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{{short description|Group of |
{{short description|Group of languages of the 3rd century BCE – 8th century CE}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= |
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} | ||
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}} | {{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}} | ||
{{Infobox language family | {{Infobox language family | ||
| name = Prakrit | | name = Prakrit | ||
| map = Word for Prakrit Praakritee in the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana 532 CE.jpg | | map = Word for Prakrit Praakritee in the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana 532 CE.jpg | ||
| mapcaption = |
| mapcaption = {{center|Word for "Prakrit" (here ''Prā-kṛ-te'') in Late ] in the ], 532 CE<ref name=":00"/>}} | ||
| mapsize = 150 | | mapsize = 150 | ||
| altname = | | altname = | ||
| region = ] | | region = ] | ||
| origin = ],modern day ] | |||
| familycolor = Indo-European | | familycolor = Indo-European | ||
| fam2 = ] | | fam2 = ] | ||
| fam3 = ] | | fam3 = ] | ||
| ancestor = | |||
| iso2 = pra | | iso2 = pra | ||
| iso5 = pra | | iso5 = pra | ||
| glotto = |
| glotto = midd1350 | ||
⚫ | | glottoname = Late Middle Indo-Aryan | ||
| glotto2 = midd1350 | |||
⚫ | | |
||
| glottoname = | |||
| glottorefname = | | glottorefname = | ||
| notes = | | notes = | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Prakrit''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|r|ɑː|k|r|ɪ|t}}{{efn| {{langx|sa|प्राकृत}} {{IAST|prākṛta}}; {{langx|psu|𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, {{IAST|pāuda}}}}; {{langx|pka|{{IAST|pāua}}}}}}) is a group of vernacular ] ] that were used in the ] from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE.{{sfn|Richard G. Salomon|1996|p=377}}{{sfn|Alfred C. Woolner|1928|p=235}} The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding earlier inscriptions and ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Woolner|first=Alfred C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IwE16UFBfdEC&pg=PA4 |title=Introduction to Prakrit|date=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0189-9|pages=3–4}}</ref> | |||
The oldest stage of Middle Indo-Aryan language is attested in the inscriptions of Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE), as well as in the earliest forms of Pāli, the language of the Theravāda Buddhist canon. The most prominent form of Prakrit is Ardhamāgadhı̄, associated with the ancient kingdom of Magadha, in modern Bihar, and the subsequent Mauryan Empire. Mahāvı̄ra, the last tirthankar of 24 tirthankar of Jainism, was born in Magadha, and the earliest Jain texts were composed in Ardhamāgadhı̄.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prakrit |url=https://www.ames.ox.ac.uk/prakrit |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=www.ames.ox.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> | |||
==Etymology== | ==Etymology== | ||
There are two major views concerning the way in which Sanskrit and Prakrit are related. One holds that the original matter in question is the speech of the common people, unadorned by grammar, and that prākṛta thus refers to vernacular usage in contrast to the elevated register of Sanskrit usage. This is one of several views noted, for example, by Nami Sadhu (11th century ce) in his commentary on Rudraṭa’s Kāvyālaṅkāra (“Ornaments of Poetry”), a 9th-century treatise on poetics. It is also the usual explanation accepted by Western linguists. In contrast, the view most commonly held by Prakrit grammarians holds that the Prakrit languages are vernaculars that arose from Sanskrit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prakrit languages {{!}} Origins, Characteristics & Examples {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prakrit-languages |access-date=2024-12-31 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>: | |||
Almost all the native pr''ā''krit grammarians identify prākṛta to be named so because they originate in the source language (prakṛti) which is Sanskrit. Thus the name prākṛta indicates that they depend on sanskrit for their origin and are not themselves the prakṛti (or originary languages, originating independent of sanskrit): | |||
# According to the ''Prākrṭa Prakāśa'', an ancient Prakrit grammar, "Saṃskṛtam is the prakṛti (source) - and the language that originates in, or comes from, that prakṛti, is therefore called prākṛtam." | # According to the ''Prākrṭa Prakāśa'', an ancient Prakrit grammar, "Saṃskṛtam is the prakṛti (source) - and the language that originates in, or comes from, that prakṛti, is therefore called prākṛtam." | ||
# |
# ] (a Jain grammarian of the 10th century who lived in Gujarat) in his grammar of Sanskrit and Prākrit named ''Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāsana'', defines prākṛt's origin to be sanskṛt: "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtam, tatrabhavaṃ tata āgataṃ vā prākṛtaṃ"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sanskrit Manuscripts : Śabdānuśāsanalaghuvṛttyavacūri|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-02318|access-date=2019-07-20|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Pischel|first=Richard|title=Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1965|location=India|pages=1}}</ref> | ||
# Another prākṛt grammarian, Mārkaṇḍeya, writes in his grammar Prākṛtasarvasva - |
# Another prākṛt grammarian, ], writes in his grammar ''Prākṛtasarvasva'' - "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtaṃ, tatrabhavaṃ prākṛtam ucyate" .<ref name=":1" /> | ||
# Dhanika, in his |
# Dhanika, in his 'Daśarūpakāvaloka' commentary on Daśarūpaka (one of the most important treatises explaining the 10 types of Indian Drama), says: "prakṛter āgataṃ prākṛtam, prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtam" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# Siṃhadevagaṇin while commenting on Vāgbhaṭālaṅkāra writes: |
# Siṃhadevagaṇin while commenting on Vāgbhaṭālaṅkāra writes: "prakṛteḥ saṃskrtād āgataṃ prākṛtam" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# The Prākṛtacandrikā (a grammar of Prākṛt) says: |
# The Prākṛtacandrikā (a grammar of Prākṛt) says: "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtaṃ, tatrabhavatvāt prākṛtaṃ smṛtam" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# The Prākṛtaśabdapradīpikā of Narasiṃha says: |
# The Prākṛtaśabdapradīpikā of Narasiṃha says: "prakṛteḥ saṃskṛtāyāstu vikṛtiḥ prākṛtī matā" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# The Ṣaḍbhāṣācandrikā of Lakṣmīdhara says the same thing as the above: |
# The Ṣaḍbhāṣācandrikā of Lakṣmīdhara says the same thing as the above: "prakṛteḥ saṃskṛtāyāstu vikṛtiḥ prākṛtī matā" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# Vāsudeva, in his Prākṛtasaṃjīvanī commentary on |
# Vāsudeva, in his Prākṛtasaṃjīvanī commentary on Rājaśekhara's Karpūramañjarī says: "prākṛtasya tu sarvameva saṃskṛtaṃ yoniḥ" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# Nārāyaṇa, in his Rasika-sarvasva commentary on the Gītāgovindam of Jayadeva, says: |
# Nārāyaṇa, in his Rasika-sarvasva commentary on the Gītāgovindam of Jayadeva, says: "saṃskṛtāt prākṛtam iṣṭaṃ tato 'pabhraṃśabhāṣaṇam" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
# Śaṅkara, in his Rasacandrikā commentary on the Abhijñānaśākuntala (play by Kālidāsa) says something slightly different from the above: |
# Śaṅkara, in his Rasacandrikā commentary on the Abhijñānaśākuntala (play by Kālidāsa) says something slightly different from the above: "saṃskṛtāt prākṛtam śreṣṭhaṃ tato 'pabhraṃśabhāṣaṇam" <ref name=":1" /> | ||
⚫ | The dictionary of ] (1819–1899), and other modern authors, however, interpret the word in the opposite sense: "the most frequent meanings of the term ''{{IAST|prakṛta}}'', from which the word "prakrit" is derived, are "original, natural, normal" and the term is derived from ''{{IAST|prakṛti}}'', "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". | ||
⚫ | The dictionary of ] (1819–1899), and other modern authors however, interpret the word in the opposite sense: "the most frequent meanings of the term ''{{IAST|prakṛta}}'', from which the word "prakrit" is derived, are "original, natural, normal" and the term is derived from ''{{IAST|prakṛti}}'', "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance" | ||
== Definition == | == Definition == | ||
<div style="position:relative; z-index:1; margin:0; padding:0;"></div> | <div style="position:relative; z-index:1; margin:0; padding:0;"></div> | ||
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* ], the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon | * ], the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon | ||
* the ] | * the ] | ||
* ], the language of birch-bark scrolls discovered in the region stretching from northwestern Pakistan to western China. |
* ], the language of birch-bark scrolls discovered in the region stretching from northwestern Pakistan to western China. | ||
* Kannada – one of the Chalukya inscriptions describes Kannada as a Prakrit. | |||
According to some scholars, such as German Indologists ] and ], the term "Prakrit" refers to a smaller set of languages that were used exclusively in literature:{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=13}} | According to some scholars, such as German Indologists ] and ], the term "Prakrit" refers to a smaller set of languages that were used exclusively in literature:{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=13}} | ||
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** This includes the ] or "Prakrit ''par excellence''", which according to ]'s '']'', was prevalent in the Maharashtra region, and in which poems such as ''Ravana-vaho'' (or ''Setubandha'') were composed. | ** This includes the ] or "Prakrit ''par excellence''", which according to ]'s '']'', was prevalent in the Maharashtra region, and in which poems such as ''Ravana-vaho'' (or ''Setubandha'') were composed. | ||
According to Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar |
According to Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar Shreyansh Kumar Jain Shastri and ], the ] (or simply ]) Prakrit, which was used extensively to write the scriptures of ], is often considered to be the definitive form of Prakrit, while others are considered variants of it. Prakrit grammarians would give the full grammar of Ardhamagadhi first, and then define the other grammars with relation to it. For this reason, courses teaching 'Prakrit' are often regarded as teaching Ardhamagadhi.{{sfn|Alfred C. Woolner|1928|p=6}} | ||
== Grammar == | == Grammar == | ||
Medieval grammarians such as Markandeya (late 16th century) describe a highly systematized Prakrit grammar, but the surviving Prakrit texts do not adhere to this grammar.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=18}} For example, according to Vishvanatha (14th century), in a Sanskrit drama, the characters should speak Maharashtri Prakrit in verse and Shauraseni Prakrit in prose. But the 10th century Sanskrit dramatist ] |
Medieval grammarians such as Markandeya (late 16th century) describe a highly systematized Prakrit grammar, but the surviving Prakrit texts do not adhere to this grammar.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=18}} For example, according to Vishvanatha (14th century), in a Sanskrit drama, the characters should speak Maharashtri Prakrit in verse and Shauraseni Prakrit in prose. But the 10th century Sanskrit dramatist ] does not abide by this rule. Markandeya, as well as later scholars such as Sten Konow, find faults with the Prakrit portions of Rajashekhara's writings, but it is not clear if the rule enunciated by Vishvanatha existed during Rajashekhara's time. Rajashekhara himself imagines Prakrit as a single language or a single kind of language, alongside Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and ].{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=19}} | ||
German Indologist Theodor Bloch (1894) dismissed the medieval Prakrit grammarians as unreliable, arguing that they were not qualified to describe the language of the texts composed centuries before them.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=18}} Other scholars such as ], ] and ] |
German Indologist Theodor Bloch (1894) dismissed the medieval Prakrit grammarians as unreliable, arguing that they were not qualified to describe the language of the texts composed centuries before them.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=18}} Other scholars such as ], ] and ] disagree with Bloch.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp=18–19}} It is possible that the grammarians sought to codify only the language of the earliest classics of the Prakrit literature, such as the ''Gaha Sattasai''.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=19}} Another explanation is that the extant Prakrit manuscripts contain scribal errors. Most of the surviving Prakrit manuscripts were produced in a variety of regional scripts during 1300–1800 CE. It appears that the scribes who made these copies from the earlier manuscripts did not have a good command of the original language of the texts, as several of the extant Prakrit texts contain inaccuracies or are incomprehensible.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=18}} | ||
Also, like Sanskrit and other ancient languages Prakrit was spoken and written |
Also, like Sanskrit and other ancient languages Prakrit was spoken and written long before grammars were written for it. The Vedas do not follow Panini's Sanskrit grammar which is now the basis for all Sanskrit grammar. Similarly, the Agamas, and texts like ], do not follow the modern Prakrit grammar.{{sfn|Muni Pranamyasagar|2017|p={{pn|date=November 2021}}}} | ||
Prakrita Prakasha, a book attributed to ], summarizes various Prakrit languages |
Prakrita Prakasha, a book attributed to ], summarizes various Prakrit languages.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/PrakritaPrakashaOfVararuchiDr.P.L.Vaidya_201806|title=Prakrita Prakasha of Vararuchi Dr. P. L. Vaidya|last=Dr. Narinder Sharma|language=sa}}</ref> | ||
== Prevalence == | == Prevalence == | ||
Prakrit literature was produced across a wide area of South Asia |
Prakrit literature was produced across a wide area of South Asia. Outside India, the language was also known in Cambodia and Java.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=9}} | ||
Prakrit is often wrongly assumed to have been a language (or languages) spoken by the common people, because it is different from Sanskrit, which is the predominant language of the ancient Indian literature.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=21}} Several modern scholars, such as ] and ], have asserted that the literary Prakrit does not represent the actual languages spoken by the common people of ancient India.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp= |
Literary Prakrit is often wrongly assumed to have been a language (or languages) spoken by the common people, because it is different from Sanskrit, which is the predominant language of the ancient Indian literature.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=21}} Several modern scholars, such as ] and ], have asserted that the literary Prakrit does not represent the actual languages spoken by the common people of ancient India.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp=20–21}} This theory is corroborated by a market scene in Uddyotana's '']'' (779 CE), in which the narrator speaks a few words in 18 different languages: some of these languages sound similar to the languages spoken in modern India; but none of them resemble the language that Uddyotana identifies as "Prakrit" and uses for narration throughout the text.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=21}}The local variants of Apabhramsha evolved into the modern day Indo-Aryan vernaculars of South Asia.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=177}} | ||
== Literature == | == Literature == | ||
] book script), {{circa|1500}}]] | ] book script), {{circa|1500}}]] | ||
Literary Prakrit was among the main languages of the classical Indian culture.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=6}} ]'s '']'' ( |
Literary Prakrit was among the main languages of the classical Indian culture.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=6}} ]'s '']'' ({{Circa|700}}) mentions four kinds of literary languages: Sanskrit, Prakrit, ], and mixed.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=4}} ]'s '']'' (11th century) lists Prakrit among the few languages suitable for composition of literature.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=6}} Mirza Khan's ''Tuhfat al-hind'' (1676) names Prakrit among the three kinds of literary languages native to India, the other two being Sanskrit and the vernacular languages. It describes Prakrit as a mixture of Sanskrit and vernacular languages, and adds that Prakrit was "mostly employed in the praise of kings, ministers, and chiefs".{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=1}} | ||
During a large period of the first millennium, literary Prakrit was the preferred language for the fictional romance in India. Its use as a language of systematic knowledge was limited, because of Sanskrit's dominance in this area, but nevertheless, Prakrit texts exist on topics such as grammar, ], metrics, alchemy, medicine, ], and ].{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} In addition, the ] used Prakrit for religious literature, including commentaries on the Jain canonical literature, stories about Jain figures, moral stories, hymns and expositions of Jain doctrine.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp= |
During a large period of the first millennium, literary Prakrit was the preferred language for the fictional romance in India. Its use as a language of systematic knowledge was limited, because of Sanskrit's dominance in this area, but nevertheless, Prakrit texts exist on topics such as grammar, ], metrics, alchemy, medicine, ], and ].{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} In addition, the ] used Prakrit for religious literature, including commentaries on the Jain canonical literature, stories about Jain figures, moral stories, hymns and expositions of Jain doctrine.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp=8–9}} Prakrit is also the language of some ] ''tantras'' and ] hymns.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=9}} | ||
Besides being the primary language of several texts, Prakrit also features as the language of low-class men and most women in the ].{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} American scholar Andrew Ollett traces the origin of the Sanskrit ] to Prakrit poems.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=15}} | Besides being the primary language of several texts, Prakrit also features as the language of low-class men and most women in the ].{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} American scholar Andrew Ollett traces the origin of the Sanskrit ] to Prakrit poems.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=15}} | ||
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Some of the texts that identify their language as Prakrit include: | Some of the texts that identify their language as Prakrit include: | ||
* ]'s '']'' ( |
* ]'s '']'' ({{Circa|1st or 2nd century}}), anthology of single verse poems{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} | ||
* ]'s now-lost ''God of Five Arrows at Play'', poem{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} | * ]'s now-lost ''God of Five Arrows at Play'', poem{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} | ||
* ]'s ''Hari-vijaya'' (late 4th century), epic{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | * ]'s ''Hari-vijaya'' (late 4th century), epic{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | ||
* ]'s ''Ravana-vaho'' (early 5th century), epic{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | * ]'s ''Ravana-vaho'' (early 5th century), epic{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | ||
* Palitta's ''Tarangavati'' (probably 1st or 2nd century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | * Palitta's ''Tarangavati'' (probably 1st or 2nd century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | ||
* Palitta's ''Brilliance of the Connoisseurs''{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=10}} | * Palitta's ''Rasikaprakāśana'' or ''Brilliance of the Connoisseurs''{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=10}} | ||
* Vakpati's '']'' (c. 8th century)<ref>{{cite book |editor=N. G. Suru |title=Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja |year=1975 |series=Prakrit Text Series No. 18 |publisher=Prakrit Text Society |location=Ahmedabad |oclc=463112812 |page=xcviii|url=https://jainqq.org/explore/001364/1 }}</ref> | |||
* Haribhadra's ''Samaraditya-charitra'' (c. 8th century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | * Haribhadra's ''Samaraditya-charitra'' (c. 8th century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | ||
* Uddyotana's ''Kuvalaya-mala'' (779 CE), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp=8, 21}} | * Uddyotana's '']'' (779 CE), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|pp=8, 21}} | ||
* Kautuhala's ''Lilavati'' or Kouhala's ''Lilavai'' (c. 8th century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | * Kautuhala's ''Lilavati'' or Kouhala's ''Lilavai'' (c. 8th century), fictional romance{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=8}} | ||
* Madhuka's ''Hara's Belt'' (10th century), a compendium covering a wide range of topics, such as casting love spells and treating ]s | * Madhuka's ''Haramekhalā'' or ''Hara's Belt'' (10th century), a compendium covering a wide range of topics, such as casting love spells and treating ]s | ||
* Jineshvara's ''Treasury of Gatha-Jewels'' (1194), anthology of verses{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=9}} | * Jineshvara's ''Treasury of Gatha-Jewels'' (1194), anthology of verses{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=9}} | ||
* Addahamana's ''Sandesha-rasaka'' (13th century), a ]; the author states that his family came from "the land of the Muslims", which suggests that Addahamana is the Prakrit variant of |
* Addahamana's ''Sandesha-rasaka'' (13th century), a ]; the author states that his family came from "the land of the Muslims", which suggests that Addahamana is the Prakrit variant of 'Abd ur-Rahman.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=9}} | ||
⚫ | Some |
||
==List of Prakrits== | ==List of Prakrits== | ||
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{{columns-list |colwidth=20em | | {{columns-list |colwidth=20em | | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
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* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
}} | }} | ||
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Dramatic Prakrits were those that were used in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation. | Dramatic Prakrits were those that were used in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation. | ||
The phrase "Dramatic Prakrits" often refers to three most prominent of them: ], ], and ]. However, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Prachya, Bahliki, Dakshinatya, Shakari, Chandali, Shabari, Abhiri, Dramili, and Odri. There was a strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Characters each spoke a different Prakrit based on their role and background; for example, Dramili was the language of "forest-dwellers", Sauraseni was spoken by "the heroine and her female friends", and Avanti was spoken by "cheats and rogues".{{sfn|Satya Ranjan Banerjee|1977|pp= |
The phrase "Dramatic Prakrits" often refers to three most prominent of them: ], ], and ]. However, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Prachya, Bahliki, Dakshinatya, Shakari, Chandali, Shabari, Abhiri, Dramili, and Odri. There was a strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Characters each spoke a different Prakrit based on their role and background; for example, Dramili was the language of "forest-dwellers", Sauraseni was spoken by "the heroine and her female friends", and Avanti was spoken by "cheats and rogues".{{sfn|Satya Ranjan Banerjee|1977|pp=19–21}} Maharashtri and Shaurseni Prakrit were more common and were used in literature extensively. | ||
== |
=== Jain Prakrit === | ||
⚫ | Some 19th–20th century European scholars, such as ] and ], made a distinction between ] and non-Jain Prakrit literature. Jacobi used the term "Jain Prakrit" (or "Jain Maharashtri", as he called it) to denote the language of relatively late and relatively more Sanskrit-influenced narrative literature, as opposed to the earlier Prakrit court poetry. Later scholars used the term "Jain Prakrit" for any variety of Prakrit used by Jain authors, including the one used in early texts such as ''Tarangavati'' and '']''. However, the works written by Jain authors do not necessarily belong to an exclusively Jain history, and do not show any specific literary features resulting from their belief in Jainism. Therefore, the division of Prakrit literature into Jain and non-Jain categories is no longer considered tenable.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=54}} | ||
⚫ | Prakrit languages are said to have held a lower social status than ] in |
||
== Status == | |||
⚫ | Mirza Khan's ''Tuhfat al-hind'' (1676) characterizes Prakrit as the language of "the lowest of the low", stating that the language was known as ''Patal-bani'' ("Language of the underground") or ''Nag-bani'' ("Language of the snakes").{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=1 |
||
Under the Mauryan Empire various Prakrits enjoyed the status of royal language. Prakrit was the language of ] who was patron of Buddhism.{{sfn|Richard G. Salomon|1996|p=377}} | |||
⚫ | Prakrit languages are said to have held a lower social status than ] in classical India. In the ], such as ]'s '']'', lead characters typically speak Sanskrit, while the unimportant characters and most female characters typically speak Prakrit.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=7}} | ||
Under the Mauryan Empire various Prakrits enjoyed the status of regal language. Pali was the language of ] who was patron of Buddhism. <ref>{{cite book |author=Richard G. Salomon |chapter=Brahmi and Kharoshthi |editor1=Peter T. Daniels |editor2=William Bright |title=The World's Writing Systems |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA377 |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 }}</ref> | |||
While Prakrits were originally seen as 'lower' forms of language, the influence they had on Sanskrit |
While Prakrits were originally seen as 'lower' forms of language, the influence they had on Sanskrit – allowing it to be more easily used by the common people – as well as the converse influence of ] on the Prakrits, gave Prakrits progressively higher cultural prestige.{{sfn|Madhav Deshpande|1993|p=35}} | ||
⚫ | Mirza Khan's ''Tuhfat al-hind'' (1676) characterizes Prakrit as the language of "the lowest of the low", stating that the language was known as ''Patal-bani'' ("Language of the underground") or ''Nag-bani'' ("Language of the snakes").{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=1}} | ||
Among modern scholars, Prakrit literature has received less attention than Sanskrit. Few modern Prakrit texts have survived in modern times, and even fewer have been published or attracted critical scholarship. Prakrit has not been designated as a classical language by the Government of India, although the earliest Prakrit texts are older than literature of most of the languages designated as such. One of the reasons behind this neglect of Prakrit is that it is not tied to a regional, national, ethnic, or religious identity.{{sfn|Andrew Ollett|2017|p=10}} | |||
Among modern scholars, Prakrit literature has received less attention than Sanskrit. Few modern Prakrit texts have survived in modern times, and even fewer have been published or attracted critical scholarship. Prakrit has been designated as a ] on 3 October 2024 by the Government of India as the earliest Prakrit texts are older than literature of most of the languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classical status |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/cabinet-approves-conferring-status-of-classical-language-to-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-languages/?comment=disable#:~:text=News%20Updates-,Cabinet%20approves%20conferring%20status%20of%20Classical%20Language%20to%20Marathi%2C%20Pali,Prakrit%2C%20Assamese%20and%20Bengali%20languages&text=The%20Union%20Cabinet%20chaired%20by,Prakrit%2C%20Assamese%20and%20Bengali%20languages.}}</ref> | |||
== Research institutes == | == Research institutes == | ||
In 1955, government of ] established at ], the ] with the aim to promote research work in Prakrit. |
In 1955, government of ] established at ], the ] with the aim to promote research work in Prakrit.{{sfn|Muni Pranamyasagar|2013|p=198}} | ||
⚫ | The ] is located in ], Karnataka, India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Centre for Studies in Prakrit & Pali – Institute of Jainology |url=https://www.jainology.org/centre-studies-in-prakrit-and-pali/ |access-date=2021-06-05}}</ref> | ||
== Notes == | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
⚫ | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist |
{{Reflist|refs= | ||
<ref name=":00">{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 (1970) ac 4616 |date=1907 |page=153, Line 14 of the inscription |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795/2015.358795.Corpus-Inscriptionum#page/n373/mode/2up}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
=== Bibliography === | === Bibliography === | ||
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{{ref begin}} | {{ref begin}} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Alfred C. Woolner |title=Introduction to Prakrit |edition=2 (reprint) |year=1928 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0189-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontopr00woolrich |access-date=17 March 2011 }} | * {{cite book |author=Alfred C. Woolner |title=Introduction to Prakrit |edition=2 (reprint) |year=1928 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0189-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontopr00woolrich |access-date=17 March 2011 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Andrew Ollett |title=Language of the Snakes: Prakrit, Sanskrit, and the Language Order of Premodern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNA1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2017 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-29622-0 }} | * {{cite book |author=Andrew Ollett |title=Language of the Snakes: Prakrit, Sanskrit, and the Language Order of Premodern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNA1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |doi=10.1525/luminos.37 |doi-access=free |year=2017 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-29622-0 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Madhav Deshpande |title=Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC&pg=PP1 |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1136-2 }} | * {{cite book |author=Madhav Deshpande |title=Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC&pg=PP1 |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1136-2 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Richard G. Salomon |chapter=Brahmi and Kharoshthi |editor1=Peter T. Daniels |editor2=William Bright |title=The World's Writing Systems |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA377 |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 }} | * {{cite book |author=Richard G. Salomon |chapter=Brahmi and Kharoshthi |editor1=Peter T. Daniels |editor2=William Bright |title=The World's Writing Systems |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA377 |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Satya Ranjan Banerjee |title=The Eastern School of Prakrit Grammarians: A Linguistic Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhEKAQAAIAAJ |year=1977 |publisher=Vidyasagar Pustak Mandir }} | * {{cite book |author=Satya Ranjan Banerjee |title=The Eastern School of Prakrit Grammarians: A Linguistic Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhEKAQAAIAAJ |year=1977 |publisher=Vidyasagar Pustak Mandir }} | ||
* {{cite book |author=Muni Pranamyasagar|title=Tirthankar Bhāvna|date=2013|publisher=Prakrit Jainology and Ahimsa Research Institute|location=Vaishali|isbn=978-93-81403-10-5}}{{verification needed|date=November 2021 |reason=ISBN not found.}} | |||
* {{cite book |author=Muni Pranamyasagar |title=Paiya Shikha: A Learning book to Prakrit |url=https://pranamyasagar.org/books/pdf/Paiya-Shika-Part-1.pdf | year=2017 |location=Rewari, Haryana}} | * {{cite book |author=Muni Pranamyasagar |title=Paiya Shikha: A Learning book to Prakrit |url=https://pranamyasagar.org/books/pdf/Paiya-Shika-Part-1.pdf | year=2017 |location=Rewari, Haryana}} | ||
{{ref end}} | {{ref end}} | ||
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== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
{{EB1911 Poster|Prakrit}} | {{EB1911 Poster|Prakrit}} | ||
* Pischel |
* {{cite book |author=Richard Pischel |translator=Subhadra Jha |title=Grammar of the Prākrit Languages |year=1999 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120816800 }} | ||
{{Old and Middle Indo-Aryan}} | {{Old and Middle Indo-Aryan}} | ||
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] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
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Latest revision as of 09:35, 31 December 2024
Group of languages of the 3rd century BCE – 8th century CE
Prakrit | |
---|---|
Geographic distribution | Indian subcontinent |
Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 / 5 | pra |
Glottolog | midd1350 (Late Middle Indo-Aryan) |
Word for "Prakrit" (here Prā-kṛ-te) in Late Brahmi script in the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana, 532 CE |
Prakrit (/ˈprɑːkrɪt/) is a group of vernacular classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding earlier inscriptions and Pali.
The oldest stage of Middle Indo-Aryan language is attested in the inscriptions of Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE), as well as in the earliest forms of Pāli, the language of the Theravāda Buddhist canon. The most prominent form of Prakrit is Ardhamāgadhı̄, associated with the ancient kingdom of Magadha, in modern Bihar, and the subsequent Mauryan Empire. Mahāvı̄ra, the last tirthankar of 24 tirthankar of Jainism, was born in Magadha, and the earliest Jain texts were composed in Ardhamāgadhı̄.
Etymology
There are two major views concerning the way in which Sanskrit and Prakrit are related. One holds that the original matter in question is the speech of the common people, unadorned by grammar, and that prākṛta thus refers to vernacular usage in contrast to the elevated register of Sanskrit usage. This is one of several views noted, for example, by Nami Sadhu (11th century ce) in his commentary on Rudraṭa’s Kāvyālaṅkāra (“Ornaments of Poetry”), a 9th-century treatise on poetics. It is also the usual explanation accepted by Western linguists. In contrast, the view most commonly held by Prakrit grammarians holds that the Prakrit languages are vernaculars that arose from Sanskrit.:
- According to the Prākrṭa Prakāśa, an ancient Prakrit grammar, "Saṃskṛtam is the prakṛti (source) - and the language that originates in, or comes from, that prakṛti, is therefore called prākṛtam."
- Hemachandra (a Jain grammarian of the 10th century who lived in Gujarat) in his grammar of Sanskrit and Prākrit named Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāsana, defines prākṛt's origin to be sanskṛt: "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtam, tatrabhavaṃ tata āgataṃ vā prākṛtaṃ"
- Another prākṛt grammarian, Mārkaṇḍeya, writes in his grammar Prākṛtasarvasva - "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtaṃ, tatrabhavaṃ prākṛtam ucyate" .
- Dhanika, in his 'Daśarūpakāvaloka' commentary on Daśarūpaka (one of the most important treatises explaining the 10 types of Indian Drama), says: "prakṛter āgataṃ prākṛtam, prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtam"
- Siṃhadevagaṇin while commenting on Vāgbhaṭālaṅkāra writes: "prakṛteḥ saṃskrtād āgataṃ prākṛtam"
- The Prākṛtacandrikā (a grammar of Prākṛt) says: "prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtaṃ, tatrabhavatvāt prākṛtaṃ smṛtam"
- The Prākṛtaśabdapradīpikā of Narasiṃha says: "prakṛteḥ saṃskṛtāyāstu vikṛtiḥ prākṛtī matā"
- The Ṣaḍbhāṣācandrikā of Lakṣmīdhara says the same thing as the above: "prakṛteḥ saṃskṛtāyāstu vikṛtiḥ prākṛtī matā"
- Vāsudeva, in his Prākṛtasaṃjīvanī commentary on Rājaśekhara's Karpūramañjarī says: "prākṛtasya tu sarvameva saṃskṛtaṃ yoniḥ"
- Nārāyaṇa, in his Rasika-sarvasva commentary on the Gītāgovindam of Jayadeva, says: "saṃskṛtāt prākṛtam iṣṭaṃ tato 'pabhraṃśabhāṣaṇam"
- Śaṅkara, in his Rasacandrikā commentary on the Abhijñānaśākuntala (play by Kālidāsa) says something slightly different from the above: "saṃskṛtāt prākṛtam śreṣṭhaṃ tato 'pabhraṃśabhāṣaṇam"
The dictionary of Monier Monier-Williams (1819–1899), and other modern authors, however, interpret the word in the opposite sense: "the most frequent meanings of the term prakṛta, from which the word "prakrit" is derived, are "original, natural, normal" and the term is derived from prakṛti, "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance".
Definition
Modern scholars have used the term "Prakrit" to refer to two concepts:
- Prakrit languages: a group of closely related literary languages
- the Prakrit language: one of the Prakrit languages, which alone was used as the primary language of entire poems
Some modern scholars include all Middle Indo-Aryan languages under the rubric of 'Prakrits', while others emphasize the independent development of these languages, often separated from the history of Sanskrit by wide divisions of caste, religion, and geography.
The broadest definition uses the term "Prakrit" to describe any Middle Indo-Aryan language that deviates from Sanskrit in any manner. American scholar Andrew Ollett points out that this unsatisfactory definition makes "Prakrit" a cover term for languages that were not actually called Prakrit in ancient India, such as:
- Ashokan Prakrit: the language of Ashoka's inscriptions
- the language of later inscriptions of India, labeled "Monumental Prakrit", "Lena Prakrit", or "Stupa dialect"
- the language of inscriptions of Sri Lanka, labeled "Sinhalese Prakrit"
- Pali, the language of the Theravada Buddhist canon
- the Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
- Gandhari, the language of birch-bark scrolls discovered in the region stretching from northwestern Pakistan to western China.
- Kannada – one of the Chalukya inscriptions describes Kannada as a Prakrit.
According to some scholars, such as German Indologists Richard Pischel and Oskar von Hinüber, the term "Prakrit" refers to a smaller set of languages that were used exclusively in literature:
- Scenic Prakrits
- These languages are used exclusively in plays, as secondary languages
- Their names indicate regional association (e.g. Shauraseni, Magadhi, and Avanti), although these associations are mostly notional
- Primary Prakrits
- These languages are used as primary languages of literary classics such as Gaha Sattasai
- This includes the Maharashtri Prakrit or "Prakrit par excellence", which according to Dandin's Kavya-darsha, was prevalent in the Maharashtra region, and in which poems such as Ravana-vaho (or Setubandha) were composed.
According to Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar Shreyansh Kumar Jain Shastri and A. C. Woolner, the Ardhamagadhi (or simply Magadhi) Prakrit, which was used extensively to write the scriptures of Jainism, is often considered to be the definitive form of Prakrit, while others are considered variants of it. Prakrit grammarians would give the full grammar of Ardhamagadhi first, and then define the other grammars with relation to it. For this reason, courses teaching 'Prakrit' are often regarded as teaching Ardhamagadhi.
Grammar
Medieval grammarians such as Markandeya (late 16th century) describe a highly systematized Prakrit grammar, but the surviving Prakrit texts do not adhere to this grammar. For example, according to Vishvanatha (14th century), in a Sanskrit drama, the characters should speak Maharashtri Prakrit in verse and Shauraseni Prakrit in prose. But the 10th century Sanskrit dramatist Rajashekhara does not abide by this rule. Markandeya, as well as later scholars such as Sten Konow, find faults with the Prakrit portions of Rajashekhara's writings, but it is not clear if the rule enunciated by Vishvanatha existed during Rajashekhara's time. Rajashekhara himself imagines Prakrit as a single language or a single kind of language, alongside Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and Paishachi.
German Indologist Theodor Bloch (1894) dismissed the medieval Prakrit grammarians as unreliable, arguing that they were not qualified to describe the language of the texts composed centuries before them. Other scholars such as Sten Konow, Richard Pischel and Alfred Hillebrandt disagree with Bloch. It is possible that the grammarians sought to codify only the language of the earliest classics of the Prakrit literature, such as the Gaha Sattasai. Another explanation is that the extant Prakrit manuscripts contain scribal errors. Most of the surviving Prakrit manuscripts were produced in a variety of regional scripts during 1300–1800 CE. It appears that the scribes who made these copies from the earlier manuscripts did not have a good command of the original language of the texts, as several of the extant Prakrit texts contain inaccuracies or are incomprehensible.
Also, like Sanskrit and other ancient languages Prakrit was spoken and written long before grammars were written for it. The Vedas do not follow Panini's Sanskrit grammar which is now the basis for all Sanskrit grammar. Similarly, the Agamas, and texts like Shatkhandagama, do not follow the modern Prakrit grammar.
Prakrita Prakasha, a book attributed to Vararuchi, summarizes various Prakrit languages.
Prevalence
Prakrit literature was produced across a wide area of South Asia. Outside India, the language was also known in Cambodia and Java.
Literary Prakrit is often wrongly assumed to have been a language (or languages) spoken by the common people, because it is different from Sanskrit, which is the predominant language of the ancient Indian literature. Several modern scholars, such as George Abraham Grierson and Richard Pischel, have asserted that the literary Prakrit does not represent the actual languages spoken by the common people of ancient India. This theory is corroborated by a market scene in Uddyotana's Kuvalaya-mala (779 CE), in which the narrator speaks a few words in 18 different languages: some of these languages sound similar to the languages spoken in modern India; but none of them resemble the language that Uddyotana identifies as "Prakrit" and uses for narration throughout the text.The local variants of Apabhramsha evolved into the modern day Indo-Aryan vernaculars of South Asia.
Literature
Literary Prakrit was among the main languages of the classical Indian culture. Dandin's Kavya-darsha (c. 700) mentions four kinds of literary languages: Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, and mixed. Bhoja's Sarasvati-Kanthabharana (11th century) lists Prakrit among the few languages suitable for composition of literature. Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) names Prakrit among the three kinds of literary languages native to India, the other two being Sanskrit and the vernacular languages. It describes Prakrit as a mixture of Sanskrit and vernacular languages, and adds that Prakrit was "mostly employed in the praise of kings, ministers, and chiefs".
During a large period of the first millennium, literary Prakrit was the preferred language for the fictional romance in India. Its use as a language of systematic knowledge was limited, because of Sanskrit's dominance in this area, but nevertheless, Prakrit texts exist on topics such as grammar, lexicography, metrics, alchemy, medicine, divination, and gemology. In addition, the Jains used Prakrit for religious literature, including commentaries on the Jain canonical literature, stories about Jain figures, moral stories, hymns and expositions of Jain doctrine. Prakrit is also the language of some Shaiva tantras and Vaishnava hymns.
Besides being the primary language of several texts, Prakrit also features as the language of low-class men and most women in the Sanskrit stage plays. American scholar Andrew Ollett traces the origin of the Sanskrit Kavya to Prakrit poems.
Some of the texts that identify their language as Prakrit include:
- Hāla's Gaha Sattasai (c. 1st or 2nd century), anthology of single verse poems
- Ananda-vardhana's now-lost God of Five Arrows at Play, poem
- Sarvasena's Hari-vijaya (late 4th century), epic
- Pravarasena II's Ravana-vaho (early 5th century), epic
- Palitta's Tarangavati (probably 1st or 2nd century), fictional romance
- Palitta's Rasikaprakāśana or Brilliance of the Connoisseurs
- Vakpati's Gaudavaho (c. 8th century)
- Haribhadra's Samaraditya-charitra (c. 8th century), fictional romance
- Uddyotana's Kuvalaya-mala (779 CE), fictional romance
- Kautuhala's Lilavati or Kouhala's Lilavai (c. 8th century), fictional romance
- Madhuka's Haramekhalā or Hara's Belt (10th century), a compendium covering a wide range of topics, such as casting love spells and treating snakebites
- Jineshvara's Treasury of Gatha-Jewels (1194), anthology of verses
- Addahamana's Sandesha-rasaka (13th century), a message poem; the author states that his family came from "the land of the Muslims", which suggests that Addahamana is the Prakrit variant of 'Abd ur-Rahman.
List of Prakrits
The languages that have been labeled "Prakrit" in modern times include the following:
- Apabhraṃśa
- Ardhamagadhi
- Dramili
- Elu
- Gandhari
- Gaudi
- Kamarupi
- Magadhi
- Maharashtri
- Paishachi
- Pali
- Shauraseni
- Khasa
Not all of these languages were actually called "Prakrit" in the ancient period.
Dramatic Prakrits
Main article: Dramatic PrakritDramatic Prakrits were those that were used in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation.
The phrase "Dramatic Prakrits" often refers to three most prominent of them: Shauraseni Prakrit, Magadhi Prakrit, and Maharashtri Prakrit. However, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Prachya, Bahliki, Dakshinatya, Shakari, Chandali, Shabari, Abhiri, Dramili, and Odri. There was a strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Characters each spoke a different Prakrit based on their role and background; for example, Dramili was the language of "forest-dwellers", Sauraseni was spoken by "the heroine and her female friends", and Avanti was spoken by "cheats and rogues". Maharashtri and Shaurseni Prakrit were more common and were used in literature extensively.
Jain Prakrit
Some 19th–20th century European scholars, such as Hermann Jacobi and Ernst Leumann, made a distinction between Jain and non-Jain Prakrit literature. Jacobi used the term "Jain Prakrit" (or "Jain Maharashtri", as he called it) to denote the language of relatively late and relatively more Sanskrit-influenced narrative literature, as opposed to the earlier Prakrit court poetry. Later scholars used the term "Jain Prakrit" for any variety of Prakrit used by Jain authors, including the one used in early texts such as Tarangavati and Vasudeva-Hindi. However, the works written by Jain authors do not necessarily belong to an exclusively Jain history, and do not show any specific literary features resulting from their belief in Jainism. Therefore, the division of Prakrit literature into Jain and non-Jain categories is no longer considered tenable.
Status
Under the Mauryan Empire various Prakrits enjoyed the status of royal language. Prakrit was the language of Emperor Ashoka who was patron of Buddhism.
Prakrit languages are said to have held a lower social status than Sanskrit in classical India. In the Sanskrit stage plays, such as Kalidasa's Shakuntala, lead characters typically speak Sanskrit, while the unimportant characters and most female characters typically speak Prakrit.
While Prakrits were originally seen as 'lower' forms of language, the influence they had on Sanskrit – allowing it to be more easily used by the common people – as well as the converse influence of Sanskrit on the Prakrits, gave Prakrits progressively higher cultural prestige.
Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) characterizes Prakrit as the language of "the lowest of the low", stating that the language was known as Patal-bani ("Language of the underground") or Nag-bani ("Language of the snakes").
Among modern scholars, Prakrit literature has received less attention than Sanskrit. Few modern Prakrit texts have survived in modern times, and even fewer have been published or attracted critical scholarship. Prakrit has been designated as a classical language on 3 October 2024 by the Government of India as the earliest Prakrit texts are older than literature of most of the languages.
Research institutes
In 1955, government of Bihar established at Vaishali, the Research Institute of Prakrit Jainology and Ahimsa with the aim to promote research work in Prakrit.
The National Institute of Prakrit Study and Research is located in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, India.
Notes
- Sanskrit: प्राकृत prākṛta; Shauraseni: 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, pāuda; Jain Prakrit: pāua
References
- Fleet, John Faithfull (1907). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 (1970) ac 4616. p. 153, Line 14 of the inscription.
- ^ Richard G. Salomon 1996, p. 377.
- Alfred C. Woolner 1928, p. 235.
- Woolner, Alfred C. (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9.
- "Prakrit". www.ames.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
- "Prakrit languages | Origins, Characteristics & Examples | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 31 December 2024.
- "Sanskrit Manuscripts : Śabdānuśāsanalaghuvṛttyavacūri". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
- ^ Pischel, Richard (1965). Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages. India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 1.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 11.
- Madhav Deshpande 1993, p. 33.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 12.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 13.
- Alfred C. Woolner 1928, p. 6.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 18.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 19.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, pp. 18–19.
- Muni Pranamyasagar 2017, p. .
- Dr. Narinder Sharma. Prakrita Prakasha of Vararuchi Dr. P. L. Vaidya (in Sanskrit).
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 9.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 21.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, pp. 20–21.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 177.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 6.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 4.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 8.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 7.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 15.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 10.
- N. G. Suru, ed. (1975). Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja. Prakrit Text Series No. 18. Ahmedabad: Prakrit Text Society. p. xcviii. OCLC 463112812.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, pp. 8, 21.
- Satya Ranjan Banerjee 1977, pp. 19–21.
- Andrew Ollett 2017, p. 54.
- Madhav Deshpande 1993, p. 35.
- "Classical status".
- Muni Pranamyasagar 2013, p. 198.
- "Centre for Studies in Prakrit & Pali – Institute of Jainology". Retrieved 5 June 2021.
Bibliography
- Alfred C. Woolner (1928). Introduction to Prakrit (2 (reprint) ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- Andrew Ollett (2017). Language of the Snakes: Prakrit, Sanskrit, and the Language Order of Premodern India. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/luminos.37. ISBN 978-0-520-29622-0.
- Madhav Deshpande (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1136-2.
- Richard G. Salomon (1996). "Brahmi and Kharoshthi". In Peter T. Daniels; William Bright (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- Satya Ranjan Banerjee (1977). The Eastern School of Prakrit Grammarians: A Linguistic Study. Vidyasagar Pustak Mandir.
- Muni Pranamyasagar (2013). Tirthankar Bhāvna. Vaishali: Prakrit Jainology and Ahimsa Research Institute. ISBN 978-93-81403-10-5.
- Muni Pranamyasagar (2017). Paiya Shikha: A Learning book to Prakrit (PDF). Rewari, Haryana.
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Further reading
- Richard Pischel (1999). Grammar of the Prākrit Languages. Translated by Subhadra Jha. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120816800.
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Northwestern |
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Western |
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Central |
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Eastern |
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Southern |
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Unclassified |
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Pidgins and creoles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||