aba keegou=jo hirow-te ko jou

beach=ALL go-STAT-COND seashell=ACC pick.up-PTCP come.IMP DM

"If you go to the beach, bring back a seashell (afterwards)."
浜に行ったら、貝を拾ってこいと。

Finally, if the consequence refers to past time, the sentence is always counterfactual, where the condition was not actually met:

unu=mo

you=also

ik-aba

go-COND

cur-te

join-PTCP

ik-oosita(r)-o

go-PSTSUBJ-ATTR(NMLZ)

=ni

=COP.INF

unu=mo ik-aba cur-te ik-oosita(r)-o =ni

you=also go-COND join-PTCP go-PSTSUBJ-ATTR(NMLZ) =COP.INF

"If you were going to go too, I would've gone with you, but..."
おまえも行くなら、連れて行ったのに。

haĭ-ku

soon-ADJ.INF

keer-a(r)-aba

go.home-STAT-COND

jo-kar-ar-(o=w)a

good-ADJ-STAT-ATTR=DECL

haĭ-ku keer-a(r)-aba jo-kar-ar-(o=w)a

soon-ADJ.INF go.home-STAT-COND good-ADJ-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"It would have been better if you had come home early."
はやく帰ればよかった。

Futile-Hypothetical Gerund -jaatei

The futile-hypothetical gerund (逆条件形, gyaku-jōkenkei, lit. "reverse-conditional form," fhyp) is made by adding the suffix -jaatei to the stems of Class 1 verbs, -rjaatei to those of Class 2, and -kjaatei or -karjaatei to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes sjaatei, and kurowa becomes kurjaatei. This form is believed to descend from the Class 1 infinitive -i followed by the phrase aQte mo "even if it is": *-iaQtemo → *-jaQtewo → *-jaatei; the other verb classes' forms must have been formed by analogy.

This form expresses futility: the clause marked by -jaatei introduces a condition that is known to be false or impossible, and the following clause expresses an action or state that would remain true even if the condition were met.

ure=N

that.person=DAT

iw-jaatei

say-FHYP

kik-i-Nnak-(o=w)a

hear-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

ure=N iw-jaatei kik-i-Nnak-(o=w)a

that.person=DAT say-FHYP hear-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

"Even if (you) tell that person, he won't listen," or "...he won't hear it."
あいつに言っても、聞かないよ。

ikura

how.much

nom-jaatei

drink-FHYP

jow-i-Nar-(u)-naw-o=wa

get.drunk-INF-NEG-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR=DECL

ikura nom-jaatei jow-i-Nar-(u)-naw-o=wa

how.much drink-FHYP get.drunk-INF-NEG-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR=DECL

"I probably won't get drunk no matter how much I drink."
いくら飲んでも酔わないだろうよ。

Exclamatory -e

The exclamatory form (已然形, izenkei, excl) is made by adding the suffix -e to the stems of Class 1 verbs, -re to those of Class 2, and -ke to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes se or sje, and kurowa becomes kure. This form descends from the Old Japanese exclamatory form -e₂ ~ -ure.

The exclamatory form used as a predicative form in constructions with the focus particles ka and koo; these constructions are detailed further in the section on kakari-musubi. The exclamatory form is also used etymologically as the base for forming the provisional and concessive gerunds, detailed in the following subsection:

Provisional -eba ~ -ja

The provisional gerund (eba条件形, EBA jōkenkei, lit. "eba-conditional form," prov) is generally formed by adding by the suffix -ba or -a to the exclamatory form of verbals (but is treated as its own suffix). For the -a variant, this contracts with a preceding e to become ja, or if the verb's exclamatory form ends in a long vowel, -a becomes -ja instead (e.g., wareeba → wareeja "when he laughs"). For verbal adjectives, the -ba forms are -keba and -kereba, while the -a form is -kerja. For the irregular verb sjowa, the -ba forms are sureba and s(j)eba, and the -a forms are surja and sja. For the irregular verb kurowa, the -ba form is kureba, and the -a form is -kurja. All of these forms descend from the Old Japanese conjunctive gerund -e₂ba ~ -ureba with or without the /b/ elided. Although the variants in -eba and -ja have identical etymologies, they have slightly diverged in usage.

The principal function of the provisional gerund is to mark a subordinate clause that is causally or temporally related to the main clause, describing the circumstance in which the main clause occurs:

kore=o

this=ACC

nom-e(b)a

drink-PROV

daĭ

who

=de=mo

=COP.PTCP=even

jow-o=wa

get.drunk-ATTR=DECL

kore=o nom-e(b)a daĭ =de=mo jow-o=wa

this=ACC drink-PROV who =COP.PTCP=even get.drunk-ATTR=DECL

"Anyone would get drunk if/when they drank this."
これを飲めばだれでも酔うよ。

aki=N

autumn=DAT

nar-e(b)a

become-PROV

kaNmo=ga

sweet.potato=NOM

kam-e-ro=wa

eat-POT-ATTR=DECL

aki=N nar-e(b)a kaNmo=ga kam-e-ro=wa

autumn=DAT become-PROV sweet.potato=NOM eat-POT-ATTR=DECL

"(We) can eat sweet potatoes when autumn comes."
秋になればサツマイモが食べられるよ。

Both -eba and -ja can also be used to mark future conditions, whether they are expected to be actualized or not:

sogo͡oN

in.that.way

sj-eba

do-PROV

ki=ga

feeling=NOM

hare-ro=wa

become.clear-ATTR=DECL

sogo͡oN sj-eba ki=ga hare-ro=wa

in.that.way do-PROV feeling=NOM become.clear-ATTR=DECL

"If you do that, you'll feel better," or "If you did that, you'd feel better."
そうすれば気が晴れるよ。

kore=o

this=ACC

nom-e(b)a

drink-PROV

koĭ=ga

this.person=NOM

soog-o=wa

get.angry-ATTR=DECL

kore=o nom-e(b)a koĭ=ga soog-o=wa

this=ACC drink-PROV this.person=NOM get.angry-ATTR=DECL

"If you drink this, this person will get angry," or "If you drank this, this person would get angry."
これを飲めばこの人が怒るよ。

However, for conditions or circumstances that are or were met repeatedly, with the same result in each case, -ja is preferred for both present and past results:

a=ga

me=NOM

utaw-e(b)a

sing-PROV

koĭ=ga

this.person=NOM

tome-ro=wa

stop-ATTR=DECL

a=ga utaw-e(b)a koĭ=ga tome-ro=wa

me=NOM sing-PROV this.person=NOM stop-ATTR=DECL

"Whenever I sing, this person stops me."
私が歌っていると、こいつが止める。

uĭ=ga

that.person=NOM

kam-e(b)a

eat-PROV

aĭ=mo

me=also

hosi-ku

wanting-ADJ.INF

nar-ar-(o=w)a

become-STAT-ATTR=DECL

uĭ=ga kam-e(b)a aĭ=mo hosi-ku nar-ar-(o=w)a

that.person=NOM eat-PROV me=also wanting-ADJ.INF become-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"Whenever that person was eating, I wanted some, too."
あの人が食べていると、私も欲しくなった。

When used with a focus-marking particle ka or koo, a provisional in -ja marks a precise reason, with more emphasis than the common phrasing using -Nte "because." Naturally, such sentences with ka or koo use exclamatory kakari-musubi:

a=ga

me=NOM

cukaw-e(b)a=koo

use-PROV=FOC

mot-te

hold-PTCP

ki-tar-(u)-naw-e

come-STAT-FIN-FOCLZ-EXCL

a=ga cukaw-e(b)a=koo mot-te ki-tar-(u)-naw-e

me=NOM use-PROV=FOC hold-PTCP come-STAT-FIN-FOCLZ-EXCL

"It is because I will use it that I have started holding it."
私が使うからこそ持ってきたんだよ。

Concessive -edou

The concessive gerund (dou接続形, DOU setsuzokukei, lit. "dou-conjunctional form," cnces) is formed by adding by the suffix -dou to the exclamatory form of verbals (but is treated as its own suffix). For Class 1.1C verbs, the resulting sequence -aredou can contract to -aĭdou. This form descends from the Old Japanese concessive gerund -e₂do₂mo₂ ~ -uredo₂mo₂ → -edowo ~ -redowo → -edou ~ -redou, cognate to the Japanese conjunctions けども kedomo and けれども keredomo "although." The forms -doumo and -douni are also attested.

The concessive gerund introduces adverse information despite which the main clause still nevertheless occurs or occurred:

kinei=wa

yesterday=TOP

hur-ci-dou

rain-RET(EXCL)-CNCES

kei=wa

today=TOP

ada

how

=da=ka

=COP.JPRS=Q

kinei=wa hur-ci-dou kei=wa ada =da=ka

yesterday=TOP rain-RET(EXCL)-CNCES today=TOP how =COP.JPRS=Q

"Although it rained yesterday, how will today be, I wonder?"
昨日は（雨が）降ったが、今日はどうだか。

Volitional -ou

The volitional form (意志形, ishikei, vol) is made by adding the suffix -ou to the stems of Class 1 verbs, and -rou to those of Class 2. Alternative formations also exist, where Class 1.1A' verbs use their declarative or final form, -i (possibly underlying *o or *u) is attached to the stems of Class 2b verbs, and nothing is added to the stems of Classes 2c and 2d. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes sjou, and kurowa becomes kurou or kou. (Verbal adjectives have no volitional form.) The volitional seems to have some relationship to the Old Japanese tentative-conjectural form -am-, and thereby the Japanese volitional -ō ~ -yō, but the exact path between the Old Japanese and Modern Hachijō forms is not clear.

The volitional indicates a personal intent or a cohortative suggestion:

sorosoro

before.long

ne-rou

sleep-VOL

sorosoro ne-rou

before.long sleep-VOL

"It's about time (we) went to sleep," or "Let's go to sleep soon."
そろそろ寝よう。

aĭ=mo

me=also

nom-ou

drink-VOL

aĭ=mo nom-ou

me=also drink-VOL

"I'll drink, too."
私も飲もう。

Statements of intent can be emphasized by adding the postfix -bei, as in nomoubei "I'll drink!" Similarly, cohortative suggestions can be emphasized by adding the declarative particle -zja, as in ikouzja "Let's go!"

The volitional can also be used as an attributive form in the construction -ou houdara and its negative equivalent -ou hou nakja, which indicate ability or possibility:

ur(e=w)a

that.person=TOP

jom-ou

read-VOL(ATTR)

hou

way

=da(r)-o=(N)te

=COP-ATTR=because

ure=o

that.person=ACC

tanom-e

request-IMP

ur(e=w)a jom-ou hou =da(r)-o=(N)te ure=o tanom-e

that.person=TOP read-VOL(ATTR) way =COP-ATTR=because that.person=ACC request-IMP

"That person can read (it), so ask him."
あの人は読めるから、あの人を頼め。

jase-i

lose.weight-VOL(ATTR)

hou

way

na-ke=(w)a

not-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

jase-i hou na-ke=(w)a

lose.weight-VOL(ATTR) way not-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

"I am unable to lose weight."
痩せることができない。

Simultaneous -outei

The simultaneous gerund (同時形, dōjikei, simul) can be made by appending -tei to the end of the volitional form. There are two likely candidates for this form's etymology:

• volitional -ou + quotative te + accusative -o (in mirative usage)
• volitional -ou + quotative to + allative -i

This form denotes an action that occurs simultaneously with another action, similar to English "while ~ing," and equivalent in meaning to adding -nagara "while" to the infinitive.

teeko=o

drum=ACC

hatak-ou-tei

beat-VOL-SIMUL

utaw-te

sing-PTCP

mi-ro

see-IMP

teeko=o hatak-ou-tei utaw-te mi-ro

drum=ACC beat-VOL-SIMUL sing-PTCP see-IMP

"Try singing and playing the drums at the same time."
太鼓を叩きながら歌ってみろ。

This sense of simultaneity can also be used to indicate an action that was interrupted by another:

isi=o

rock=ACC

horow-(ou)-tei

pick.up-VOL-SIMUL

bukacuk-ar-(o=w)a

fall.forward-STAT-ATTR=DECL

isi=o horow-(ou)-tei bukacuk-ar-(o=w)a

rock=ACC pick.up-VOL-SIMUL fall.forward-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"He fell forward while trying to pick up a rock."
石を拾おうとして前に転んだ。

It can also be used to emphasize a contradictory yet simultaneous event:

waraw-te

laugh-PTCP

ar-ou-tei

be-VOL-SIMUL

waraw-i-(N)nak-(o=w)a

laugh-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL

=te

=QUOT

iw-o=wa

say-ATTR=DECL

waraw-te ar-ou-tei waraw-i-(N)nak-(o=w)a =te iw-o=wa

laugh-PTCP be-VOL-SIMUL laugh-INF-NEG-ATTR=DECL =QUOT say-ATTR=DECL

"He says "I'm not laughing!" (even) while laughing."
笑っていながら、「笑わない（笑っていない）よ」と言う。

Dubitative-Related Forms

Several verbal forms appear to be related to the dubitative (formerly optative) form listed below, which seems to be related in some way to the Classical Japanese optative constructions ～ま欲しき -mafosi-ki or ～ま欲りする -mafori suru.

Dubitative -oosi

The dubitative (反語, hango, lit. "ironic," dub) form is made by adding the suffix -oosi to the stems of Class 1 verbs (or -aroosi for Class 1.1A'), -isi or -roosi to those of Class 2a and 2b, -si or -roosi to those of Class 2c and 2d, and -karoosi to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes seisi or sjoosi, and kurowa becomes kousi or kuroosi. The Sueyoshi and Aogashima dialects are an exception, where -iisi is used for Class 1 verbs (-ariisi for Class 1.1A'), only -isi ~ -si is used for Class 2, sjowa becomes siisi, and kurowa becomes kiisi.

As attested in older records, this form once expressed an optative meaning, often (but not necessarily) regarding a wish or hope that the speaker thinks might not come true:

(u)n(u)=ga

you=NOM

icu=ka

when=INDET

ko-osi=ga

come-DUB=but

(u)n(u)=ga icu=ka ko-osi=ga

you=NOM when=INDET come-DUB=but

"I'd like for you to come again sometime."
おまえがいつか（また）来るといいなあ。

icu=ka

when=INDET

nacu=ga

summer=NOM

ki-te

come-PTCP

koo=de

river=LOC

zjoNzjoume=o

loach=ACC

sukuw-ar-oosi=ga

scoop-STAT-DUB=but

icu=ka nacu=ga ki-te koo=de zjoNzjoume=o sukuw-ar-oosi=ga

when=INDET summer=NOM come-PTCP river=LOC loach=ACC scoop-STAT-DUB=but

"Sometime, when summer comes, I'd like to scoop up loaches at the river."
いつか夏が来て川でドジョウを掬いたいなあ。

icu=ka

when=INDET

ura=ga

they=NOM

huuhu=N

husband.and.wife=DAT

nar-oosi=ga

become-DUB=but

icu=ka ura=ga huuhu=N nar-oosi=ga

when=INDET they=NOM husband.and.wife=DAT become-DUB=but

"It would be nice if they became a married couple."
いつ彼らは夫婦になるかなあ。（夫婦になるのは楽しみだなあ。）

However, due to semantic shift emphasizing the non-realization of the wish, this form has changed to have an ironic, doubting, or generally negative meaning in modern speech. When used with a first-person subject, it expresses what the speaker does not want to do, cannot do, or does not believe he or she can do. When used with non-first-person subjects, it expresses what the speaker expects is not the case or will not happen.

adaN

however

nare=to

you(OFNS)=COM

nom-e-isi

drink-POT-DUB

adaN nare=to nom-e-isi

however you(OFNS)=COM drink-POT-DUB

"There's no way I could ever drink with you."
どうもおまえとは飲めない

hjaQko-kute

cold-ADJ.PTCP

adaN

however

koĭ=de

this.thing=LOC

abi-isi/roosi

bathe-DUB

hjaQko-kute adaN koĭ=de abi-isi/roosi

cold-ADJ.PTCP however this.thing=LOC bathe-DUB

"(This water) is cold, so there's no way I'd bathe in it."
（水が）冷たくてどうもこれで浴びられない。

mou

anymore

wa=ga

me=NOM

iku-nen

how.many-year

iki-isi/roosi

live-DUB

mou wa=ga iku-nen iki-isi/roosi

anymore me=NOM how.many-year live-DUB

"I doubt that I'll live for many more years."
もう私が何年生きるだろう。（もうそんなに生きられない。）

ure=N

that.person=DAT

nou

DM

kik-jaatei

ask-FHYP

osei-te

teach-PTCP

ke-isi

give-DUB

ure=N nou kik-jaatei osei-te ke-isi

that.person=DAT DM ask-FHYP teach-PTCP give-DUB

"As for that guy, he wouldn't tell you even if you asked him."
あいつにね、聞いても教えてくれるものか。

kono

this.ATTR

ziki=ni

time.period=DAT

hotour-oosi

be.hot-DUB

kono ziki=ni hotour-oosi

this.ATTR time.period=DAT be.hot-DUB

"It's not like it's hot in this season."
この時期に暑いわけないよ。

The dubitative can also attach to the negative infinitive -zu to form -ziisi, which—due to its double negative-like meaning—indicates what the speaker thinks should be possible or doesn't doubt will happen.

aNde

why

sore=o

that=ACC

nom-izu-isi

drink-NEG.INF-DUB

aNde sore=o nom-izu-isi

why that=ACC drink-NEG.INF-DUB

"There's no reason why he wouldn't drink that."
なんでそれを飲まないものか。

un(u-r)a=N=see

that.person-PL=DAT=even

deki-ro

be.able-ATTR

mono=o

thing=ACC

aNde

why

ware=N

me=DAT

deki-zu-isi

be.able-NEG.INF-DUB

un(u-r)a=N=see deki-ro mono=o aNde ware=N deki-zu-isi

that.person-PL=DAT=even be.able-ATTR thing=ACC why me=DAT be.able-NEG.INF-DUB

"If even those people can do it, there's no reason why I shouldn't be able to."
おまえたちにさえできるものを、どうして私にできないものか。

This is identical in meaning to the forms -Nnakaroosi and Nzjaroosi, which use the negative auxiliaries -Nnaka and -Nzjara.

Optative -oosunou

The optative (希望, kibō, opt) form is made by replacing the -si of the dubitative form with -sunou (but is treated as its own suffix). This form appears to consist of the dubitative followed by the focalizing extension -naw- in its Japanese-style present form -nou.

Like the older use of -osi, -osunou expresses an optative meaning, often regarding a wish or hope that the speaker thinks might not come true. Kaneda (2001) notes that the older meaning of optative -osi and the modern meaning of -osunou are largely the same with subtle differences, but does not elaborate further.

uku=de

there=LOC

hara-iQpee

belly-full

kam-oosunou

eat-OPT

uku=de hara-iQpee kam-oosunou

there=LOC belly-full eat-OPT

"I'd like to eat there (until my) belly (is) full."
あそこで腹いっぱい食べたいなあ。

nizjuugoNci=ga

twenty.fifth.day=NOM

icu=ka

when=INDET

ko-osunou

come-OPT

nizjuugoNci=ga icu=ka ko-osunou

twenty.fifth.day=NOM when=INDET come-OPT

"The 25th day (of this month) can't come soon enough," or "I wish the 25th could come faster."
２５日がはやく来ないかなあ。

Intentional -oosjaate

The intentional (意図, ito, inten) gerund is made by replacing the -si of the dubitative form with -sjaate (but is treated as its own suffix).

This form is generally indicate that an action is attempted, considered, to planned to be done:

ato=de

afterward=LOC

kam-oosjaate

eat-INTEN

ok-a(r)-o=jo

leave-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ)=ACC

dare=N=ka

who=DAT=INDET

kam-are-tar-(o=w)a

eat-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

ato=de kam-oosjaate ok-a(r)-o=jo dare=N=ka kam-are-tar-(o=w)a

afterward=LOC eat-INTEN leave-STAT-ATTR(NMLZ)=ACC who=DAT=INDET eat-PASS-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"Somebody ate (the food) that I had left out and had intended to eat later."
後で食べようと置いておいたのを誰かに食べられた。

The intentional is often used in conjunction with the verb sjowa "to do." With agentive verbs, this construction means "to attempt to, to plan to," etc., whereas with non-agentive verbs, it instead means "to seem to be about to":

ko-osjaate

come-INTEN

s-jaatei

do-FHYP

k-ou

come-VOL

hou

way

na-ke

not-ADJ.ATTR(NMLZ)

=dar-(o=w)a

=COP-ATTR=DECL

ko-osjaate s-jaatei k-ou hou na-ke =dar-(o=w)a

come-INTEN do-FHYP come-VOL way not-ADJ.ATTR(NMLZ) =COP-ATTR=DECL

"No matter how (much) I try to come, I cannot come (because I have bad legs)."
来ようとしても来られないのだ。（足が悪くて）

wak-oosjaate

boil-INTEN

si-te

do-PTCP

ar-(o=w)a

be-ATTR=DECL

wak-oosjaate si-te ar-(o=w)a

boil-INTEN do-PTCP be-ATTR=DECL

"(The pot) seems like it's about to boil."
（ナベが）沸きかかっている。

Past Subjunctive -oositar-

The past subjunctive (局面に関わる派生形式, kyokumen ni kakawaru hasei-keishiki, lit. "derived form concerning circumstance," pstsubj) is made by replacing the -si of the dubitative form with -sitara (but is treated as its own suffix), which is conjugated as a Class 1.1C verb (stem -sitar-). This form appears to etymologically consist of the dubitative followed by the stative suffix -tar-.

This form is used to mark actions that would have occurred in different circumstances, but were not (or could not be) actualized:

ma=N

now=DAT

=da=to=wa

=COP.JPRS=if=TOP

terebi=N

television=DAT

maĭnici

every.day

housou

broadcasting

=s-are-isitar-(u)-naw-o=wa

=do-PASS-PSTSUBJ-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR=DECL

ma=N =da=to=wa terebi=N maĭnici housou =s-are-isitar-(u)-naw-o=wa

now=DAT =COP.JPRS=if=TOP television=DAT every.day broadcasting =do-PASS-PSTSUBJ-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR=DECL

"It probably would have been broadcast on TV every day now."
今だとテレビに毎日、放送されるところだったろうよ。

Japanese-Style Forms

All of these forms have been borrowed directly from Modern or Late Middle Japanese, but are nativized to lesser or greater extent. In many constructions, Japanese-style tenses are capable of replacing final and/or attributive forms. Generally, the Japanese-style present and Japanese-style past are equivalent to Hachijō-style forms with and without the stative suffix -(t)ar-, respectively.

Present -u

The affirmative Japanese-style present (ノム形, NOMU kei, lit. "nomu form," jprs) is made by adding the suffix -u to the stems of Class 1 verbs, -ru to those of Class 2, and a coalescing -i to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes su or suru, and kurowa becomes ku or kuru. The copula dara also has the irregular form da.
The negative Japanese-style present has two forms; the first is made by changing the New-Type Negative auxiliary -Nnaka to -Nnee, while the second is formed by changing the -ba of the conditional gerund -aba to -nee.

Past -ta

The affirmative Japanese-style past (ノンダ形, NONDA kei, lit. "nonda form," jpst) is made by changing the -te or -de of verbs' participles to -ta or -da, respectively, and by adding -kaQta to verbal adjectives' stems. For verbs, this can be further extended by adding another -Qta to the end, with a meaning akin to adding a second past -(t)ar- to a verb.
The negative Japanese-style past is made by changing the New-Type Negative auxiliary -Nnaka of the negative Japanese-style present tense to -NnaQta.

Despite being a Japanese-borrowed form, Class 1 verbs still exhibit Hachijō-style euphony as in the participle form; for example, the Japanese-style past form of togowa "to grind, polish" (stem tog-) is toNda, not **toida.

Presumptive -darou ~ -rou

The Japanese-style presumptive (推量, suiryō, prsm) forms are made by appending -darou to Japanese-style present tense verbals, or -rou to Japanese-style past tense verbals. On verbs, the negative present presumptive also has a suppletive form where -mee is appended to the final form. These forms were borrowed from the Japanese presumptive particle だろう darō (a combination of the copula だ da and suffix ～ろう -rō) and the suffixes ～ろう -rō and ～まい -mai. The latter are descended from the Early Middle Japanese suffixes ～らむ -ramu ~ -raũ and ～まじ -mazi.

This form is generally equivalent in meaning to the native Hachijō conjectural extension -naw-.

Representative -tari

The Japanese-style representative (並列, heiretsukei, lit. "parallel," jrep) gerund is made by adding -ri or -ĭ to the Japanese-style past tense (but is treated as its own suffix). This creates a gerund meaning "activities such as ~ing," and it is often used in non-exhaustive lists of activities. These forms were borrowed from the equivalent Japanese forms -tari ~ -dari.

This gerund is usually paired with a verb of doing usually sjowa "to do" (but also occasionally, others, such as simouwa "to finish doing"):

cjawaN=jo

bowl=ACC

araw-tari

clean-JREP

imo=o

taro=ACC

kokur-tari

scrape-JREP

kome=o

rice=o

tog-tari

polish-JREP

si-ta(r)-o

do-STAT-ATTR

tokoro

place

cjawaN=jo araw-tari imo=o kokur-tari kome=o tog-tari si-ta(r)-o tokoro

bowl=ACC clean-JREP taro=ACC scrape-JREP rice=o polish-JREP do-STAT-ATTR place

"the place where we did things like cleaning bowls, peeling taros, and washing rice"
茶碗を洗ったり、サトイモの皮を剥いたり、米を米を磨いだりした場所

The auxiliary verb -mik- differs in that it cannot mark lists of activities, only a single activity.

Verbal Adjective Nominalizers -sa and -mi

Two unique ways to change verbal adjectives into nouns is by using the affixes -sa and -mi (both adj.nmlz), both of which are attached directly to the verbal adjective stem. Unlike in Japanese, Hachijō -mi is synonymous with -sa and indicates a noun of extent or quantity, comparable to English -ness:

kono

this.ATTR

taka-mi=ga

high-ADJ.NMLZ=NOM

jo-ke=(w)a

good-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

kono taka-mi=ga jo-ke=(w)a

this.ATTR high-ADJ.NMLZ=NOM good-ADJ.ATTR=DECL

"This height is fine."
この高さがいいよ。

kono

this.ATTR

seba-sa

narrow-ADJ.NMLZ

=da(r)-o

=COP-ATTR

toko=o

place=ACC

kono seba-sa =da(r)-o toko=o

this.ATTR narrow-ADJ.NMLZ =COP-ATTR place=ACC

"a place of this narrowness"
この狭さのところを／このぐらい狭いところを

The suffix -mi can only be used with a select number of verbal adjectives, whereas -sa can be used with all verbal adjectives.

Negative

There are a variety of ways to form negative (否定, hiteikei) verbs—that is, verbs with the meaning "not" included—in Hachijō. The primary ways are with auxiliary verbs, of which Hachijō has two: the "Old-Type" -Nzjara and the "New-Type" -Nnaka. It has been said that the Old-Type is typical of the Uphill region of Hachijō-jima (in the Kashitate, Nakanogō, and Sueyoshi dialects), whereas the New-Type is typical of the Downhill region (Mitsune and Ōkagō dialects); however, the New-Type has spread to be used among all younger generations of speakers. Verbal adjectives and the copula do not use either of these negative auxiliaries. Instead, verbal adjectives use their infinitive form in -ku followed by the verbal adjective nakja "not"; similarly, the copula uses zja nakja—the participle form de fused with the topic marker -wa, followed by nakja.

Old-Type Negative -Nzjara

The Old-Type negative (古いタイプ否定, furui taipu hitei, neg) is formed by adding the auxiliary verb -Nzjara (stem -Nzjar-, Class 1.1C) to a verb's infinitive form. If the verb's infinitive ends in a long vowel, the first N of this auxiliary is dropped.

It is speculated that -Nzjar- may come from an unattested Eastern Old Japanese construction *-ni si ar- "is not doing," composed the negative infinitive -(a)ni, infinitive si of s- "to do," and ar- "to be." This would be akin to how early Old Japanese -ni su yielded later -zu "does not."

New-Type Negative -Nnaka

The New-Type negative (新しいタイプ否定, atarashii taipu hitei, neg) is formed by adding the auxiliary verb -Nnaka (stem -Nnak- ~ -Nnar- ~ -Nnakar-, special conjugation class) to a verb's infinitive form. If the verb's infinitive ends in a long vowel, the first N of this auxiliary is dropped. It is speculated that the New-Type negative is based on replacing the zjara of the Old-Type negative -Nzjara with the adjective nakja "not," then reanalyzing it as something akin to a Class 1.1C verb. This would explain the alternating verb stems:

• -Nnakar- would be the regular derived Class 1.1C verb stem of *-Nnakja: *-Nna-ku ar- → -Nnakar-.
• -Nnak- would be from changing *-Nnakja to a verb *-Nnakowa → -Nnaka.
• -Nnar- would be from replacing the zj of -Nzjara with n by analogy: -Nzjar- → -Nnar-.

As this auxiliary is highly irregular, a sample of conjugated forms is given in the table below:

Other Negative Forms

In addition to the negative auxiliaries, there are also several other verbal affixes that indicate negative meaning:

• Negative Infinitive -zu (neg.inf), and all of its derived forms.
• Prohibitive -na (proh), a postfix following the final form, which serves as the negative counterpart to the imperative.
• Japanese-style Negative Present -anee (neg.jprs), which is one of the Japanese-style counterparts to the normal present tense. It can be formed by replacing the -zu of the -azu form of the negative infinitive with -nee, e.g., nomanee "doesn't drink."
• Japanese-style Negative Present Presumptive -mee (neg.jprs.prsm), a postfix following the final form, which serves as the negative counterpart to -darou.

Stative -ar- ~ -tar-

The stative (アリ形, ARI kei, lit. "ari-form," stat) derivation is made by adding -ar- to the stems of Class 1.1 and 1.2 verbs, -(i)tar- to those of Class 1.3 (with some allomorphy), -tar- to those of Class 2, and -karar- to verbal adjectives'. For irregular verbs, sjowa becomes sitar-, and kurowa becomes kitar-. All stative forms are conjugated as Class 1.1C verbs. The allomorph -ar- descends from the Eastern Old Japanese stative-progressive -ar-, itself a construction from the Pre-Old Japanese infinitive *-i + ar- "to be"; it is therefore cognate to Western Old Japanese -e₁r- and Middle Japanese -er- of the same original meaning (extinct in Modern Japanese). The allomorphs containing -tar- instead descend from the Old Japanese stative-progressive -tar-, consisting of participle -te + ar- "to be"; it is therefore cognate to the Modern Japanese past tense -ta.

Although originally indicating stative-like meaning, and continuing to do so in some situations, this extension has changed to a meaning close to a past tense in modern Hachijō, supplanting the former past tense (now retrospective) -ci in most cases.

Due to heavy influence from Japanese, for some speakers, forms with the morph -ar- are in the process of being replaced with forms in -tar- ~ -dar- (formed in the same way as the participle -te ~ -de): nomara → noNdara "drank," ikara → iQtara "went," curara → cuQtara "fished."

Retrospective -ci

The retrospective (過去キ, kako KI, lit. "past-ki," ret) is made by replacing the -te or -de of the participle with -ci or -zi, respectively. It is often used in combination with the stative -(t)ar-, as -(t)aQci, to express more or less the same meaning. The retrospective can also combine with the Japanese-style past -ta to form -taQci, or with both the Japanese-style past -ta and the stative -ar- to form -taraQci.

This form descends from the attributive form -si of the Old Japanese past tense auxiliary -ki₁. It is believed to have been changed from -si to -ci by morphological leveling due to Class 1.1A verbs' stem-final Q, as per the phonological process Q-s → Qc.

This extension indicates past tense, as well as often indicating a modal meaning of retrospection or recollection. Although it does not inflect per se, -ci can be treated as an attributive, exclamatory, or final form. As an attributive form, it can be used in all normal attributive-form functions:

uku=N

there=DAT

sak-ar-ci=o

bloom-STAT-RET(ATTR,NMLZ)=ACC

tor-azu=N

take-NEG.INF=DAT

cir-a(s)e-(te)

scatter-CAUS-(PTCP)

simaw-ar-a(r)-o=zja

finish-STAT-STAT-ATTR=DECL

uku=N sak-ar-ci=o tor-azu=N cir-a(s)e-(te) simaw-ar-a(r)-o=zja

there=DAT bloom-STAT-RET(ATTR,NMLZ)=ACC take-NEG.INF=DAT scatter-CAUS-(PTCP) finish-STAT-STAT-ATTR=DECL

"You didn't pick what had bloomed there; you just let them scatter, right?" (nominalized)
あそこに咲いたのを採らずに散らせてしまったね。

uku=N

there=DAT

ar-ar-ci

be-STAT-RET(ATTR)

hito=wa

person=TOP

adaN

in.what.way

nar-te

become-PTCP

ar-u-darou

be-JPRS-PRSM

uku=N ar-ar-ci hito=wa adaN nar-te ar-u-darou

there=DAT be-STAT-RET(ATTR) person=TOP in.what.way become-PTCP be-JPRS-PRSM

"What happened to the person who was there?" (adnominal)
あそこにいた人はどうしているだろう。

uno-toki=mo

that.ATTR-time=also

nom-ar-ci=kaN

drink-STAT-RET(ATTR)=Q

uno-toki=mo nom-ar-ci=kaN

that.ATTR-time=also drink-STAT-RET(ATTR)=Q

"Did I drink at that time, too...?" (interrogative kakari-musubi)
あの時も飲んだんだっけ？

uno-toki

that.ATTR-time

NNma-sou

delicious-seeming

=ni

=COP.INF

nom-ci=Nte

drink-RET(ATTR)=because

joQpodo

greatly

suki

liking

=de=ka

=COP.PTCP=Q

ar-(u)-naw-o

be-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR

uno-toki NNma-sou =ni nom-ci=Nte joQpodo suki =de=ka ar-(u)-naw-o

that.ATTR-time delicious-seeming =COP.INF drink-RET(ATTR)=because greatly liking =COP.PTCP=Q be-FIN-CNJEC-ATTR

"Since he drank it like it was delicious, he must like really it." (with a conjunction particle)
あのとき美味そうに飲んだから、よほど好きなんだろう。

However, the declarative form with -wa is irregular, becoming -cii ~ -zii:

uku=de

that.place=LOC

uĭ=to

that.person=COM

nom-ar-ci=(wa)

drink-STAT-RET(ATTR)=DECL

uku=de uĭ=to nom-ar-ci=(wa)

that.place=LOC that.person=COM drink-STAT-RET(ATTR)=DECL

"(As I recall,) that person did drink at that place."
あそこで、あの人と飲んだっけなあ。

As a final form, -ci combines with the focalized exclamatory -nee for kakari-musubi with the focus particle koo. Such sentences are used to emphatically remind others of past events that they have forgotten:

uku=de=koo

that.place=LOC=FOC

nom-ci-naw-e

drink-RET(FIN)-FOCLZ-EXCL

uku=de=koo nom-ci-naw-e

that.place=LOC=FOC drink-RET(FIN)-FOCLZ-EXCL

"(Surely,) that was where you drank it, (was it not?)"
（まさに）あそこでコソ飲んだじゃない！

Lastly, as an exclamatory-type form, -ci can serve as the base for the concessive gerund -dou:

kinei=wa

yesterday=TOP

hur-ci-dou

rain-RET(EXCL)-CNCES

kei=wa

today=TOP

ada

how

=da=ka

=COP.JPRS=Q

kinei=wa hur-ci-dou kei=wa ada =da=ka

yesterday=TOP rain-RET(EXCL)-CNCES today=TOP how =COP.JPRS=Q

"Although it rained yesterday, how will today be, I wonder?"
昨日は（雨が）降ったが、今日はどうだか。

This affix is falling out of use, having mostly been supplanted in meaning by the stative, which has transitioned into a past-like meaning. However, it still contrasts with the stative in that the retrospective requires an action to have occurred significantly in the past. For example, sentence 8 is acceptable, whereas sentence 9 is not:

ma=N

now=DAT

ki-ta(r)-o

come-STAT-ATTR

hito=wa

person=TOP

koĭ

this.person

=dar-(o=w)a

=COP-ATTR=DECL

ma=N ki-ta(r)-o hito=wa koĭ =dar-(o=w)a

now=DAT come-STAT-ATTR person=TOP this.person =COP-ATTR=DECL

"This person is the one who just arrived."
今来た人はこの人だ。

ma=N

now=DAT

ki-tar-ci

come-STAT-RET(ATTR)

hito=wa

person=TOP

koĭ

this.person

=dar-(o=w)a

=COP-ATTR=DECL