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{{Infobox Language {{Infobox Language
|name = Pashto |name = Pashto
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==Geographic distribution== ==Geographic distribution==
]
]
====Afghanistan==== ====Afghanistan====
No exact numbers are available for Afghanistan, but according to ], Pashto is the native language of 50 to 55 percent of the population of ] (or 8 Million, at the time of approach),<ref>Ch. M. Kieffer, "'AFGHANISTAN v. Languages'", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica Online'', available at www.iranica.com </ref> primarily spoken in the south, east, southwest and some northern parts of Afghanistan. ] estimates that only 35% of the population speak Pashto as their first language.<ref>CIA Factbook 2009; </ref> According to ''"A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006"'', Pashto is the first language of 40% of the population, while additional 27% know the language (combined 67%).<ref>"A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006, </ref> No exact numbers are available for Afghanistan, but the ] estimates that 35% of the population speak Pashto as their first language.<ref>CIA Factbook 2009; </ref> According to an older, but scholarly estimate by the ], Pashto is the mother-tongue of 50 to 55 percent of the population (or 8 Million, at the time of approach),<ref>Ch. M. Kieffer, "'AFGHANISTAN v. Languages'", ''Encyclopaedia Iranica Online'', available at www.iranica.com </ref> primarily spoken in the south, east, southwest and some northern parts of Afghanistan. According to ''"A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006"'',<ref>"A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006, </ref> Pashto is the first language of 40% of the population, while additional 27% know the language (combined 67%). According to the recent survey ''"Afghanistan: Where Things Stand"'' by ]/]/] (avarege numbers from 2005-2009) Pashto is spoken by 31%.<ref>, February 9th, 2009, p. 38-40</ref>

====Pakistan==== ====Pakistan====
In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by about 27 million people (15% of the total population)<ref></ref> in the ], ], and ]. Modern "transplant" communities are also found in ] (] and ]). In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by about 27 million people (15% of the total population)<ref></ref> in the ], ], and ]. Modern "transplant" communities are also found in ] (] and ]).
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The ] {{IPA|/ɺ̡/}} is pronounced as ] {{IPA|}} when final. The ] {{IPA|/ɺ̡/}} is pronounced as ] {{IPA|}} when final.


The retroflex fricatives {{IPA|/ʂ/, /ʐ/}} that are preserved in southern dialects are replaced by ] ] {{IPA|, }} in west-central dialects, ] {{IPA|, }} in northern dialects, and ] {{IPA|, }} in southeastern dialects. The retroflex fricatives {{IPA|/ʂ/, /ʐ/}} are replaced by either palatal fricatives {{IPA|, }}, velars {{IPA|, }} or postalveolars {{IPA|, }} in some dialects.


The ]s {{IPA|/k/, /g/, /x/, /ɣ/}} followed by the ] {{IPA|/u/}} assimilate into the ] velars {{IPA|, , , }}. The ]s {{IPA|/k/, /g/, /x/, /ɣ/}} followed by the ] {{IPA|/u/}} assimilate into the ] velars {{IPA|, , , }}.
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|align = "center"|{{IPA|}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|}}
|- |-
!align = "left"|Central ] (], ]): !align = "left"|Central ] (] in ]):
|align = "center"|{{IPA|/}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|/}}
|align = "center"|{{IPA|/}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|/}}
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|align = "center"|{{IPA|}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|}}
|- |-
!align = "left"|Central ] (in ]): !align = "left"|Central ] (in ]):
|align = "center"|{{IPA|}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|}}
|align = "center"|{{IPA|}} |align = "center"|{{IPA|}}
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====Notable phonological and lexicological differences between Pashto dialects==== ====Notable phonological and lexicological differences between Pashto dialects====
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="11" class="wikitable" {|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10" class="wikitable"
!Kandahar !! Quetta !! Harnai !! Bannu !! Wana !! Khost !! Tirah !! Ghazni !! Kabul !! Peshawar !! Translation !Kandahar !! Quetta !! Harnai !! Wana !! Khost !! Tirah !! Ghazni !! Kabul !! Peshawar !! Translation
|- |-
| Pa{{transl|sem|ṣh}}to || Pashto || Pa{{transl|sem|ṣh}}to || Pāshte || Pāshte || Pāk'hte || Pākhto || Pak'hto || Pakhto || Pukhto || Pashto | Pa{{transl|sem|ṣh}}to || Pashto || Pa{{transl|sem|ṣh}}to || Pāshte || Pāk'hte || Pākhto || Pak'hto || Pakhto || Pukhto || Pashto
|- |-
| war || war || war || tāmbə || tāmbə, wār || {{transl|sem|dāṛa, wār}} || wār, tāmbə || war || war || war || door | war || war || war || tāmbə, wār || {{transl|sem|dāṛa, wār}} || wār, tāmbə || war || war || wahr || door
|- |-
| {{transl|sem|pṣha}} || psha || {{transl|sem|ṣhpa}}, ghədəi || pshā || pshā || pk'hā || pkhā || pk'ha || pkha || khpa || foot | p{{transl|sem|ṣh}}a || psha || shpa, ghədəi || pshā || pk'hā || pkhā || pk'ha || pkha || khpa/pisha || foot
|- |-
| lmar || lmar || mer || myerə stərga || ghormə, myerə stərga || myerə stərga || myer, myerə stərga || nmar || nmar || nwar || sun | lmar || lmar || mer || ghormə, myerə stərga || myerə stərga || myer, myerə stərga || nmar || nmar || nwar/mir || sun
|- |-
| halək || halək || chora || {{transl|sem|weṛka}} || {{transl|sem|weṛkai}} || {{transl|sem|weṛkai}} || {{transl|sem|woṛkai}} || halək || halək || halək || boy | halək || halək || chora || {{transl|sem|weṛkai}} || {{transl|sem|weṛkai}} || {{transl|sem|woṛkai}} || halək || halək || halək || boy
|- |-
| njiləi || njiləi || chuwara || {{transl|sem|weṛkye}} || jəlkiye || jəlkiye || {{transl|sem|woṛkye, jəlkiye}} || jiləi || jilkəi || jine || girl | njiləi || njiləi || chuwara || jəlkiye || jəlkiye || {{transl|sem|woṛkye, jəlkiye}} || jiləi || jilkəi || jineh/woorkee || girl
|- |-
| yaw || yaw || yo || ye || yo || ye || yo || yaw || yaw || yaw || one | yaw || yaw || yo || yo || ye || yo || yaw || yaw || yuu || one
|- |-
| tsalor || tsalor || chalor || saler || tsalwer || tsaler || tsalwor || tsalor || tsalor || salor || four | tsalor || tsalor || chalor || tsalwer || tsaler || tsalwor || tsalor || tsalor || salor || four
|- |-
| pindzə || pindzə || pinjə/pindzə || pinzə || pinzə || pindzə || pinzə || pindzə || pinzə || pinzə || five | pindzə || pindzə || pinjə/pindzə || pinzə || pindzə || pinzə || pindzə || pinzə || pinzə || five
|- |-
| shpa{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || shpazh || shpo{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || shpezh || shpezh || shpeg || shpeg || shpag'h || shpag|| shpag || six | shpa{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || shpazh || shpo{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || shpezh || shpeg || shpeg || shpag'h || shpag|| shpag || six
|- |-
| tsok || tsok || chok || sek ||tsek || tsek || tsok || tsok || tsok || sok || who | tsok || tsok || chok || tsek || tsek || tsok || tsok || tsok || suuk || who
|- |-
| mu{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || muzh || mu{{transl|sem|ṣh}} || mizh || mizh || mig || mu || mug'h || mung || mung || we | mu{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || muzh || mu{{transl|sem|ṣh}} || mizh || mig || mu || mug'h || mung || mung/zah || we
|- |-
| zmā || zmā || zmā || emo || emo || emo || emo || zmā || zəmā || zəmā || my | zmā || zmā || zmā || emo || emo || emo || zmā || zəmā || zəmā || my
|- |-
| stā || stā || stā || eto || eto || eto || eto || stā || stā || stā || your | stā || stā || stā || eto || eto || eto || stā || stā || stā || your
|- |-
| {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|tsaṭ}} || {{transl|sem|pira, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|pira, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || very, many | {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|tsaṭ}} || {{transl|sem|pira, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyot}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || {{transl|sem|ḍer, zyāt}} || very, many
|- |-
| lə{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || ləzh || lə{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || ləshki || ləshki || ləg || ləg || ləg'h || ləg || ləg || little, less | lə{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || ləzh || lə{{transl|sem|ẓh}} || ləshki || ləg || ləg || ləg'h || ləg || ləg || little, less
|- |-
| ch{{transl|sem|ṣh}}əl || chshəl || ghwətəl || {{transl|sem|chshəl, ghṛapawəl}} || chshəl || tsək'həl || tsəkhəl || tsək'həl || tskəl/chikhəl || skəl || to drink | ch{{transl|sem|ṣh}}əl || chshəl || ghwətəl || chshəl || tsək'həl || tsəkhəl || tsək'həl || tskəl/chikhəl || skəl || to drink
|- |-
| ho || ho || ho || ey || ey || ey || ey || ho || ho || ao || yes | ho || ho || ho || ey || ey || ey || ho || ho || wao/ao || yes
|- |-
| yəm || yəm || yəm || yə || yə || yə || yəm || yəm || yəm || yəm || I am | yəm || yəm || yəm || yə || yə || yəm || yəm || yəm || yəm || I am
|- |-
| dzəm || dzəm || jəm, druməm || drimə, sə || drimə, tsə || drimə, tsə || tsəm, druməm || dzəm || zəm || zəm || I go | dzəm || dzəm || jəm, druməm || drimə, tsə || drimə, tsə || tsəm, druməm || dzəm || zəm || zəm || I go
|- |-
| zhəba || zhəba || zbə || zhəba || zhəba || zhəba || jəba || zhəba || zhəba || jəba || tongue, language | zhəba || zhəba || zbə || zhəba || zhəba || jəba || zhəba || zhəba || jəba || tongue, language
|- |-
| kor || kor || kor || ker || ker || ker || kolə || kor || kor || kor || home | kor || kor || kor || ker || ker || kolə || kor || kor || kor/kuur || home
|- |-
| plār || plār || pyār || plor || plor || plor || plor || plār || plār || plār || father | plār || plār || pyār || plor || plor || plor || plār || plār || plār/khaaka || father
|} |}


Revision as of 16:15, 20 April 2009

Pashto
پښتو paʂto
Native toAfghanistan: south, east, and some parts of north and west; Pakistan: northwestern provinces (NWFP, northwestern Balochistan, and some parts of Northern Areas); some parts of northeastern Iran
Regionsouthern Central Asia
Native speakersapprox. 40 million
Language familyIndo-European
Writing systemNaskh, Latin
Official status
Official language in Afghanistan (official)
 Pakistan (provincial)
Regulated byAcademy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Language codes
ISO 639-1ps
ISO 639-2pus
ISO 639-3Variously:
pus – Pashto (generic)
pst – Central Pashto
pbu – Northern Pashto
pbt – Southern Pashto

Pashto (Naskh: پښتو‎ - IPA: [paʂ'to]; alternative spelling: Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, or Pushtu), also known as Afghani, is an Indo-European language spoken primarily in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Pashto belongs to the Eastern Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian language family. There are nearly 40 million Pashtuns. As defined in the Constitution of Afghanistan, Pashto is a national and official language of Afghanistan.

Geographic distribution

File:Moderniranianlanguagesmap.jpg
Geographic distribution of the Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baloch (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages

Afghanistan

No exact numbers are available for Afghanistan, but the CIA World Factbook 2009 estimates that 35% of the population speak Pashto as their first language. According to an older, but scholarly estimate by the Encyclopaedia Iranica, Pashto is the mother-tongue of 50 to 55 percent of the population (or 8 Million, at the time of approach), primarily spoken in the south, east, southwest and some northern parts of Afghanistan. According to "A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", Pashto is the first language of 40% of the population, while additional 27% know the language (combined 67%). According to the recent survey "Afghanistan: Where Things Stand" by BBC/ABC/ARD (avarege numbers from 2005-2009) Pashto is spoken by 31%.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by about 27 million people (15% of the total population) in the North-West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and Balochistan. Modern "transplant" communities are also found in Sindh (Karachi and Hyderabad).

Elsewhere

Other communities of Pashto-speakers are found in northeastern Iran, and some western parts of Jammu and Kashmir in India.

Official status

In Afghanistan, Pashto is promoted as the first state language, and article 20 of the Constitution of Afghanistan states that the Afghan National Anthem "shall be in Pashto..." Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan that are used for the administration of the government throughout the country. Pashto is also used in education, literature, office and court business, media, and in religious institutions, etc. It is a repository of the cultural and social heritage of the country. In Pakistan, Pashto is not official language, but is one of the provincial languages in NWFP, FATA and Balochistan.

Grammar

Main article: Pashto grammar

Pashto is a S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case (direct, oblique I, oblique II and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: present, subjunctive, simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence

Phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Pashto also has the diphthongs /ai/, /əi/, /ae/, /ɑw/, /aw/.

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ
Plosive p b t d ʈ ɖ k g q ʔ
Fricative f s z ʂ ʐ ʃ ʒ x ɣ h
Affricate ts dz tʃ dʒ
Approximant l j w
Rhotic r ɺ̡

The phonemes /q/, /f/ tend to be replaced by , .

The retroflex lateral flap /ɺ̡/ is pronounced as retroflex approximant when final.

The retroflex fricatives /ʂ/, /ʐ/ are replaced by either palatal fricatives , , velars , or postalveolars , in some dialects.

The velars /k/, /g/, /x/, /ɣ/ followed by the close back rounded vowel /u/ assimilate into the labialized velars , , , .

Part of a series on
Pashtuns
Empires and dynasties

Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the lexicon is of native East Iranian origin; those words can be easily compared to those known from Avestan, Ossetic and Pamir languages. Post 7th century borrowings came primarily from Arabic. Modern borrowings come from Persian, Urdu/Hindi and English.

Writing system

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Like neighboring Persian and Urdu, Pashto uses a modified version of the Arabic script. The seventeenth century saw the rise of a polemic debate which also was polarized along lines of script. The heterodox Roshani movement wrote their literature mostly in the Persianate style called the Nasta'liq script. The followers of the Akhund Darweza, and the Akhund himself, who viewed themselves as defending the religion against the influence of syncretism, wrote Pashto in the Arabicized Naskh. With some individualized exceptions Naskh has been the generally used script in the modern era of Pashto, roughly corresponding with the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, due to its greater adaptability for typesetting. Even lithographically reproduced Pashto has been calligraphied in Naskh as a general rule, since it was adopted as standard.

Pashto has more vowels and consonants than either Arabic or Persian. As a result, the Pashto alphabet has several letters which do not appear in any other Arabic script. For example, the letters representing the retroflex consonants /ʈ/, /ɖ/, /ɺ̡/ and /ɳ/ are written like the standard Arabic teh, dâl, reh and nun with a "panddak", "gharrwandai" or also called "skerrai" attached underneath, which looks like a small circle: ړ ,ډ ,ټ, and ڼ, respectively. It also has the letters šin and žeh (representing voiceless and voiced retroflex fricatives), which look like a sin and reh respectively with a dot above and beneath: ښ and ږ. The letters representing /ts/ and /dz/ are also specific to Pashto; they look like a ح with three dots above and an hamza (ء) above; څ and ځ. It has a number of additional vowel diacritics as well.

Pashto Alphabet

Below are the 44 letters of the Pashto alphabet. The dialects of Kandahar (K) and Peshawar (P) are included.

Name ALA-LC Romanization IPA Letter
alif a, ʾ , ﺍ
be b ﺏ
pe p پ
te t ﺕ
ṭe ṭ ټ
s̱e s̱ ﺙ
jīm j ﺝ
che ch ﭺ
ḥe ḥ ﺡ
ṡe ṡ (K) / (P) څ
że ż (K) / (P) ځ
khe kh ﺥ
dāl d ﺩ
ḍāl ḍ ډ
ẕāl ẕ ﺫ
re r ﺭ
ṛe ṛ ڔ
ze z ﺯ
zhe zh (K) / (P) ژ
ẓhe (K) ẓh (K) (K) ږ
sīn s ﺱ
shīn sh ﺵ
ṣhīn (K) / k'hīn (P) ṣh (K) / k'h (P) (K) / (P) ښ
ṣād ṣ ﺹ
z̤ād z̤ ﺽ
ṭwe ṭ ﻁ
ẓwe ẓ ﻅ
ʻayn ʻ ﻉ
ghayn gh ﻍ
fe f ﻑ
qāf q ﻕ
kāf k ک
gāf g ګ
lām l ﻝ
mīm m ﻡ
nūn n ﻥ
ṇūn ṇ ڼ
wāw w و
he h ﻩ
ye y ﻯ
sakhtah ye ī ي
pastah ye e ې
ṣhażīnah ye (K) ạy ۍ
faʻlīyah ye (P) ạy ئ

Dialects

As a consequence of life in areas of rugged terrain, there are many dialects of Pashto language. The two main dialects are soft or southern dialect and hard or northern dialect. Paktika is roughly the dividing line. One of the primary features of the dialects is the differences in the pronunciation of these seven phonemes (all sounds in IPA):

Southern (in Kandahar, Zabul):
Southeastern (in Quetta):
Central Wannetsi (Tarino in Harnai): / / / / /
Central Marwati (in Laki):
Central Banuci (in Banu): /
Central Waziri (in Wanna): / / / /
Central Khosti (in Khost): /
Central Dzadrani (in Dzadran): /
Central Afridi (in Tirah, Jamrud): /
Northwestern (Ghazni, Wardak):
Northwestern (Central Ghilzai):
Northern (in Nangarhar, Kabul):
Northeastern (Yusufzai, Peshawar):

The differences between the southern dialects and the northern dialects are primarily phonological and there are simple conversion rules. The morphological differences between them are very few and unimportant. However, the central dialects are lexicologically different and very varied. The southern dialect of Kandahar is the most conservative with regards to phonology, retaining the retroflex fricatives and the alveolar affricates, which have not merged with other phonemes. The Pashto alphabet reflects the southern dialect. Certain dialects show many archaic features, some of which are discarded by the literary language.

Notable phonological and lexicological differences between Pashto dialects

Kandahar Quetta Harnai Wana Khost Tirah Ghazni Kabul Peshawar Translation
Paṣhto Pashto Paṣhto Pāshte Pāk'hte Pākhto Pak'hto Pakhto Pukhto Pashto
war war war tāmbə, wār dāṛa, wār wār, tāmbə war war wahr door
pṣha psha shpa, ghədəi pshā pk'hā pkhā pk'ha pkha khpa/pisha foot
lmar lmar mer ghormə, myerə stərga myerə stərga myer, myerə stərga nmar nmar nwar/mir sun
halək halək chora weṛkai weṛkai woṛkai halək halək halək boy
njiləi njiləi chuwara jəlkiye jəlkiye woṛkye, jəlkiye jiləi jilkəi jineh/woorkee girl
yaw yaw yo yo ye yo yaw yaw yuu one
tsalor tsalor chalor tsalwer tsaler tsalwor tsalor tsalor salor four
pindzə pindzə pinjə/pindzə pinzə pindzə pinzə pindzə pinzə pinzə five
shpaẓh shpazh shpoẓh shpezh shpeg shpeg shpag'h shpag shpag six
tsok tsok chok tsek tsek tsok tsok tsok suuk who
muẓh muzh muṣh mizh mig mu mug'h mung mung/zah we
zmā zmā zmā emo emo emo zmā zəmā zəmā my
stā stā stā eto eto eto stā stā stā your
ḍer, zyāt ḍer, zyāt tsaṭ pira, zyot ḍer, zyot ḍer, zyot ḍer, zyāt ḍer, zyāt ḍer, zyāt very, many
ləẓh ləzh ləẓh ləshki ləg ləg ləg'h ləg ləg little, less
chṣhəl chshəl ghwətəl chshəl tsək'həl tsəkhəl tsək'həl tskəl/chikhəl skəl to drink
ho ho ho ey ey ey ho ho wao/ao yes
yəm yəm yəm yə yə yəm yəm yəm yəm I am
dzəm dzəm jəm, druməm drimə, tsə drimə, tsə tsəm, druməm dzəm zəm zəm I go
zhəba zhəba zbə zhəba zhəba jəba zhəba zhəba jəba tongue, language
kor kor kor ker ker kolə kor kor kor/kuur home
plār plār pyār plor plor plor plār plār plār/khaaka father

Many words in isolated central dialects are borrowed from the surrounding languages - Dardic and Ormuri.

See also

References

  1. University of Texas in Austin - Ethnolinguistic Groups in Afghanistan... , Link
  2. David P. Brown: Top 100 Languages by Population
  3. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 03 Jan. 2008. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani>.
  4. "afghan." WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. 03 Jan. 2008. <Word Net http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Afghani&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1=1&o6=&o4=&o3=&h=00>
  5. UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile
  6. Eastern Iranian languages, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2008
  7. CIA Factbook 2009; "Afghanistan - People"
  8. Ch. M. Kieffer, "'AFGHANISTAN v. Languages'", Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, available at www.iranica.com Link
  9. "A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006, PDF
  10. ABC NEWS/BBC/ARD POLL – AFGHANISTAN: WHERE THINGS STAND, February 9th, 2009, p. 38-40
  11. Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue
  12. Constitution of Afghanistan (2004)
  13. Emeneau, M. B. (1962) "Bilingualism and Structural Borrowing" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106(5): pp. 430-442, p. 441
  14. Herbert Penzl (January -March 1961). "Western Loanwords in Modern Pashto". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 81 (1): 43–52. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

Bibliography

  • Schmidt, Rüdiger (ed.) (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 3-88226-413-6. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  • Morgenstierne, Georg (1926) Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie C I-2. Oslo. ISBN 0-923891-09-9
  • Gusain, Lakhan (2008??) " A Grammar of Pashto". Ann Arbor, MI: Northside Publishers. ISBN ??

External links

Pashto Computer Fonts

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