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Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages. As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian". For instance, Georg Morgenstierne notes the Pashto word مېچن mečə́n i.e. a hand-mill as being derived from the Ancient Greek word μηχανή (mēkhanḗ, i.e. a device). Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from Persian and Hindi-Urdu, with Arabic words being borrowed through Persian, but sometimes directly. Modern speech borrows words from English, French, and German.

However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto.

Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings:

Due to the incursion of Persian and Persianized-Arabic in modern speech, linguistic purism of Pashto is advocated to prevent its own vocabulary from dying out.

Classical vocabulary

There is a lot of old vocabulary that has been replaced by borrowings e.g. پلاز plâz 'throne' with تخت takht, from Persian. Or the word يګانګي yagānagí meaning 'uniqueness' used by Pir Roshan Bayazid. Such classical vocabulary is being reintroduced to modern Pashto. Some words also survive in dialects like ناوې پلاز 'the bride-room'.

Example from Khayr al-Bayān:

... بې يګانګئ بې قرارئ وي او په بدخوئ کښې وي په ګناهان

Transliteration: ... be-yagānagə́i, be-kararə́i wi aw pə badxwə́i kx̌e wi pə gunāhā́n

Translation: "... without singularity/uniqueness, without calmness and by bad-attitude are on sin ."

Writing system

Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script. In the 16th century, Bayazid Pir Roshan introduced 13 new letters to the Pashto alphabet. The alphabet was further modified over the years.

The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 to 46 letters and 4 diacritic marks. Latin Pashto is also used. In Latin transliteration, stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é. The following table (read from left to right) gives the letters' isolated forms, along with possible Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:

Dialects

Pashto dialects are divided into two categories, the "soft" southern grouping of Paṣ̌tō, and the "hard" northern grouping of Pax̌tō (Pakhtu). Each group is further divided into a number of dialects. The Southern dialect of Tareeno is the most distinctive Pashto dialect.

1. Southern variety

• Abdaili or Kandahar dialect (or South Western dialect)
• Kakar dialect (or South Eastern dialect)
• Shirani dialect
• Mandokhel dialect
• Marwat-Bettani dialect
• Southern Karlani group

• Khattak dialect
• Wazirwola dialect

• Dawarwola dialect
• Masidwola dialect

• Banisi (Banu) dialect

2. Northern variety

• Central Ghilji dialect (or North Western dialect)
• Yusapzai and Momand dialect (or North Eastern dialect)
• Northern Karlani group

• Wardak dialect
• Taniwola dialect
• Mangal tribe dialect
• Khosti dialect
• Zadran dialect
• Bangash-Orakzai-Turi-Zazi dialect
• Afridi dialect
• Khogyani dialect

3. Tareeno Dialect

Literary Pashto

Literary Pashto is the artificial variety of Pashto that is used at times as literary register of Pashto. It is said to be based on the North Western dialect, spoken in the central Ghilji region. Literary Pashto's vocabulary, also derives from other dialects.

Criticism

There is no actual Pashto that can be identified as "Standard" Pashto, as Colye remarks:

"Standard Pashto is actually fairly complex with multiple varieties or forms. Native speakers or researchers often refer to Standard Pashto without specifying which variety of Standard Pashto they mean...people sometimes refer to Standard Pashto when they mean the most respected or favorite Pashto variety among a majority of Pashtun speakers."

— Placing Wardak among Pashto Varieties, page 4

As David MacKenzie notes there is no real need to develop a "Standard" Pashto:

"The morphological differences between the most extreme north-eastern and south-western dialects are comparatively few and unimportant. The criteria of dialect differentiation in Pashto are primarily phonological. With the use of an alphabet which disguises these phonological differences the language has, therefore, been a literary vehicle, widely understood, for at least four centuries. This literary language has long been referred to in the West as 'common' or 'standard' Pashto without, seemingly, any real attempt to define it."

— A Standard Pashto, page 231

Literature

Pashto-speakers have long had a tradition of oral literature, including proverbs, stories, and poems. Written Pashto literature saw a rise in development in the 17th century mostly due to poets like Khushal Khan Khattak (1613–1689), who, along with Rahman Baba (1650–1715), is widely regarded as among the greatest Pashto poets. From the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722–1772), Pashto has been the language of the court. The first Pashto teaching text was written during the period of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Pir Mohammad Kakar with the title of Maʿrifat al-Afghānī ("The Knowledge of Afghani "). After that, the first grammar book of Pashto verbs was written in 1805 under the title of Riyāż al-Maḥabbah ("Training in Affection") through the patronage of Nawab Mahabat Khan, son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, chief of the Barech. Nawabullah Yar Khan, another son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in 1808 wrote a book of Pashto words entitled ʿAjāyib al-Lughāt ("Wonders of Languages").

Poetry example

An excerpt from the Kalām of Rahman Baba:

زۀ رحمٰن پۀ خپله ګرم يم چې مين يم
چې دا نور ټوپن مې بولي ګرم په څۀ

Pronunciation: [zə raˈmɑn pə ˈxpəl.a ɡram jəm t͡ʃe maˈjan jəm
t͡ʃe dɑ nor ʈoˈpən me boˈli ɡram pə t͡sə]

Transliteration: Zə Rahmā́n pə xpə́la gram yəm če mayán yəm
Če dā nor ṭopə́n me bolí gram pə tsə

Translation: "I Rahman, myself am guilty that I am a lover,
On what does this other universe call me guilty."

Proverbs

See: Pashto literature and poetry § Proverbs

Pashto also has a rich heritage of proverbs (Pashto matalúna, sg. matál). An example of a proverb:

اوبه په ډانګ نه بېلېږي

Transliteration: Obә́ pə ḍāng nə beléẓ̌i

Translation: "One cannot divide water by a pole."

Phrases

Greeting phrases

Colors

List of colors:

سور/ سره sur/sra

šin / šna

کینخي kinaxí

تور/ توره tor/tóra

šin / šna

سپین spin/spína

نسواري naswārí

ژېړ/ ژېړه žeṛ/žéṛa

چوڼيا čuṇyā́

خړ / خړه xәṛ/xə́ṛa

List of colors borrowed from neighbouring languages:

• نارنجي nārәnjí - orange
• ګلابي gulābí - pink
• نيلي nilí - indigo ]

Times of the day

Months

Pashtuns use the Vikrami calendar:

Notes

1. Official provincial status
2. Sometimes spelled "Pushtu" or "Pushto"
3. The only American pronunciation listed by Oxford Online Dictionaries is /ˈpæʃtoʊ/.

References

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   Central Pashto at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
   Northern Pashto at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
   Southern Pashto at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
   Wanetsi at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
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110. "NGA: Standardization Policies". nga.mil. Archived from the original on 13 February 2013.
111. Claus, Peter J.; Diamond, Sarah; Ann Mills, Margaret (2003). South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Taylor & Francis. p. 447. ISBN 9780415939195.
112. ^ Coyle, Dennis Walter (1 January 2014). Placing Wardak Among Pashto Varieties (Master's thesis). University of North Dakota.
113. MacKenzie, D. N. (1959). "A Standard Pashto". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 22 (1/3): 231–235. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 609426.
114. Zellem, Edward (2014). Mataluna: 151 Afghan Pashto Proverbs. Cultures Direct Press. ISBN 978-0692215180.
115. Bartlotti, Leonard and Raj Wali Shah Khattak, eds. (2006). Rohi Mataluna: Pashto Proverbs, (revised and expanded edition). First edition by Mohammad Nawaz Tair and Thomas C. Edwards, eds. Peshawar, Pakistan: Interlit and Pashto Academy, Peshawar University.
116. Jazab, Yousaf Khan. An Ethno-Linguistic Study of the Karlanri Varieties of Pashto. Pashto Academy, University of Peshawar. pp. 342–343.
117. Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 291–293. ISBN 978-0-69112-04-85.

Bibliography

• Hallberg, Daniel G. (1992). Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan. Vol. 4. National Institute of Pakistani Studies. ISBN 969-8023-14-3. OCLC 1034637486.
• Morgenstierne, Georg (2007) . Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning Serie C I-2. New York: Ishi Press International. ISBN 978-0-923891-09-1.
• Penzl, Herbert (2009) . A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan. New York: Ishi Press. ISBN 978-0-923891-72-5.
• Penzl, Herbert (2009) . A Reader of Pashto. New York: Ishi Press. ISBN 978-0-923891-71-8.
• Schmidt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: L. Reichert. ISBN 3-88226-413-6.

Further reading

• Morgenstierne, Georg (1978). "The Place of Pashto among the Iranic Languages and the Problem of the Constitution of Pashtun Linguistic and Ethnic Unity". Paṣto Quarterly. 1 (4): 43–55.
• Boyle David, Anne; Brugman, Claudia, eds. (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781614512318. ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2.

External links

• Pashto Dictionary with Phonetic Keyboard & Auto-Suggestion
• Pashto Phonetic Keyboard
• Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan
• Henry George Raverty. A Dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or Language of the Afghans. Second edition, with considerable additions. London: Williams and Norgate, 1867.
• D. N. MacKenzie, "A Standard Pashto", Khyber.org
• Freeware Online Pashto Dictionaries
• A Pashto Word List
• Origins of Pashto
• Resources for the Study of the Pashto Language

• Pashto
• Iranian languages
• Eastern Iranian languages
• Languages of Afghanistan
• Languages of Balochistan, Pakistan
• Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
• Languages of Pakistan
• Subject–object–verb languages
• Fusional languages