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There have been various classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages (see the articles for the respective language families).

Language families

The five established major language families are:

• Austroasiatic
• Austronesian
• Hmong–Mien
• Kra–Dai
• Sino-Tibetan

Isolates and small families

A number of language groups in Arunachal Pradesh traditionally considered to be Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) may in fact constitute independent language families or isolates (Roger Blench 2011). (See Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal.)

• Potential language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal: Digaro, Hrusish (including the Miji languages), Midzu, Puroik, Siangic, and Kho-Bwa
• The two Andamanese language families: Great Andamanese and Ongan
• Language isolates and languages with isolate substrata of Southeast Asia: Kenaboi, Enggano, and the Philippine Negrito languages Manide and Umiray Dumagat

Macrofamilies

Several macrofamily schemes have been proposed for linking multiple language families of Southeast Asia. None of these proposals have been accepted by mainstream comparative linguistics, though research into higher-level relationships among these languages has gained some renewed scholarly interest over the last three decades; the various hypotheses are still under investigation, and the validity of each has yet to be resolved.

• Austro-Tai links the Austronesian and Kra–Dai languages. Several linguists, including Laurent Sagart, Stanley Starosta, Weera Ostapirat and Lawrence Reid, accept or theorize a close relationship between these families, but the specifics of the relationship remain unclear. Multiple models of the internal branching of Austro-Tai have been put forward, and Austro-Tai has been incorporated as a subgroup within some larger macrofamily schemes, e.g. in Starosta's East Asian as well as in Sagart's model of Austronesian (see below), both of which regard Kra–Dai as a subfamily within Austronesian. A few versions of Austro-Tai have included Japonic and/or the isolate Ainu as well, though these have not been met with as much acceptance.
• Miao–Dai (Kosaka 2002) is a hypothesis for a family including Miao–Yao (Hmong–Mien) and Kra–Dai.
• Sino-Austronesian (Sagart 2004, 2005) links Austro-Tai (Austronesian) with Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman).
• Austric links all of the major language families of Southeast Asia apart from Sino-Tibetan. Several variants of the Austric hypothesis have been proposed since it took shape with Paul K. Benedict's proposal (1942). Some of these also incorporate Japonic, Korean and/or Ainu. One version called the "Greater Austric" hypothesis (Bengtson 1996) includes Ainu as well as Nihali, a language isolate of India.
• The "Proto-Asian hypothesis" or "Austro-Asian" (Larish 2006) argues for lexical evidence of relationship among all of the languages typically included in Austric as well as Japanese–Korean and Sino-Tibetan.
• East Asian (Starosta 2005) covers all of these families (except Japonic, Koreanic, Ainu and Nihali) as well as Sino-Tibetan. It posits Austronesian (including Kra–Dai) as the most divergent branch, coordinate with a primary branch Sino-Tibetan–Yangzian which links Sino-Tibetan with a clade called Yangzian (or Yangtzean), named for the Yangtze river, which includes Austroasiatic and Hmong–Mien.
• In a different direction, the Dené–Caucasian or Sino-Caucasian hypothesis links Sino-Tibetan to Yeniseian and North Caucasian, the proposal later expanded to include Na-Dene, Burushaski and Basque. On the basis of lexicostatistics, Sergei Starostin additionally hypothesized an even larger Dené–Daic macrofamily which incorporates both Dené–Caucasian and Austric as primary branches.

Genetic similarities between the peoples of East and Southeast Asia have led some scholars such as George van Driem to speculate about "Haplogroup O languages".

Proto-languages

• Proto-Austronesian
  • Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
    • Proto-Visayan language
    • Proto-Malayic language
    • Proto-Chamic language
    • Proto-Oceanic
      • Proto-Polynesian
• Proto-Kra–Dai
  • Proto-Kra
  • Proto-Kam–Sui
  • Proto-Hlai
  • Proto-Tai
• Proto-Austroasiatic
  • Proto-Palaungic
  • Proto-Khmeric
  • Proto-Aslian
  • Proto-Munda
• Proto-Sino-Tibetan
  • Old Chinese language
  • Proto-Tibeto-Burman
    • Proto-Loloish
    • Proto-Karenic
• Proto-Hmong–Mien
  • Proto-Hmongic
  • Proto-Mienic

Comparison

The following table compares the phonemic inventories of various recently reconstructed proto-languages of Southeast Asia.

Maps of language families

• Distribution of Sino-Tibetan
• Distribution of Hmong–Mien
• Distribution of Kra–Dai
• Distribution of Austronesian – Greenhill, Blust & Gray (2008)
• Distribution of Austroasiatic
• Overview of Mainland Languages

See also

• Languages of China
• SEAlang Library
• Writing systems of Southeast Asia
• Category:Linguists of Southeast Asian languages
• Category:Linguists of Austronesian languages
• Vocabulary lists of Southeast Asian languages (Wiktionary)

References

1. Blench, Roger. 2015. The Mijiic languages: distribution, dialects, wordlist and classification. m.s.
2. van Driem, George (2008). "To which language family does Chinese belong, or what's in a name?" (PDF). In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia and Marie Lin [zh], Eds. Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. London and New York: Routledge: 219–253.
3. Reid, Lawrence A. (2006). "Austro-Tai Hypotheses". pp. 609–610 in Keith Brown (editor in chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition.
4. Kosaka, Ryuichi (2002). "On the affiliation of Miao-Yao and Kadai: Can we posit the Miao-Dai family?" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. 32: 71–100.
5. Bengtson, John (2010). "The "Greater Austric" Hypothesis" (PDF).
6. Larish, Michael D. 2006. Possible Proto-Asian Archaic Residue and the Statigraphy of Diffusional Cumulation in Austro-Asian Languages. Paper presented at the Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, 17–20 January 2006, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines.
7. Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2009. The Phonology of Proto-Tai. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Linguistics, Cornell University.
8. ^ Norquest, Peter K. 2007. A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai. Ph.D. dissertation. Tucson: Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona.
9. Blust, Robert A. 2009. The Austronesian Languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-602-5, ISBN 978-0-85883-602-0.
10. Matisoff, James. 2003. Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction. University of California publications in linguistics, v. 135. Berkeley: University of California Press.
11. Shorto, Harry L., et al. 2006. A Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-570-3.

Further reading

• Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias, eds. (2021). The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia (PDF). De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110558142. ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2. S2CID 242359233.

External links

• Hartmann, John (Professor of Thai). "Outline: Spoken and Written Languages of Southeast Asia." Northern Illinois University.
• Migliazza, Brian. 2004. Southeast Asia Language Families.
• Hanzangyu yuyin he cihui 汉藏语语音和词汇 (2017), comparative lexicon of languages in all major East Asian language families

Links to related articles

v t e Austroasiatic languages Bahnaric North Jeh Halang Kayong Kacoʼ Takua Monom Todrah Sedang Bahnar Rengao Hrê Duan Katua West Lavi Jru' Laven Su' Juk Nyaheun Sapuan Oi Brao Central Alak Tariang Tampuan South Chrau Koho Stieng Raʼong Mnong Mel-Khaonh Thmon Others Cua (East) Katuic West Kuy Bru Katu Katu Phuong Others Pacoh Ta'Oi Vietic Viet-Muong Vietnamese Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern [vi] in China [vi] in the US Mường Nguồn Chut Arem Mày Ruc Sach Kri Maleng Kri Thavưng Phong–Liha Phong Liha Others Cuối Khmuic Phay-Pram Prai Mal Ksingmul Oʼdu Phong-Kniang Others Khmu Mlabri Pearic Pear Western (Chong) Central Central Chong Samre Kasong Southern Suoi Sa'och Others Somray (Northern Chong) Western Chong Khasi– Palaungic Khasic Khasi-Pnar-Lyngngam Khasi Pnar Lyngngam Maharam Others War Palaungic West Palaung Riang East Angkuic Hu U Man Met Mok Muak Va Waic Blang Lawa Wa Meung Yum Savaiq Bit-Khang Bit Quảng Lâm Kháng Bumang Lamet Lamet Kiorr Others Kuan Danau Tai Loi Munda North Korku Kherwarian Mundaric Korwa Asur Birjia Birhor Ho Mundari Koda Majhwar Turi Agariya Santalic Santali Kol South Sora-Gorum Gorum Sora Juray Lodhi Gutob-Remo Bonda Gutob Others Gtaʼ Juang Kharia Nicobarese Chaura-Teresa Chaura Teressa Central Nancowry Camorta Katchal Southern Car Southern Nicobarese Shompen Aslian Jahaic (Northern) Batek Cheq Wong Jahai Jedek Kensiu Kintaq Minriq Mintil Ten'edn Wila' Senoic (Central) Lanoh Sabüm Semai Semnam Temiar Semelaic (Southern) Mah Meri Semaq Beri Semelai Temoq Others Jah Hut Kenaboi (unclassified; possibly a language isolate) Others Khmer Northern Khmer (Surin Khmer) Western Khmer (Chanthaburi Khmer) Khmer Khe Mảng Monic Mon Nyah Kur Pakanic Bolyu Bugan (Pakan) Proto- languages Proto-Austroasiatic Proto-Palaungic Proto-Khmeric Proto-Aslian Proto-Munda Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. v t e Kra–Dai languages Kra Laha Lachi Paha Buyang En Qabiao Gelao Vandu A'ou Mulao Hagei Telue Qau Kam–Sui Mulam Kam (Dong) Cao Miao Nuoxi (Naxi Yao) Then Maonan Chadong Sui Mak Ai-Cham Biao Biao Lakkia Lakkia Hlai Bouhin Ha Em Lauhut Tongzha Zandui Baoting Cun Nadou Changjiang Moyfaw Baisha Yuanmen Jiamao Jiamao Be–Jizhao Be Jizhao Tai (Zhuang, etc.) Northern Standard Zhuang Bouyei Hezhang Buyi Yei Zhuang Longsang Zhuang E Saek Tai Yo (Nyaw) Yoy Tai Pao Central Nong Zhuang Dai Zhuang Min Zhuang Yang Zhuang Pyang Zhuang Myang Zhuang Nùng Tày Tsʻün-Lao Southwestern (Thai) Northwestern Shan Tai Ya Tai Nuea Tai Long Tai Hongjin Khamti Tai Laing Phake Aiton Khamyang Ahom Turung Lao–Phutai Lao Phu Thai Isan Tai Yo (Nyaw) Lao Nyo Kaloeng Chiang Saen Thai (Siamese) Northern Thai Tai Daeng Tai Meuay Tai Dón Tai Hang Tong Tai Lue Yong Tai Dam Khün Phuan Thai Song Tày Tac Southern Southern Thai (other) Sapa Pa Di Tai Muong Vat Tai Thanh Tai Khang Kuan (mixed) Cao Lan (mixed origins) Hezhang Buyi E Cao Lan Jiamao proposed groupings Kam–Tai Proto-languages Proto-Kra–Dai Proto-Kra Proto-Tai Proto-Kam–Sui Proto-Hlai Italics indicate extinct languages v t e Hmong–Mien languages Hmongic Bahengic Pa-Hng Hm Nai Sheic She Kiong Nai Pa Na Younuo? West Hmongic Hmong Small Flowery (Gha-Mu) Big Flowery (A-Hmao) Mashan Guiyang Mo Piu Huishui Pingtang Luobohe Gejia Dongjia Xixiu Bu–Nao Bunu Nao Klao Numao Xong Xong Hmuic Hmu Raojia Ná-Meo Sanqiao Mienic Iu Mien Biao Mon Kim Mun Biao Min Dzao Min Yangchun Pai Yao Mixed languages Lingling Maojia Badong Yao Yeheni She Chinese Younian (Proto-languages) Proto-Hmong–Mien Proto-Hmongic Proto-Mienic v t e Arunachal languages Greater Siangic Tani Eastern Bori Siang (Adi) Mising (Plains Miri) Bokar Western Apatani Damu Tangam Bangni-Tagin Na Nishi Hill Miri (Sarak) Yano Gallong Digaro (Northern Mishmi) Idu Digaro (Taraon) Siangic Koro Milang Hrusish Hruso Mijiic Kho-Bwa Puroik Puroik Bugun Bugun (Khowa) Western Sherdukpen Sartang Chug Lish Miju–Meyor Miju Zakhring (Meyor) v t e Sino-Tibetan branches Western Himalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim) West Himalayish Tamangic Newaric Newar Baram–Thangmi Kiranti Dhimalish Dhimal Toto Lhokpu Lepcha Greater Magaric Magaric Magar Kham Chepangic Chepang Bhujel Raji–Raute Dura–Tandrange Eastern Himalayas (Tibet, Bhutan, Arunachal) Bodish Tibetic East Bodish Tshangla Basum Nam? Gongduk ʼOle Tani Chamdo Myanmar and Indo- Burmese border Karbi Kuki-Chin Mruic Mru Hkongso Pyu Taman "Naga" Ao Angami–Pochuri Meitei Tangkhulic Zeme Sal Boro–Garo Konyak Jingpho–Luish East and Southeast Asia Sinitic Bai Tujia Nungish Karenic Gong Kathu Cai–Long Caijia Longjia Luren Burmo-Qiangic Qiangic Gyalrongic Ersuic Naic Lolo-Burmese Mondzish Burmish Loloish Dubious (possible isolates) (Arunachal) Hrusish Hruso Mijiic Kho-Bwa Puroik Miju–Meyor Songlin Greater Siangic Siangic Koro Milang Idu–Taraon Proposed groupings Central Tibeto-Burman Kuki-Chin–Naga Macro-Bai Mahakiranti Rung Tibeto-Burman Tibeto-Kanauri Proto-languages Proto-Sino-Tibetan Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Loloish Proto-Karenic Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches. v t e Bodic (Tibeto-Kanauri) languages West Himalayish (Kanauric) Western Kinnauric Kinnauri Chitkuli Kinnauri Sunam Lahaulic Pattani Tinani Eastern Central Bunan Rongpo Tolcha Sunam Zhangzhung Almora Rangas Darmiya Byangsi Dhuleli Chaudangsi Bodish Tibetic Central Tibetan Central Tibetan (Ü-Tsang) Standard Tibetan Mugom Amdo Amdo Tibetan Gserpa Khalong mDungnag Kham (Eastern) Khams Tibetan Tseku Baima Choni Zhongu Dongwang Drugchu Zitsadegu Southern Sikkimese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Khamba Laya Lunana Groma Brokkat Brokpa Chochangachakha Lakha Naapa Western Ladakhi–Balti (Western Archaic) Ladakhi Zangskari Changthang Purgi Balti Lahuli–Spiti (Western Innovative) Lahuli (Stod Bhoti) Spiti Bhoti Nyamkat Bhoti Kinnauri Tukpa Sherpa-Jirel Sherpa Jirel Kyirong–Kagate Kyirong Kagate Tsum Yolmo Nubri Gyalsumdo Tshangla-East Bodish Tshangla Tshangla East Bodish Takpa Dzala Nyen Chali Bumthang Kheng Kurtöp Nupbi ʼOle Basum Basum Tamangic TGTM Tamang Gurung Thakali Manang Chantyal Ghale Ghale Kutang Kaike Kaike v t e Greater Magaric languages Magaric Magar Kham Chepangic Chepang Bhujel Raji-Raute Raji Raute Rawat Dura Dura Tandrange v t e Kiranti languages Limbu Limbu Western Thulung Wambule Jerung Khaling Dumi Koi Bahing Sunwar Vayu Tilung Central Kulung Nachhiring Sampang Saam Bantawa Puma Chamling Dungmali Eastern Yakkha Belhare Athpare Chintang Chulung Yamphu Lohorung Mewahang Dhimalish Dhimal Toto Lhokpu see also: Mahakiranti languages v t e Tani languages Eastern Bori Siang (Adi) Mising (Plains Miri) Bokar Western Apatani Damu Tangam Bangni-Tagin Na Nishi Hill Miri (Sarak) Yano Gallong v t e Kuki-Chin–Naga languages Kuki-Chin Southern Naga (Northwestern) Aimol Anal Chiru Chothe Kharam Koireng Kom Lamkang Monsang Moyon Purum Tarao Ranglong Sorbung Northern Thadou Tedim Paite Gangte Simte Sizang Vaiphei Zo Ngawn Ralte Central Mizo Hmar Biate Hrangkhol Sakachep Hakha Falam Bawm Thor Pangkhu Saihriem Darlong Maraic Mara Lautu Zyphe Senthang Zotung Khomic Khumi Mro-Khimi Rengmitca Southern Shö Thaiphum Daai Kʼchò Nga La Welaung Kaang Laitu Ekai Rungtu Songlai Sumtu Naga Ao (Central Naga) Ao Chungli Ao Mongsen Ao Long Phuri Para Sangtam Yimchungrü Lotha Makury Wui Angami–Pochuri Angami Chokri Kheza Sopvoma Poula Pochuri Ntenyi Rengma Sümi Tangkhulic Tangkhul Somra Akyaung Ari Kachai Huishu Champhung Tusom Suansu Challow Kongai Koki Maring Uipo Zemeic (Western Naga) Zeme Liangmai Rongmei Mzieme Inpui Khoirao Maram Meitei Meitei Karbic Karbi Amri v t e Sal (Brahmaputran) languages Boro–Garo Boroic Bodo Dimasa Kokborok Tiwa Barman Kachari Garo Garo Megam Kochic Koch Rabha Atong Ruga Deori Deori Moran Konyak (Northern Naga) Konyak Konyak Chang Wancho Phom Khiamniungan Leinong Makyam Ponyo Tangsa–Nocte Tangsa Nocte Tutsa Jingpho–Luish Jingpho Jingpho (Kachin) Singpho Turung Luish (Asakian) Sak Kadu Ganan Chakpa v t e Karenic languages Northern Pa'O Central Kayah Kayah (Karenni) Kayan Padaung (Kayan) Geko Lahta Kayaw Kayaw Western Bwe Bwe Geba Blimaw Southern S'gaw S'gaw Pwo Northern Pwo (Phlong) Western Pwo Eastern Pwo (Phlou) Phrae Proto-language Proto-Karenic v t e Na-Qiangic languages Naic Namuyi Namuyi Shixing Shixing Naish Naxi Na Laze Ersuic Ersu Lizu Tosu Qiangic Qiang Northern Qiang Southern Qiang Gyalrongic East Gyalrongic Situ Japhug Tshobdun Zbu West Gyalrongic Horpa Khroskyabs Tangut Chamdo Lamo Larong Drag-yab Choyo Choyo Muya Muya Pumi Pumi Zhaba Zhaba Cross (†) and italics indicate extinct languages. v t e Lolo-Burmese languages Mondzish Kathu Kathu Nuclear Mondzish Maang Manga Mango Mantsi Maza Muangphe Mauphu Motang Mongphu Loloish (Yi) (Ngwi) Southern Loloish (Southern Ngwi) (Hanoish) Hanoid Akha Akha Chepya Muteun Muda Hani Hani Nuomei Nuobi Lami Luomian Angluo Guohe Guozuo Gehuo Yiche Qidi Kabie Haoni Honi Woni Baihong Bukong Budu Suobi Duoni Duota Asuo Amu Bisoid Bisu Laomian Laopin Pyen Phunoi Sinsali Cantan Cốông Sangkong Tsukong Laopan Laoseng Phongku Phongset Phunyot Cauho Bantang Khongsat Habei Siloid Sila Khir Cosao Paza Phana’ Wanyä Akeu Luma Gokhy Bi-Ka Piyo Enu Kaduo Mpi Mpi Jino Jino Central Loloish (Central Ngwi) Lawoish Lawu Awu Lewu Lahoish Lahu Kucong Nusoish Nusu Zauzou Lisoish Laloid Lalo (Western Yi) Yangliu Eka Mangdi Xuzhang Alu Taloid Talu Lavu Lang'e Tagu Popei Naruo Kua-nsi Kuamasi Laizisi Zibusi Sonaga Gomotage Lisu Toloza Lipo Lolopo (Central Yi) Mili Hlersu Micha Lamu Limi Kazhuoish Katso Samu Sanie Sadu Meuma Nisoish Northern Loloish (Northern Ngwi) (Nisoid) Nosoid Nuosu (Northern Yi) Nyisu (Yellow Yi) Nasoid Nasu (Eastern Yi) Chesu Luoji Gepo Ku Aluo Southeastern Loloish (Southeastern Ngwi) (Axi-Puoid) Nisu Nisu (Southern Yi) Lope Sani–Azha Sani (Southeastern Yi) Axi Azhe Azha Alingpo Samei Highland Phula Khlula Muji Muzi Moji Laghuu Phowa Phukha Thopho Zokhuo Riverine Phula Phola Phupa others Pholo Ache Long Xiqi Ati Adu Burmish Northern High Northern Achang Lashi Chashan Zaiwa Hpon Hpon Mid Northern Lhao Vo (Maru) Pela Southern Intha-Danu Intha-Danu Nuclear Southern Burmese Rakhine Tavoyan Pai-lang Pai-lang (Proto-languages) Proto-Loloish Italics indicate extinct languages. v t e Chinese language Sinitic languages Major groups Mandarin Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Beijing Beijing Taiwan Jilu Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Xinjiang Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [zh] Urumqi dialect [zh] Xinjiang Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Wu Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Wuxi Changzhou Hangzhou (?) Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Huizhou Ji-She [zh] Xiu-Yi [zh] Qi-De [zh] Yanzhou [zh] Jing-Zhan [zh] Gan Chang–Du Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Min Eastern Houguan Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippine Pedan Penang Singapore Malaysian Teochew Swatow Haklau Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Other Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Pu–Xian Shao–Jiang Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Hakka Meixian Wuhua Huizhou Tingzhou Changting Taiwanese Sixian Hailu Raoping Yue Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Siyi Taishan Xinhui Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Northern Tongdao Younian Southern Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Unclassified Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Badong Yao Danzhou Mai Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Laobeizi Standard forms Standard Chinese Sichuanese Taiwanese Philippine Malaysian Singaporean Standard Singdarin Cantonese Hokkien Hakka Phonology Historical Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings Grammar Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar Idioms Chengyu Xiehouyu Input Biaoxingma Boshiamy Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa History Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan Literary forms Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese Scripts Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu List of varieties of Chinese v t e Austronesian languages Formosan Rukai Tsouic Northern Formosan East Formosan Malayo-Polynesian Western Sumatran* Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands Nasal? Lampung Javanese Madurese Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa Philippine Batanic Northern Luzon Central Luzon Northern Mindoro Greater Central Philippine Kalamian South Mindanao Sangiric Minahasan Greater Barito* Barito Basap* Greater North Borneo* North Borneo * Sabahan North Sarawakan Melanau–Kajang Kayan–Murik Land Dayak Malayo–Chamic * Sundanese Rejang? Moklenic? Celebic Bungku–Tolaki Muna–Buton Saluan–Banggai Tomini–Tolitoli* Kaili–Wolio* South Sulawesi Makassar Seko–Badaic* Northern South Sulawesi Central Bima Sumba–Flores Flores–Lembata Selaru Kei–Tanimbar Aru Timoric Kowiai? Central Maluku* Eastern SHWNG Halmahera Sea Cenderawasih Oceanic Admiralty St. Matthias Temotu Southeast Solomonic Micronesian Central Pacific Western Meso-Melanesian North New Guinea Papuan Tip Southern Vanuatu North Central South Loyalties–New Caledonia * indicates proposed status ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Formosan languages East Ami Amis Sakizaya Kavalanic Kavalan Basay † Ketagalan † Sirayaic Siraya † Taivoan † Northern Atayalic Atayal Seediq (Truku) Northwest Babuza † Favorlang † Papora-Hoanya † Kulon † Pazeh–Kaxabu Pazeh † Kaxabu Saisiyat Thao Tsouic Tsou Southern Kanakanavu Saaroa Others Bunun Paiwan Puyuma Rukai Bold indicates languages with more than 1 million speakers ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Micronesian languages Nauruan Nauruan Nuclear Micronesian Kosraean Gilbertese Marshallese Chuukic– Pohnpeic Chuukic Sonsorol Tobian Chuukese Woleaian Ulithian Puluwatese Namonuito Tanapag Carolinian Satawalese Mortlockese Pááfang Mapia † Pohnpeic Mokilese Pingelapese Pohnpeian Ngatikese * indicates proposed status ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Central Pacific languages West Rotuman Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua Western Fijian East Fijian Gone Dau Lauan Lomaiviti Polynesian Nuclear Polynesian Tuvaluan Sikaiana Ontong Java Nukumanu Takuu Nuguria Kapingamarangi Nukuoro Pukapukan Samoic Samoan Tokelauan Niuatoputapu † Eastern Hawaiian Marquesan Mangarevan Tahitian Austral Rapa Tuamotuan Cook Islands Māori Rakahanga-Manihiki Tongareva Māori Moriori † Rapa Nui Futunic Wallisian (East Uvean) West Uvean Futunan (East Futunan) Futuna-Aniwa (West Futunan) Pukapukan Anuta Rennellese Tikopia Mele-Fila Emae Tongic Tongan Niuean Niuafo'ou ? * indicates proposed status ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Languages of Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor (Timor-Leste) Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen States with limited recognition Abkhazia Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia Taiwan Dependencies and other territories British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Macau Category Asia portal

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