Lead(II) acetate: Difference between revisions

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Revision as of 16:53, 7 November 2024 edit2620:0:1a10:7829:e0c6:e03d:2d16:bfec (talk) Redundancy, Salt of Saturn was listed twice← Previous edit		Latest revision as of 05:41, 17 December 2024 edit undoA876 (talk \| contribs)Extended confirmed users10,135 edits a wording (manufacturer did not). relinked to .
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	{{~~chembox~~		{{Chembox
	\|Verifiedfields = changed		\|Verifiedfields = changed
	\|Watchedfields = changed		\|Watchedfields = changed
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	\|MeltingPt_notes = (anhydrous)<br>{{convert\|75\|C\|F K}}<br>(trihydrate) decomposes<ref name="sigma"/> at ≥ 200 °C<br>{{convert\|22\|C\|F K}}<br>(decahydrate)<ref name=pphoic/>		\|MeltingPt_notes = (anhydrous)<br>{{convert\|75\|C\|F K}}<br>(trihydrate) decomposes<ref name="sigma"/> at ≥ 200 °C<br>{{convert\|22\|C\|F K}}<br>(decahydrate)<ref name=pphoic/>
	\|BoilingPt = Decomposes		\|BoilingPt = Decomposes
	\|Solubility = Anhydrous:<br>19.8 g/100 mL (0 °C)<br>44.31 g/100 mL (20 °C)<br>69.5 g/100 mL (30 °C)<ref name=chemister>{{~~Cite~~ web \|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1990 ~~\|website=chemister.ru \|title = Lead(II) acetate~~}}</ref><br>218.3 g/100 mL (50 °C)<ref name=pphoic>{{cite book \|last=Pradyot\|first=Patnaik \|year=2003 \|title=Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals \|publisher=The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.\|isbn=0-07-049439-8}}</ref>		\|Solubility = Anhydrous:<br>19.8 g/100 mL (0 °C)<br>44.31 g/100 mL (20 °C)<br>69.5 g/100 mL (30 °C)<ref name=chemister>{{cite web \|title=Lead(II) acetate \|website=chemister.ru \|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1990}}</ref><br>218.3 g/100 mL (50 °C)<ref name=pphoic>{{cite book \|last=Pradyot \|first=Patnaik \|year=2003 \|title=Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals \|publisher=The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. \|isbn=0-07-049439-8}}</ref>
	\|SolubleOther = Anhydrous and trihydrate are soluble in ], ]<ref name=chemister/>		\|SolubleOther = Anhydrous and trihydrate are soluble in ], ]<ref name=chemister/>
	\|Solubility1 = Anhydrous:<ref name=chemister/><br>102.75 g/100 g (66.1 °C)<br>Trihydrate:<ref name=chemister2>{{~~Cite~~ web \|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1762~~\|title = Lead(II) acetate trihydrate \|website=chemister.ru~~}}</ref><br>74.75 g/100 g (15 °C)<br>214.95 g/100 g (66.1 °C)		\|Solubility1 = Anhydrous:<ref name=chemister/><br>102.75 g/100 g (66.1 °C)<br>Trihydrate:<ref name=chemister2>{{cite web \|title=Lead(II) acetate trihydrate \|website=chemister.ru \|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1762}}</ref><br>74.75 g/100 g (15 °C)<br>214.95 g/100 g (66.1 °C)
	\|Solvent1 = methanol		\|Solvent1 = methanol
	\|Solubility2 = Anhydrous:<ref name=chemister/><br>20 g/100 g (15 °C)<br>Trihydrate:<ref name=chemister2/><br>143 g/100 g (20 °C)		\|Solubility2 = Anhydrous:<ref name=chemister/><br>20 g/100 g (15 °C)<br>Trihydrate:<ref name=chemister2/><br>143 g/100 g (20 °C)
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	\|Section5 = {{Chembox Hazards		\|Section5 = {{Chembox Hazards
	\|MainHazards = ], probable human ]		\|MainHazards = ], probable human ]
	\|GHSPictograms = {{GHS08}} {{GHS environment}}<ref name="sigma">{{Sigma-Aldrich\|id=316512\|name=Lead(II) acetate trihydrate\|~~accessdate~~=2014-06-08}}</ref>		\|GHSPictograms = {{GHS08}} {{GHS environment}}<ref name="sigma">{{Sigma-Aldrich\|id=316512\|name=Lead(II) acetate trihydrate\|access-date=2014-06-08}}</ref>
	\|GHSSignalWord = Danger		\|GHSSignalWord = Danger
	\|HPhrases = {{H-phrases\|360\|373\|410}}<ref name="sigma"/>		\|HPhrases = {{H-phrases\|360\|373\|410}}<ref name="sigma"/>
	\|PPhrases = {{P-phrases\|201\|273\|308+313\|501}}<ref name="sigma"/>		\|PPhrases = {{P-phrases\|201\|273\|308+313\|501}}<ref name="sigma"/>
	\|NFPA-H =2		\|NFPA-H = 2
	\|NFPA-F =1		\|NFPA-F = 1
	\|NFPA-R =1		\|NFPA-R = 1
	\|FlashPt = Non-flammable		\|FlashPt = Non-flammable
	\|LD50 = 400 mg/kg (mice, oral)<ref name=pphoic/>		\|LD50 = 400 mg/kg (mice, oral)<ref name=pphoic/>
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	}}		}}

	'''Lead(II) acetate''' is a white crystalline ] with a slightly ] taste. Its ] is usually expressed as {{chem2\|Pb(CH3COO)2}} or {{chem2\|Pb(OAc)2}}, where Ac represents the ]. Like many other ] compounds, it causes ]. Lead acetate is soluble in water and ]. With water it forms the trihydrate, {{chem2\|Pb(OAc)2*3H2O}}, a colourless or white ] ] ] substance.		'''Lead(II) acetate''' is a white crystalline ] with a slightly ]. Its ] is usually expressed as {{chem2\|Pb(CH3COO)2}} or {{chem2\|Pb(OAc)2}}, where Ac represents the ]. Like many other ] compounds, it causes ]. Lead acetate is soluble in water and ]. With water it forms the trihydrate, {{chem2\|Pb(OAc)2*3H2O}}, a colourless or white ] ] ] substance.

	The substance is used as a reagent to make other lead compounds and as a fixative for some dyes. In low concentrations, it formerly served as the principal active ingredient in progressive types of ] dyes.<ref name="fda.gov">{{cite web \|title=Lead Acetate in 'Progressive' Hair Dye Products \|url=https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-products/lead-acetate-progressive-hair-dye-products ~~\|website=fda.gov\|date=7 October 2021~~ }}</ref> Lead(II) acetate is also used as a ] in ] and ], and as a ] in ]s and ]es. It was historically used as a ] and ] in wines and in other foods and for ].		The substance is used as a reagent to make other lead compounds and as a fixative for some dyes. In low concentrations, it formerly served as the principal active ingredient in progressive types of ] dyes.<ref name="fda.gov">{{cite web \|title=Lead Acetate in 'Progressive' Hair Dye Products \|date=7 October 2021 \|website=fda.gov \|url=https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-products/lead-acetate-progressive-hair-dye-products}}</ref> Lead(II) acetate is also used as a ] in ] and ], and as a ] in ]s and ]es. It was historically used as a ] and ] in wines and in other foods and for ].

	==Production==		==Production==
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	Lead(II) acetate can also be made by dissolving lead(II) oxide in acetic acid:<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd\|pages=373, 388}}</ref>		Lead(II) acetate can also be made by dissolving lead(II) oxide in acetic acid:<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd\|pages=373, 388}}</ref>

	:{{chem2\|PbO + 2 AcOH -> Pb(OAc)2 + H2O}}		:{{chem2\|PbO + 2 AcOH -> Pb(OAc)2 + H2O}}

	Lead(II) acetate can also be made via a ] between ] and lead metal:		Lead(II) acetate can also be made via a ] between ] and lead metal:

	:{{chem2\|Cu(OAc)2 + Pb → Cu + Pb(OAc)2}}		:{{chem2\|Cu(OAc)2 + Pb → Cu + Pb(OAc)2}}

	==Structure==		==Structure==
	The ] of ] lead(II) acetate has been described as a 2D ]. In comparison, lead(II) acetate ]'s structure is a 1D coordination polymer.<ref name="Martinez">{{cite journal \|journal=] \|year=2016 \|volume=55 \|issue=17 \|pages=8576–8585 \|first1=Francisco J. \|~~last1~~=~~Martínez~~-~~Casado~~ \|first2=Miguel \|~~last2~~=~~Ramos~~-~~Riesco~~ \|first3=José A. \|~~last3~~=~~Rodríguez-Cheda~~ \|first4=Fabio \|~~last4~~=~~Cucinotta~~ \|first5=Emilio \|~~last5~~=~~Matesanz~~ \|first6=Ivana \|~~last6~~=~~Miletto~~ \|first7=Enrica \|~~last7~~=~~Gianotti~~ \|first8=Leonardo \|~~last8~~=~~Marchese~~ \|first9=Zdeněk ~~\|last9=Matěj~~ \|title=Unraveling the Decomposition Process of Lead(II) Acetate: Anhydrous Polymorphs, Hydrates, and Byproducts and Room Temperature Phosphorescence \|doi=10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b01116~~\|pmid=27548299~~ }}</ref> In the trihydrate, the Pb<sup>2+</sup> ion's ] consists of nine oxygen atoms belonging to three water molecules, two bidentate acetate groups and two bridging acetate groups. The ] at Pb is a monocapped square antiprism.<ref name="Rajaram&MohanaRao">{{cite journal \|title=Crystal structure of lead acetate trihydrate \|first1=R. K. \|~~last1~~=~~Rajaram~~ \|first2=J. K. ~~\|last2=Mohana Rao~~ \|journal=] \|volume=160 \|issue=1–4 \|pages=225–233 \|year=1982 \|doi=10.1524/zkri.1982.160.14.225\|s2cid=201671682 }}</ref><ref name="Etter">{{cite journal \|title=Carbon-13 CP/MAS NMR and crystallographic investigations of the structure and solid-state transformations of lead(II) acetate trihydrate \|first1=Robert G. \|~~last1~~=~~Bryant~~ \|first2=V. P. \|~~last2~~=~~Chacko~~ \|first3=Margaret C. ~~\|last3=Etter~~ \|authorlink3=Margaret C. Etter \|journal=] \|year=1984 \|volume=23 \|issue=22 \|pages=3580–3584 \|doi=10.1021/ic00190a029}}</ref> The trihydrate ] to a hemihydrate, Pb(OAc)<sub>2</sub>·{{frac\|2}}H<sub>2</sub>O, and to basic acetates such as Pb<sub>4</sub>O(OAc)<sub>6</sub> and Pb<sub>2</sub>O(OAc)<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="Martinez"/>		The ] of ] lead(II) acetate has been described as a 2D ]. In comparison, lead(II) acetate ]'s structure is a 1D coordination polymer.<ref name="Martinez">{{cite journal \|journal=] \|year=2016 \|volume=55 \|issue=17 \|pages=8576–8585 \|last1=Martínez-Casado \|first1=Francisco J. \|last2=Ramos-Riesco \|first2=Miguel \|last3=Rodríguez-Cheda \|first3=José A. \|last4=Cucinotta \|first4=Fabio \|last5=Matesanz \|first5=Emilio \|last6=Miletto \|first6=Ivana \|last7=Gianotti \|first7=Enrica \|last8=Marchese \|first8=Leonardo \|last9=Matěj \|first9=Zdeněk \|title=Unraveling the Decomposition Process of Lead(II) Acetate: Anhydrous Polymorphs, Hydrates, and Byproducts and Room Temperature Phosphorescence \|pmid=27548299 \|doi=10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b01116}}</ref> In the trihydrate, the Pb<sup>2+</sup> ion's ] consists of nine oxygen atoms belonging to three water molecules, two bidentate acetate groups and two bridging acetate groups. The ] at Pb is a monocapped square antiprism.<ref name="Rajaram&MohanaRao">{{cite journal \|title=Crystal structure of lead acetate trihydrate \|last1=Rajaram \|first1=R. K. \|last2=Mohana Rao \|first2=J. K. \|journal=] \|volume=160 \|issue=1–4 \|pages=225–233 \|year=1982 \|doi=10.1524/zkri.1982.160.14.225 \|s2cid=201671682}}</ref><ref name="Etter">{{cite journal \|title=Carbon-13 CP/MAS NMR and crystallographic investigations of the structure and solid-state transformations of lead(II) acetate trihydrate \|last1=Bryant \|first1=Robert G. \|last2=Chacko \|first2=V. P. \|last3=Etter \|first3=Margaret C. \|authorlink3=Margaret C. Etter \|journal=] \|year=1984 \|volume=23 \|issue=22 \|pages=3580–3584 \|doi=10.1021/ic00190a029}}</ref> The trihydrate ] to a hemihydrate, Pb(OAc)<sub>2</sub>·{{frac\|2}}H<sub>2</sub>O, and to basic acetates such as Pb<sub>4</sub>O(OAc)<sub>6</sub> and Pb<sub>2</sub>O(OAc)<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="Martinez"/>

	{\| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"		{\| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
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	==Uses==		==Uses==
	Lead acetate is used as a precursor to other lead compounds such as the various carbonate.		Lead acetate is used as a precursor to other lead compounds such as the various carbonate.

	===Niche and laboratory uses===		===Niche and laboratory uses===
	Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect the poisonous gas ]. The gas reacts with lead(II) acetate on the moistened test paper to form a grey precipitate of ].		Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect the poisonous gas ]. The gas reacts with lead(II) acetate on the moistened test paper to form a grey precipitate of ].

	An aqueous solution of lead(II) acetate is a byproduct of the process used in the cleaning and maintenance of stainless steel ] ]s (silencers) and ] when using a 1:1 ratio of ] and white ] (acetic acid). The solution is agitated by the bubbling action of the hydrogen peroxide, with the main reaction being the oxidation of lead by hydrogen peroxide and subsequent dissolution of lead oxide by the acetic acid, which forms lead acetate. Because of its high toxicity, this chemical solution must be appropriately disposed by a chemical processing facility or ] centre. Alternatively, the solution may be reacted with ] to precipitate nearly insoluble ]. The solid may then be removed by mechanical filtration and is safer to dispose of than aqueous lead acetate.		An aqueous solution of lead(II) acetate is a byproduct of the process used in the cleaning and maintenance of stainless steel ] ]s (silencers) and ] when using a 1:1 ratio of ] and white ] (acetic acid). The solution is agitated by the bubbling action of the hydrogen peroxide, with the main reaction being the oxidation of lead by hydrogen peroxide and subsequent dissolution of lead oxide by the acetic acid, which forms lead acetate. Because of its high toxicity, this chemical solution must be appropriately disposed by a chemical processing facility or ] centre. Alternatively, the solution may be reacted with ] to precipitate nearly insoluble ]. The solid may then be removed by mechanical filtration and is safer to dispose of than aqueous lead acetate.

	==Historical uses==		==Historical uses==

	===Sweetener===		===Sweetener===
	Like other lead(II) salts, lead(II) acetate has a sweet taste, which led to its historical use as a ] in both wines and foods.<ref> ''Anna Archibald'', 30 July 2020. Retrieved: 22 December, 2020.</ref>		Like other lead(II) salts, lead(II) acetate has a sweet taste, which led to its historical use as a ] in both wines and foods.<ref> ''Anna Archibald'', 30 July 2020. Retrieved: 22 December, 2020.</ref>
	The ], who had few sweeteners besides ], would boil ] (unfiltered grape juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called '']'', concentrated again into '']''. This syrup was used to sweeten wine and to sweeten and preserve fruit. It is possible that lead(II) acetate or other lead compounds ] into the syrup might have caused ] in those who consumed it.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Lead Poisoning and Rome \|url=~~http~~://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html ~~\|website=penelope.uchicago.edu~~ \|access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref> Lead acetate is no longer used in the production of sweeteners because of its recognized toxicity. Legislation prohibiting its use as a wine sweetener was ineffective until decades later, when chemical methods of detecting its presence had been developed.<ref>{{citation\|title=Hazardous Metals in the Environment\|volume=12\|series=Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry\|first=M.~~\|last=Stoeppler~~\|publisher=Elsevier\|year=1992\|isbn=9780080875606\|page=60\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x1zrlwqHlkoC&pg=PA60\|quote=From the results achieved so far it is obvious that the purity law for lead in wines in the last two centuries was frequently ignored.}}</ref>		The ], who had few sweeteners besides ], would boil ] (unfiltered grape juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called '']'', concentrated again into '']''. This syrup was used to sweeten wine and to sweeten and preserve fruit. It is possible that lead(II) acetate or other lead compounds ] into the syrup might have caused ] in those who consumed it.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Lead Poisoning and Rome \|website=penelope.uchicago.edu \|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html \|access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref> Lead acetate is no longer used in the production of sweeteners because of its recognized toxicity. Legislation prohibiting its use as a wine sweetener was ineffective until decades later, when chemical methods of detecting its presence had been developed.<ref>{{citation \|title=Hazardous Metals in the Environment \|volume=12 \|series=Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry \|last=Stoeppler \|first=M. \|publisher=Elsevier \|year=1992 \|isbn=9780080875606 \|page=60 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x1zrlwqHlkoC&pg=PA60 \|quote=From the results achieved so far it is obvious that the purity law for lead in wines in the last two centuries was frequently ignored.}}</ref>

	The earliest confirmed poisoning by lead acetate was that of ], who died in October 1047. A toxicological examination of his remains conducted in the mid-20th century confirmed centuries-old rumors that he had been poisoned with lead sugar.<ref>Specht, W. and Fischer, K. (1959). {{lang\|de\|italic=no\|"Vergiftungsnachweis an den Resten einer 900 Jahre alten Leiche"}} (in German). {{lang\|de\|Archiv für Kriminologie}} 124: 61–84.</ref> It is not clear whether he was assassinated.		The earliest confirmed poisoning by lead acetate was that of ], who died in October 1047. A toxicological examination of his remains conducted in the mid-20th century confirmed centuries-old rumors that he had been poisoned with lead sugar.<ref>Specht, W. and Fischer, K. (1959). {{lang\|de\|italic=no\|"Vergiftungsnachweis an den Resten einer 900 Jahre alten Leiche"}} (in German). {{lang\|de\|Archiv für Kriminologie}} 124: 61–84.</ref> It is not clear whether he was assassinated.

	In 1787 painter and biographer ] swallowed, by accident, approximately {{~~cvt~~\|3//4\|oz\|g\|-1}} of lead acetate. His recovery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He lived with illnesses until his death in 1822.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911\|inline=y\|wstitle=Dies, Christoph Albert\|volume=8\|page=211}}</ref><ref name=dies>{{cite book \|last=Dies \|first=Albert Christoph \|author-link=Albert Christoph Dies \|year=1810 \|title=Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mündlichen Erzählungen desselben entworfen und herausgegeben \|trans-title=Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn, written and edited from his own spoken narratives \|location=Vienna \|publisher=Camesinaische Buchhandlung}} English translation in: {{cite book \|last=Dies \|first=Albert Christoph \|chapter=Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn \|year=1963 \|editor-last=Gotwals \|editor-first=Vernon \|title=Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits \|translator-first=Vernon \|translator-last=Gotwals \|location=Milwaukee \|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press \|isbn=0-299-02791-0 \|ref=CITEREFGotwals1963}}</ref>		In 1787 painter and biographer ] swallowed, by accident, approximately {{convert\|3//4\|oz\|g\|-1}} of lead acetate. His recovery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He lived with illnesses until his death in 1822.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911\|inline=y\|wstitle=Dies, Christoph Albert\|volume=8\|page=211}}</ref><ref name=dies>{{cite book \|last=Dies \|first=Albert Christoph \|author-link=Albert Christoph Dies \|year=1810 \|title=Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mündlichen Erzählungen desselben entworfen und herausgegeben \|trans-title=Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn, written and edited from his own spoken narratives \|location=Vienna \|publisher=Camesinaische Buchhandlung}} English translation in: {{cite book \|last=Dies \|first=Albert Christoph \|chapter=Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn \|year=1963 \|editor-last=Gotwals \|editor-first=Vernon \|title=Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits \|translator-first=Vernon \|translator-last=Gotwals \|location=Milwaukee \|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press \|isbn=0-299-02791-0 \|ref=CITEREFGotwals1963}}</ref>

	Although the use of lead(II) acetate as a sweetener was already illegal at that time, composer ] may have died of lead poisoning caused by wines adulterated with lead acetate (see also ]).<ref name="beethoven1">{{cite web ~~\|url=https://www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/index.php?id=magazin_30_2001 \|website=www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de~~ \|title=Beethoven und Blei: Tödliches Zusammenspiel \|trans-title=Beethoven and lead: deadly interaction \|access-date=~~2009-09~~-12 \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221085150/http://www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/fileadmin/pza/2001-30/magazin.htm \|archive-date=2009-02-21}}</ref><ref name="beethoven2">{{cite web \|url=http://www.3sat.de/3sat.php?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.3sat.de%2Fnano%2Fnews%2F11258%2Findex.html ~~\|title=Beethoven litt unter Bleivergiftung \|trans-title=Beethoven suffered from lead poisoning \|website=www.3sat.de~~ \|access-date=2020-02-24 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221093939/http://www.3sat.de/3sat.php?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.3sat.de%2Fnano%2Fnews%2F11258%2Findex.html \|archive-date=2009-02-21}}</ref>		Although the use of lead(II) acetate as a sweetener was already illegal at that time, composer ] may have died of lead poisoning caused by wines adulterated with lead acetate (see also ]).<ref name="beethoven1">{{cite web \|title=Beethoven und Blei: Tödliches Zusammenspiel \|trans-title=Beethoven and lead: deadly interaction \|website=pharmazeutische-zeitung.de \|url=https://www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/magazin-30-2001 \|access-date=2024-12-17 \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221085150/http://www.pharmazeutische-zeitung.de/fileadmin/pza/2001-30/magazin.htm \|archive-date=2009-02-21}}</ref><ref name="beethoven2">{{cite web \|title=Beethoven litt unter Bleivergiftung \|trans-title=Beethoven suffered from lead poisoning \|website=3sat.de \|url=http://www.3sat.de/3sat.php?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.3sat.de%2Fnano%2Fnews%2F11258%2Findex.html \|access-date=2020-02-24 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221093939/http://www.3sat.de/3sat.php?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.3sat.de%2Fnano%2Fnews%2F11258%2Findex.html \|archive-date=2009-02-21}}</ref>

	In 1887, 38 hunting horses belonging to Captain William Hollwey Steeds were poisoned in their stables at Clonsilla House, Dublin, Ireland. At least ten of the hunters died. Captain Steeds, an "extensive commission agent", had previously supplied the horses for the Bray and Greystones Coach. It transpired that they had been fed a bran mash that had been sweetened with a toxic lead acetate.<ref>''Weekly Irish Times'', Saturday 15 October 1887; ''Enniskillen Chronicle'' and ''Erne Packet'', 24 October 1887, p. 3</ref>		In 1887, 38 hunting horses belonging to Captain William Hollwey Steeds were poisoned in their stables at Clonsilla House, Dublin, Ireland. At least ten of the hunters died. Captain Steeds, an "extensive commission agent", had previously supplied the horses for the Bray and Greystones Coach. It transpired that they had been fed a bran mash that had been sweetened with a toxic lead acetate.<ref>''Weekly Irish Times'', Saturday 15 October 1887; ''Enniskillen Chronicle'' and ''Erne Packet'', 24 October 1887, p. 3</ref>

	===Cosmetics===		===Cosmetics===
	Lead(II) acetate, ~~as well as~~ ], ~~has~~ been used in cosmetics throughout history.<ref>Gunn, Fenja. (1973) The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics. — as cited in websites.umich.edu</ref>		Lead(II) acetate and ] have been used in cosmetics throughout history.<ref>Gunn, Fenja. (1973) The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics. — as cited in websites.umich.edu</ref>

	It was once used for men's ] products<ref name="Hair">'''', Howard W. Mielke, PhD, Myiesha D. Taylor, Chris R. Gonzales, M. Kelley Smith, Pamela V. Daniels, and Ayanna V.Buckner. Journal of American Pharmaceutical Association (NS37, Jan/Feb 1997:85-89).</ref> like ]. It ~~was~~ not ~~until 2018 that the manufacturer removed~~ lead acetate from ~~the~~ ~~hair~~ ~~coloring~~ ~~product~~. Lead acetate has been replaced by bismuth citrate as the progressive colorant. Its use in cosmetics has been banned in Canada by ] since 2005 (effective at the end of 2006) based on tests showing possible carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity,<ref name="canada.com">{{cite web ~~\|url=http://www.canada.com/montreal/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=6caa01c2-3fb0-4431-a559-43aeece93860~~ \|title=Can West News Service: Grecian Formula in a grey zone after ban \|website=www.canada.com \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808083503/http://www.canada.com/montreal/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=6caa01c2-3fb0-4431-a559-43aeece93860 \|archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref> and it is also banned in the European Union.<ref name="canada.com"/>		It was once used for men's ] products<ref name="Hair">'''', Howard W. Mielke, PhD, Myiesha D. Taylor, Chris R. Gonzales, M. Kelley Smith, Pamela V. Daniels, and Ayanna V.Buckner. Journal of American Pharmaceutical Association (NS37, Jan/Feb 1997:85-89).</ref> like ]. The manufacturer did not remove lead acetate from its product until 2018. Lead acetate has been replaced by bismuth citrate as the progressive colorant. Its use in cosmetics has been banned in Canada by ] since 2005 (effective at the end of 2006) based on tests showing possible carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity,<ref name="canada.com">{{cite web \|title=Can West News Service: Grecian Formula in a grey zone after ban \|website=canada.com \|url=http://www.canada.com/montreal/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=6caa01c2-3fb0-4431-a559-43aeece93860 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808083503/http://www.canada.com/montreal/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=6caa01c2-3fb0-4431-a559-43aeece93860 \|archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref> and it is also banned in the European Union.<ref name="canada.com"/>

	===Medical uses===		===Medical uses===
	Lead(II) acetate solution was a commonly used folk remedy for sore nipples.<ref> ~~www.~~gutenberg.org</ref> In modern medicine, for a time, it was used as an ], in the form of ], and it has also been used to treat ].<ref>Laboratory manual in biology. Sharpe. 1911, American Book Company. p. 351</ref>		Lead(II) acetate solution was a commonly used folk remedy for sore nipples.<ref> gutenberg.org</ref> In modern medicine, for a time, it was used as an ], in the form of ], and it has also been used to treat ].<ref>Laboratory manual in biology. Sharpe. 1911, American Book Company. p. 351</ref>

	In the 1850s, ] applied lead(II) acetate, among other remedies, against an epidemic of ] in Panama.<ref name="SeacoleIV">] (1990), ''Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands'', Chapter IV, ] reprint, {{ISBN\|0-19-506672-3}}; (2005 Penguin 20th Century Classics reprint, ed. Sarah Salih) {{ISBN\|0-14-043902-1}}</ref><ref name="Robinson">] (2004), ''Mary Seacole: The Charismatic Black Nurse who became a heroine of the Crimea'', p.53. Constable {{ISBN\|1-84119-677-0}}</ref>		In the 1850s, ] applied lead(II) acetate, among other remedies, against an epidemic of ] in Panama.<ref name="SeacoleIV">] (1990), ''Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands'', Chapter IV, ] reprint, {{ISBN\|0-19-506672-3}}; (2005 Penguin 20th Century Classics reprint, ed. Sarah Salih) {{ISBN\|0-14-043902-1}}</ref><ref name="Robinson">] (2004), ''Mary Seacole: The Charismatic Black Nurse who became a heroine of the Crimea'', p.53. Constable {{ISBN\|1-84119-677-0}}</ref>
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	It was also used in making of ]es during the ]. It was made by mixing a natural form of lead(II) oxide called ] and ].		It was also used in making of ]es during the ]. It was made by mixing a natural form of lead(II) oxide called ] and ].

	Sugar of lead was a recommended agent added to linseed oil during heating to produce "boiled" ], the lead and heat acting to cause the oil to cure faster than raw linseed oil.<ref>Andés, Louis Edgar, and Arthur Morris. ''Oil colours and printers' inks a practical handbook treating of linseed oil, boiled oil, paints, artists' colours, lampblack and printers' inks, black and coloured''. London: Scott, Greenwood. 1903. 41. Print.</ref>		Sugar of lead was a recommended agent added to linseed oil during heating to produce "boiled" ], the lead and heat acting to cause the oil to cure faster than raw linseed oil.<ref>Andés, Louis Edgar, and Arthur Morris. ''Oil colours and printers' inks a practical handbook treating of linseed oil, boiled oil, paints, artists' colours, lampblack, and printers' inks, black and coloured''. London: Scott, Greenwood. 1903. 41. Print.</ref>

	Lead(II) acetate ("salt of Saturn") was used to synthesise ] which was then known as "spirit of Saturn" for being made with the salt of Saturn and thought to be a lead compound in the 17th century.<ref>Mel Gorman, History of acetone (1600–1850), 1962</ref>		Lead(II) acetate ("salt of Saturn") was used to synthesise ] which was then known as "spirit of Saturn" for being made with the salt of Saturn and thought to be a lead compound in the 17th century.<ref>Mel Gorman, History of acetone (1600–1850), 1962</ref>
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Latest revision as of 05:41, 17 December 2024

Lead(II) acetate
Names


IUPAC name Lead(II) acetate
Systematic IUPAC name Lead(II) ethanoate
Other names Plumbous acetate, Sugar of Lead, lead diacetate, lead sugar, Salt of Saturn, Goulard's powder
Identifiers
CAS Number	301-04-2 6080-56-4 (trihydrate) 1335-32-6 (basic)
3D model (JSmol)	Interactive image
ChEBI	CHEBI:31767
ChEMBL	ChEMBL1909062
ChemSpider	8956
ECHA InfoCard	100.005.551
EC Number	206-104-4
MeSH	lead+acetate
PubChem CID	16685321
RTECS number	OF8050000
UNII	KL498O6790 RX077P88RY (trihydrate) BW7DT27250 (basic)
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID6020773
InChI InChI=1S/2C2H4O2.Pb/c21-2(3)4;/h21H3,(H,3,4);/q;;+2/p-2Key: GUWSLQUAAYEZAF-UHFFFAOYSA-L
SMILES CC(=O).CC(=O).
Properties
Chemical formula	Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂
Molar mass	325.29 g/mol (anhydrous) 379.33g/mol (trihydrate)
Appearance	White powder or colourless, efflorescent crystals
Odor	Slightly acetic
Density	3.25 g/cm (20 °C, anhydrous) 2.55 g/cm (trihydrate) 1.69 g/cm (decahydrate)
Melting point	280 °C (536 °F; 553 K) (anhydrous) 75 °C (167 °F; 348 K) (trihydrate) decomposes at ≥ 200 °C 22 °C (72 °F; 295 K) (decahydrate)
Boiling point	Decomposes
Solubility in water	Anhydrous: 19.8 g/100 mL (0 °C) 44.31 g/100 mL (20 °C) 69.5 g/100 mL (30 °C) 218.3 g/100 mL (50 °C)
Solubility	Anhydrous and trihydrate are soluble in alcohol, glycerol
Solubility in methanol	Anhydrous: 102.75 g/100 g (66.1 °C) Trihydrate: 74.75 g/100 g (15 °C) 214.95 g/100 g (66.1 °C)
Solubility in glycerol	Anhydrous: 20 g/100 g (15 °C) Trihydrate: 143 g/100 g (20 °C)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)	−89.1·10 cm/mol
Refractive index (n_D)	1.567 (trihydrate)
Structure
Crystal structure	Monoclinic (anhydrous, trihydrate) Rhombic (decahydrate)
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of formation (Δ_fH₂₉₈)	−960.9 kJ/mol (anhydrous) −1848.6 kJ/mol (trihydrate)
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards	Neurotoxic, probable human carcinogen
GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Danger
Hazard statements	H360, H373, H410
Precautionary statements	P201, P273, P308+P313, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	2 1 1
Flash point	Non-flammable
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD₅₀ (median dose)	400 mg/kg (mice, oral)
LC_Lo (lowest published)	300 mg/kg (dog, oral)
Related compounds
Other cations	Lead(IV) acetate
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). N verify (what is ?) Infobox references

Chemical compound

Lead(II) acetate is a white crystalline chemical compound with a slightly sweet taste. Its chemical formula is usually expressed as Pb(CH₃COO)₂ or Pb(OAc)₂, where Ac represents the acetyl group. Like many other lead compounds, it causes lead poisoning. Lead acetate is soluble in water and glycerin. With water it forms the trihydrate, Pb(OAc)₂·3H₂O, a colourless or white efflorescent monoclinic crystalline substance.

The substance is used as a reagent to make other lead compounds and as a fixative for some dyes. In low concentrations, it formerly served as the principal active ingredient in progressive types of hair colouring dyes. Lead(II) acetate is also used as a mordant in textile printing and dyeing, and as a drier in paints and varnishes. It was historically used as a sweetener and preservative in wines and in other foods and for cosmetics.

Production

Lead(II) acetate can be made by boiling elemental lead in acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. This method will also work with lead(II) carbonate or lead(II) oxide.

Pb + H₂O₂ + 2 H → Pb + 2 H₂O

Pb + 2 AcO → Pb(OAc)₂

Lead(II) acetate can also be made by dissolving lead(II) oxide in acetic acid:

PbO + 2 AcOH → Pb(OAc)₂ + H₂O

Lead(II) acetate can also be made via a single-displacement reaction between copper acetate and lead metal:

Cu(OAc)₂ + Pb → Cu + Pb(OAc)₂

Structure

The crystal structure of anhydrous lead(II) acetate has been described as a 2D coordination polymer. In comparison, lead(II) acetate trihydrate's structure is a 1D coordination polymer. In the trihydrate, the Pb ion's coordination sphere consists of nine oxygen atoms belonging to three water molecules, two bidentate acetate groups and two bridging acetate groups. The coordination geometry at Pb is a monocapped square antiprism. The trihydrate thermally decomposes to a hemihydrate, Pb(OAc)₂·1⁄2H₂O, and to basic acetates such as Pb₄O(OAc)₆ and Pb₂O(OAc)₂.

Comparison of anhydrous and trihydrate crystal structures
	Anhydrous Pb(OAc)₂	Trihydrate Pb(OAc)₂·3H₂O
Lead coordination sphere
Strongly bonded aggregation	2D sheet	1D chain
Weakly bonded aggregation	sheets stacked with hydrophobic surfaces in contact	chains linked by hydrogen bonds

Uses

Lead acetate is used as a precursor to other lead compounds such as the various carbonate.

Niche and laboratory uses

Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect the poisonous gas hydrogen sulfide. The gas reacts with lead(II) acetate on the moistened test paper to form a grey precipitate of lead(II) sulfide.

An aqueous solution of lead(II) acetate is a byproduct of the process used in the cleaning and maintenance of stainless steel firearm suppressors (silencers) and compensators when using a 1:1 ratio of hydrogen peroxide and white vinegar (acetic acid). The solution is agitated by the bubbling action of the hydrogen peroxide, with the main reaction being the oxidation of lead by hydrogen peroxide and subsequent dissolution of lead oxide by the acetic acid, which forms lead acetate. Because of its high toxicity, this chemical solution must be appropriately disposed by a chemical processing facility or hazardous materials centre. Alternatively, the solution may be reacted with sulfuric acid to precipitate nearly insoluble lead(II) sulfate. The solid may then be removed by mechanical filtration and is safer to dispose of than aqueous lead acetate.

Historical uses

Sweetener

Like other lead(II) salts, lead(II) acetate has a sweet taste, which led to its historical use as a sugar substitute in both wines and foods. The ancient Romans, who had few sweeteners besides honey, would boil must (unfiltered grape juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called defrutum, concentrated again into sapa. This syrup was used to sweeten wine and to sweeten and preserve fruit. It is possible that lead(II) acetate or other lead compounds leaching into the syrup might have caused lead poisoning in those who consumed it. Lead acetate is no longer used in the production of sweeteners because of its recognized toxicity. Legislation prohibiting its use as a wine sweetener was ineffective until decades later, when chemical methods of detecting its presence had been developed.

The earliest confirmed poisoning by lead acetate was that of Pope Clement II, who died in October 1047. A toxicological examination of his remains conducted in the mid-20th century confirmed centuries-old rumors that he had been poisoned with lead sugar. It is not clear whether he was assassinated.

In 1787 painter and biographer Albert Christoph Dies swallowed, by accident, approximately 3/4 ounce (20 g) of lead acetate. His recovery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He lived with illnesses until his death in 1822.

Although the use of lead(II) acetate as a sweetener was already illegal at that time, composer Ludwig van Beethoven may have died of lead poisoning caused by wines adulterated with lead acetate (see also Beethoven's liver).

In 1887, 38 hunting horses belonging to Captain William Hollwey Steeds were poisoned in their stables at Clonsilla House, Dublin, Ireland. At least ten of the hunters died. Captain Steeds, an "extensive commission agent", had previously supplied the horses for the Bray and Greystones Coach. It transpired that they had been fed a bran mash that had been sweetened with a toxic lead acetate.

Cosmetics

Lead(II) acetate and white lead have been used in cosmetics throughout history.

It was once used for men's hair colouring products like Grecian Formula. The manufacturer did not remove lead acetate from its product until 2018. Lead acetate has been replaced by bismuth citrate as the progressive colorant. Its use in cosmetics has been banned in Canada by Health Canada since 2005 (effective at the end of 2006) based on tests showing possible carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity, and it is also banned in the European Union.

Medical uses

Lead(II) acetate solution was a commonly used folk remedy for sore nipples. In modern medicine, for a time, it was used as an astringent, in the form of Goulard's extract, and it has also been used to treat poison ivy.

In the 1850s, Mary Seacole applied lead(II) acetate, among other remedies, against an epidemic of cholera in Panama.

Other historic uses

It was also used in making of slow matches during the Middle Ages. It was made by mixing a natural form of lead(II) oxide called litharge and vinegar.

Sugar of lead was a recommended agent added to linseed oil during heating to produce "boiled" linseed oil, the lead and heat acting to cause the oil to cure faster than raw linseed oil.

Lead(II) acetate ("salt of Saturn") was used to synthesise acetone which was then known as "spirit of Saturn" for being made with the salt of Saturn and thought to be a lead compound in the 17th century.

References

^ Pradyot, Patnaik (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 0-07-049439-8.
^ "Lead(II) acetate". chemister.ru.
^ "Lead(II) acetate trihydrate". chemister.ru.
^ Sigma-Aldrich Co., Lead(II) acetate trihydrate.
"Lead compounds (as Pb)". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
"Lead Acetate in 'Progressive' Hair Dye Products". fda.gov. 7 October 2021.
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 373, 388. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
^ Martínez-Casado, Francisco J.; Ramos-Riesco, Miguel; Rodríguez-Cheda, José A.; Cucinotta, Fabio; Matesanz, Emilio; Miletto, Ivana; Gianotti, Enrica; Marchese, Leonardo; Matěj, Zdeněk (2016). "Unraveling the Decomposition Process of Lead(II) Acetate: Anhydrous Polymorphs, Hydrates, and Byproducts and Room Temperature Phosphorescence". Inorg. Chem. 55 (17): 8576–8585. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b01116. PMID 27548299.
^ Rajaram, R. K.; Mohana Rao, J. K. (1982). "Crystal structure of lead acetate trihydrate". Z. Kristallogr. 160 (1–4): 225–233. doi:10.1524/zkri.1982.160.14.225. S2CID 201671682.
^ Bryant, Robert G.; Chacko, V. P.; Etter, Margaret C. (1984). "Carbon-13 CP/MAS NMR and crystallographic investigations of the structure and solid-state transformations of lead(II) acetate trihydrate". Inorg. Chem. 23 (22): 3580–3584. doi:10.1021/ic00190a029.
"The Disturbingly Long History of Lead Toxicity in Winemaking." Anna Archibald, 30 July 2020. Retrieved: 22 December, 2020.
"Lead Poisoning and Rome". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
Stoeppler, M. (1992), Hazardous Metals in the Environment, Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry, vol. 12, Elsevier, p. 60, ISBN 9780080875606, From the results achieved so far it is obvious that the purity law for lead in wines in the last two centuries was frequently ignored.
Specht, W. and Fischer, K. (1959). "Vergiftungsnachweis an den Resten einer 900 Jahre alten Leiche" (in German). Archiv für Kriminologie 124: 61–84.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dies, Christoph Albert". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 211.
Dies, Albert Christoph (1810). Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mündlichen Erzählungen desselben entworfen und herausgegeben [Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn, written and edited from his own spoken narratives]. Vienna: Camesinaische Buchhandlung. English translation in: Dies, Albert Christoph (1963). "Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn". In Gotwals, Vernon (ed.). Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits. Translated by Gotwals, Vernon. Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-02791-0.
"Beethoven und Blei: Tödliches Zusammenspiel" [Beethoven and lead: deadly interaction]. pharmazeutische-zeitung.de. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2024-12-17.
"Beethoven litt unter Bleivergiftung" [Beethoven suffered from lead poisoning]. 3sat.de. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2020-02-24.
Weekly Irish Times, Saturday 15 October 1887; Enniskillen Chronicle and Erne Packet, 24 October 1887, p. 3
Gunn, Fenja. (1973) The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics. — as cited in Leisure Activities of an 18th Century Lady websites.umich.edu
Lead Based Hair Products: Too Hazardous for Household Use - Results, Howard W. Mielke, PhD, Myiesha D. Taylor, Chris R. Gonzales, M. Kelley Smith, Pamela V. Daniels, and Ayanna V.Buckner. Journal of American Pharmaceutical Association (NS37, Jan/Feb 1997:85-89).
^ "Can West News Service: Grecian Formula in a grey zone after ban". canada.com. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08.
The American Frugal Housewife, by Lydia M. Child gutenberg.org
Laboratory manual in biology. Sharpe. 1911, American Book Company. p. 351
Mary Seacole (1990), Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands, Chapter IV, Oxford University Press reprint, ISBN 0-19-506672-3; (2005 Penguin 20th Century Classics reprint, ed. Sarah Salih) ISBN 0-14-043902-1
Jane Robinson (2004), Mary Seacole: The Charismatic Black Nurse who became a heroine of the Crimea, p.53. Constable ISBN 1-84119-677-0
Andés, Louis Edgar, and Arthur Morris. Oil colours and printers' inks a practical handbook treating of linseed oil, boiled oil, paints, artists' colours, lampblack, and printers' inks, black and coloured. London: Scott, Greenwood. 1903. 41. Print.
Mel Gorman, History of acetone (1600–1850), 1962

External links

v t e Lead compounds
Pb(II)	Pb(BiO₃)₂ PbBr₂ Pb(C₅H₅)₂ Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂ PbC₂O₄ PbC₃₂H₁₆N₈ PbCl₂ Pb(ClO₄)₂ PbCO₃ PbCrO₄ PbF₂ PbHAsO₄ PbI₂ Pb(C ₁₁H ₂₃COO) ₂ Pb(NO₃)₂ Pb(N₃)₂ PbO Pb(OH)₂ PbPo PbP₇ Pb₃(PO₄)₂ PbS Pb(SCN)₂ PbSe PbSO₄ PbSeO₄ PbTe PbTiO₃ PbGeO₃ C ₃₆H ₇₀PbO ₄ PbO2−2 PbC₂ (hypothetical)
Pb(II,IV)	Pb₃O₄
Pb(IV)	Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₄ PbCl₄ PbF₄ PbH₄ PbO₂ PbS₂ plumbate Pb(OH)₄ (hypothetical)